Atomic Structure

Matter is made of minute particles called atoms.

An atom is the smallest part of an element that still retains properties of that element.

Atoms contain three main subatomic particles:

 protons
 neutrons

 electrons

Some general properties of these subatomic particles are described in the table below:

relative mass
subatomic actual mass
charge location (in atomic
particle (in grams)
mass units)
protons positive in the nucleus 1.673 x 10-24 1
no charge
neutrons in the nucleus 1.675 x 10-24 1
(neutral)
outside of the nucleus 1/1840
electrons negative 9.11 x 10-28
(in electron clouds) (0.0005)

The number of protons in an atom's nucleus is equal to that atom's atomic number. This
number, and hence the number of protons in an atom, never changes for a particular atom.
If the number of protons does change (as it does during radioactive decay, for example), a
totally new element results.

The periodic table arranges elements from left to right, and top to bottom, in order of
their atomic number. Each element in the periodic table has one more proton in its nucleus
than the element before it.

The mass number of an atom is the total number of protons and neutrons in that atom.
The electrons are not included in the mass number, because their masses are so small
compared to the masses of protons and neutrons. It would be like adding a penny to
$1,840.

General Properties of Atoms

Although scientists have been unable to get clear pictures of atoms, they have been able to
get fuzzy pictures of them using electron microscopes. From these images and other
resources, scientists have learned that atoms are composed of small, dense nuclei
surrounded by large electron clouds.

To get an idea of these relative sizes, imagine this model: if the nucleus of an atom were
the size of a marble, then the whole atom including the electron clouds would be the size of
a professional football stadium!

Although most of the volume or space of an atom is taken up by electron clouds, electron
clouds have a very low density. This is because electron clouds have relatively little mass
per unit volume since electrons only possess about 1/1840th the mass of protons or
neutrons. The nucleus, however, is very dense because both the protons and neutrons are
held together in a small area by strong forces.

Electron Clouds
Previously, scientists believed that electrons moved around the nucleus in specific orbitals or
circular paths. Now, however, scientists realize that it is impossible to know the exact
location of an electron at any given time because electrons move very, very fast, and their
motion is random. So, the locations of electrons are described by regions of probability
known as electron clouds.

Three possible electron cloud shapes for carbon's two outermost electrons

This image is courtesy of Wikimedia

In the electron cloud model of an atom, electrons travel around the nucleus in unpredictable
patterns, but it is possible to predict an area in which the electrons will be found. Think of it
this way: imagine a balloon that contains a single bead. The bead represents an electron
and the balloon represents an electron cloud. If you shake the balloon, you can definitely
say that the bead is in the balloon somewhere, but you cannot pinpoint its exact location
because by the time you point at a location, it will have moved somewhere else.

Electrons travel around the nucleus in specific energy levels. Each energy level contains a
certain number of electron clouds, and electrons have a tendency to fill the clouds at the
lowest energy level first. The first energy level can hold a maximum of 2 electrons, the
second can hold a maximum of 8 electrons, the third can hold a maximum of 18 electrons,
and the fourth can hold a maximum of 32 electrons. The number of energy levels that an
element possesses is equal to the period (row) number of the element. The electrons
located farthest from the nucleus (in the outermost energy level) are called valence
electrons. Valence electrons determine an element's chemical properties, including
reactivity.

Quantum Particles
Scientists have discovered that neutrons and protons are made up of even smaller
constituents called quarks. Murray Gell-Man discovered the first of these quantum particles,
which he named quarks, in 1961. These minute particles can be studied further as scientific
technology advances.

Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same atomic number but different
atomic masses. Since isotopes of an element have the same atomic number, they must
have the same number of protons. Thus, the difference in atomic masses must be due to a
change in the number of neutrons.

Carbon-14 is an example of a common isotope of carbon. Since the atomic number of

carbon is 6, carbon-14 must have 6 protons. The number of neutrons can be calculated by
subtracting the number of protons (6) from the mass number (14). Thus, carbon-14 has 8
neutrons.

14
Carbon-14 can be also be depicted as C or C-14.

Ions
Neutral atoms have no charge. So, in order to be neutral, an atom must possess the same
number of positively-charged protons and negatively-charged electrons. Since neutrons
have no charge, the number of neutrons has no effect on the overall charge of the atom.

Ions are charged particles. Ions, therefore, must always have an unequal number of protons
and electrons. If there are more electrons than protons, the ion has an overall negative
charge. If there are more protons than electrons, the ion has an overall positive charge.

For example, iodine forms a negative ion with an overall charge of -1 (I-1). This means that
iodine has 1 more electron than it does protons.

The Periodic Table

The Periodic Table is a chart displaying information about the elements.

Elements are arranged in the table in a specific pattern that helps to predict their properties
and to show their similarities and differences.

The periodic table was developed by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869. It provides a powerful tool
for studying the elements and how they combine.

There are over 100 known elements, so it is necessary to use a systematic method to
organize them. The periodic table indicates each element’s atomic symbol, atomic number,
and average atomic mass (also called atomic weight).

The placement of an element on the periodic table gives clues about the element's chemical
and physical properties, including its melting point, density, hardness, and thermal and
electrical conductivities.

Periods
The periodic table is so named because it is organized into “periods”. A period is defined as
an interval required for a cycle to repeat itself. In the periodic table, the periods are the
horizontal rows that extend from left to right. These periods consist of as few as two
elements and as many as thirty-two elements.
The repeating pattern across the periods of the periodic table is the filling of each energy
level with electrons. For example, since hydrogen and helium are in period 1, they only
have electrons in the 1st energy level. Since potassium, calcium, and bromine are in the 4th
row or period, their outermost electrons are in the fourth energy level.

Electrons that are in the outermost energy level of an atom are called valence electrons.
The position of an element within a period can help to determine the element’s electron
configuration and number of valence electrons.

Groups and Families

The division of elements into vertical groups by column creates families of elements.
Elements in the same group all have the same number of valence electrons and therefore
similar chemical properties.

Valence electrons help in predicting chemical reactions. For example, since hydrogen (H) is
in group 1, it has 1 electron in its outer energy level. Chlorine (Cl), which is in group 17, has
7 electrons in its outer energy level and is one electron short of having a "full" outer-most
energy level. Thus, these two elements will readily combine to form the simple compound,
hydrochloric acid (HCl).

The main group elements are the elements located in groups 1,2, and 13-18. These
elements have some characteristic trends that are not followed by the transition metals in
groups 3-12.

Some groups (or families) in the periodic table have special names. The properties of these
groups are described below:

 Group 1: Alkali metals – All of the elements in group 1 of the periodic table
(except hydrogen) are alkali metals. They are soft metallic solids with low melting
points and they are the most reactive metals. They all have only one electron in their
outer shell, which explains why they tend to form ions with a charge of +1.

 Group 2: Alkaline earth metals – All of the elements in group 2 of the periodic
table are alkaline earth metals. They are hard metallic solids and have higher melting
points than alkali metals. They all have two electrons in their outer shell. Though
they are also highly reactive, they are less reactive than alkali metals. They can have
a full outer shell by losing two electrons so they tend to form ions with a charge of
+2.

 Group 17: Halogens – All of the elements in group 17 are halogens. They have low
boiling points and low melting points. They all prefer to gain an electron in their
outer shell through bonding or forming ions with a charge of -1.

 Group 18: Noble gases – All of the elements in group 18 are noble gases. They
have a full outer shell of electrons and tend to be stable and unreactive. In general,
noble gases do not react or combine with any element.

 Groups 3-12: Transition metals – Elements located in groups 3-12 on the periodic
table are known as transition elements. These elements tend to be hard metallic
solids, have high heat and electrical conductivities, and form +1, +2, and +3 ions.
Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids
The elements in the periodic table can be subdivided into metals, nonmetals, and
metalloids. Elements have greater metallic character moving from right to left and from top
to bottom within the periodic table. The stairstep line that begins between boron, B, and
aluminum, Al, and moves down and right to polonium, Po, and astatine, At, is the dividing
line between metals and nonmetals.

This division is shown by the different colors in the periodic table below.

 Metals are the elements to the left of the stairstep. Metals are typically dense solids
with a shiny luster. They tend to form positive ions and are capable of conducting
electricity. Metals most often form ionic bonds with nonmetals and metallic bonds
with metals.

 Nonmetals are elements to the right of the stairstep plus hydrogen. They tend to
have low desities, a dull luster, low melting points, and do not conduct electricity.
Nonmetals tend to form ionic bonds with metals and covalent bonds with other
nonmetals.

 Metalloids are the elements along the stairstep that have properties of both metals
and nonmetals. The metalloid elements are B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, and Te. Some of these
elements, such as Si and Ge are semiconductors. Exceptions to the stairstep rule
include Al, Po, and At, though, Po and At, have also been classified as metalloids by
some scientists.

The periodic table is very carefully organized. A wealth of information can be found in the
periodic table if one understands how to use it.
 Atomic Models
The timeline below details the development of the atomic theory.

DATE DISCOVERY RESULTING ATOMIC MODEL

Greek philosopher Democritus All materials are made of tiny

proposes that if you keep cutting a particles, called atoms, that are
440 BC material in half, you will eventually found in different shapes and
end up with a particle that cannot be sizes.
divided.

British chemist John Dalton discovers Elements are made of individual

that elements combine in specific atoms. Atoms of the same
late
proportions. element are exactly alike. Atoms
1700s
join with other atoms to make
new substances.

British scientist J. J. Thomson Electrons and protons are

discovered atoms have both intermixed evenly throughout an
1897 positively-charged (protons) and atom.
negatively-charged (electrons)
particles.

Ernest Rutherford discovered that an Atoms have positively charged

atom’s protons were found in a tiny, nuclei. An atom’s electrons travel
1909 dense nucleus inside an atom, and around the nucleus like planets
an atom’s electrons were outside of orbiting the Sun.
the nucleus.

Danish scientist Niels Bohr proposes An atom has a positively charged

that electrons travel around the nucleus with electrons traveling
nucleus in definite paths. Each path around the nucleus at certain
1913
has its own energy level. Electrons energy levels.
can move from one energy level to
another.

Many scientists have contributed to An atom has a positively charged

work that indicates electrons do not nucleus. Electrons travel around
Today travel in set paths. Furthermore, the nucleus in an electron cloud,
protons and neutrons in the nucleus which is a region where electrons
are made up of quarks. are likely to be found.

The atomic model is still being refined. Currently, scientists are struggling with the
definition of an electron because electrons show properties of both particles and
waves. The study of electrons and predicting their position within an atom is part of
the field of quantum mechanics.

Chemical Symbols
 There are approximately 112 known elements. Each element is made up of
atoms that have the same number of protons in their nucleus. The number of
protons in an atom is called the atomic number. Each element has a unique
atomic number, name, and symbol.

There are 26 letters in the alphabet and over 100 elements. Therefore,
combinations of letters had to be used in order to give each element a unique
symbol. Each symbol is made up of one capital letter, which may be followed by 0-
2 lower case letters.

Select Elements and Their Symbols

Hydrogen H Iron Fe Antimony Sb

Helium He Cobalt Co Tellurium Te
Lithium Li Nickel Ni Iodine I
Beryllium Be Copper Cu Xenon Xe
Boron B Zinc Zn Cesium Cs
Carbon C Gallium Ga Barium Ba
Nitrogen N Germanium Ge Hafnium Hf
Oxygen O Arsenic As Tantalum Ta
Flourine F Selenium Se Tungsten W
Neon Ne Bromine Br Rhenium Re
Sodium Na Krypton Kr Osmium Os
Magnesium Mg Rubidium Rb Iridium Ir
Aluminum Al Strontium Sr Platinum Pt
Silicon Si Yttrium Y Gold Au
Phosphorus P Zirconium Zr Mercury Hg
Sulfur S Niobium Nb Thallium Tl
Chlorine Cl Molybdemum Mo Lead Pb
Argon Ar Technetium Tc Bismuth Bi
Potassium K Ruthenium Ru Polonium Po
Calcium Ca Rhodium Rh Astatine At
Scandium Sc Palladium Pd Radon Rn
Titanium Ti Silver Ag Francium Fr
Vanadium V Cadmium Cd Radium Ra
Chromium Cr Indium In
Manganese Mn Tin Sn

Chemical Formulas
A chemical formula is a combination of elemental symbols and subscript numbers that is
used to show the composition of a compound.

Use the chemical symbol found on the periodic table. For example, H denotes hydrogen, Na
denotes sodium, and Cl denotes chlorine. A chemical formula involves writing the elements
of a compound, using their chemical symbols.

The combination of two or more elements to form a molecule is designated by writing their
chemical symbols next to each other. For example carbon monoxide is written as CO. The
order in which the elements are written is typically alphabetical.

If there is more than one atom of a type in the molecule, the formula uses a subscript after
the symbol. For example, water is H2O, which means there are 2 atoms of hydrogen and
one atom of oxygen in the molecule. Carbon dioxide is CO2, which means there is one atom
of carbon and two atoms of oxygen in the molecule.

To show the number of molecules, a coefficient is use in front of the molecule. For example
3 molecules of water is designated as:

3H2O

This means there are a total of 6 H atoms and 3 O atoms in the combination.

Chemical Changes

A chemical change occurs when one or more new substances with different properties are
produced. This occurs via a chemical reaction.

There are several indicators of chemical change. These indicators are listed below:

Absorption or Release of Heat

Every chemical reaction that occurs involves either the absorption of heat or the release of
heat.

A chemical reaction that releases heat is known as an exothermic reaction. It has a

negative enthalpy change ( H), which means that the products have less energy than the
reactants. The difference in energy between the products and reactants is released as heat
energy. This heat energy will cause the temperature of the surroundings to increase. If the
reaction occurs in solution, the temperature of the solution will increase.

An endothermic reaction is one where heat is absorbed. It has a positive enthalpy change
( H), which indicates that the products have more energy than the reactants. This reaction
absorbs energy from the surroundings. If the reaction occurs in solution, the temperature of
the solution will decrease.
Formation of a Precipitate

A precipitate is a solid that forms in a solution. This occurs when two soluble solutions are
mixed and react to produce an insoluble substance that falls out of the solution as a solid
precipitate. The appearance of a precipitate indicates that a chemical reaction has occurred.
The formation of a precipitate can be predicted based on the rules of solubility.

Evolution of a Gas

If two substances react and produce a gas such as hydrogen, oxygen or carbon dioxide,
the presence of the gas can indicate that a chemical change has occurred.

Color Changes

If two substances react in solution and the product of the reaction is a different color, this
will result in the solution changing color. The change in color of a solution is an indicator
that a chemical change has occurred. However, it is important to note that if the color
simply gets lighter (e.g. dark blue to light blue), it is most likely because the mixing of
substances caused the color to become diluted. This is not an indication of a chemical
change. It only indicates a change in the concentration of that substance.

Balancing Chemical Equations

Chemical reactions are processes through which one or more substances are changed into
new or different substances. Chemical reactions are represented by chemical equations.

Chemical equations are expressions in which symbols and formulas are used to represent
a reaction.

General Equation Format

In chemical equations, reactants appear to the left of the arrow. These are the substances
that enter the chemical reaction; they are the starting materials. For example:

Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2

Products appear to the right of the arrow. These are the substances that are produced by
the chemical reaction; they are the ending materials.

Recognizing an Unbalanced Equation

Balanced chemical equations are equations in which the number of atoms of each element is
the same on both sides of the equation. For example, the equation:
 Mg + O2 MgO

is unbalanced because there are 2 oxygen atoms on the reactant side but only 1 on the
product side. However, this equation:

2Mg + O2 2MgO

is balanced because there are the same number of magnesium and oxygen atoms on the
reactant and product sides.

Procedure for Balancing Equations

1. Write a chemical equation with the correct symbols and formulas.

H2O H2 + O2

2. Count the number of atoms of each element on the reactant side of the arrow.

There are 2 hydrogen atoms (H) and 1 oxygen atom (O) on the reactant side of the
equation.

3. Count the number of atoms of each element on the product side of the arrow.

There are 2 hydrogen atoms (H) and 2 oxygen atoms (O) on the product side of the
equation.

4. If the numbers in step 2 and step 3 are not equal, add coefficients until the number
of atoms balances out.

2H2O 2H2 + O2

5. Check your work by recounting the number of atoms on both sides of the arrow.

4 hydrogen atoms + 2 oxygen atoms 4 hydrogen atoms + 2 oxygen atoms

Note that:
 When balancing equations, you can only change the coefficients.
 Never change the chemical symbols or formulas.
  Never change the subscripts of correctly written formulas.

 If there is no coefficient written, assume the coefficient equals 1.

 Conservation of Matter

Matter is the stuff that makes up everything in the world.


All objects are composed of matter. Things you can easily see like plants, animals, rocks, soil, and
water are all examples of matter, but even things you can't see like oxygen and air are also
examples of matter.

Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object


All matter has mass, and the mass of an object is constant. If you move to the Moon, your
weight will change, but your mass will not change. The mass of an object can only change if
matter is added or taken away from the object.

The Law of Conservation of Mass states that matter cannot be created or lost in a
physical change or a chemical reaction.

The Law of Conservation of Mass states that the total amount of matter of the
reactants (mass of the reactants) must equal the total amount of matter of the
products (mass of the products) in a chemical reaction.

Matter cannot be created or lost, but it can change forms. For example, if you
burned charcoal, the charcoal would undergo a combustion reaction. If you added
the masses of all the products of the reaction (ashes, soot, gases), however, you
would find that this mass would be equal to the original mass of the charcoal. Mass
was not created or lost, it just changed forms (from charcoal to ashes, soot, and
gases).