Journal of Functional Foods 54 (2019) 381–392

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Journal of Functional Foods

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jff

Virgin avocado oil: An emerging source of functional fruit oil T

Chin Xuan Tan
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The intake trend of functional oil in the management and prevention of chronic diseases has increased in the last
Virgin avocado oil decades. Virgin avocado oil (VAO) contains high levels of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and bioactive
Avocado components that are potentially beneficial to human health. This review contains a compilation of the extraction
Functional oil methods developed for VAO production and their oil yield. The physicochemical composition of VAO and the
pharmacological properties of avocado oil intake are also summarized and highlighted. VAO is composed mostly
of MUFA with oleic, palmitic and linoleic acids as the major fatty acid components. The oil also contains high
levels of bioactive components, particularly α-tocopherol and β-sitosterol. These properties offer it to be used as
functional oil in the management of hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, diabetes and fatty liver disease.
Moreover, the oil reduces cardiometabolic risk and possess antimicrobial property.

1. Introduction
The fruit of Persea americana Mill., commonly known as avocado,
containing a high amount of lipids and essential minerals like magne-
sium, potassium and phosphorus in the mesocarp. It is from the
Lauraceae family. The avocado tree is an evergreen dicotyledonous
plant grown in tropical or subtropical climates. The largest avocado
producing countries in the world between 2012 to 2017 are Mexico,
Dominican Republic, Peru, Colombia and Indonesia (Table 1). Fresh
avocado fruit contributes a large market worldwide, alongside with its
use in the cosmetic, edible oil and food processing industries.
In the past, avocado oil was mostly produced using harsh technol-
ogies (e.g. organic solvents and/or high temperatures) and the ex-
tracted oil is then going through the refining, bleaching and deodor-
izing (RBD) processes to remove the undesirable organoleptic
properties (Yahia & Woolf, 2011). The utilization of high temperatures
in the RBD processes, particularly the deodorization stage (> 200 °C),
can significantly diminish the heat-sensitive bioactive substances such
as phytosterols, phenolics and carotenoids in plant oils (Chew, Tan,
Long, & Nyam, 2016). RBD avocado oil, which is light in color and
neutral flavor, is predominately used in the manufacture of cosmetic
products owing to its high skin-penetration properties.
Nowadays, consumers are more aware of the differences between
refined and unrefined edible oil, from the perspective of quality and
health benefits. Most of these consumers willing to purchase unrefined
edible oil extracted from green and sustainable technologies. The con-
sumers prefer avoiding overly processed foods, which in turn bolsters
demand for unrefined, virgin oil. Virgin oil is a natural product and its
quality is influenced by the processing methods and the quality of raw
materials (Matthäus & Spener, 2008). In the early days, virgin oil is
used because of its pleasant flavor and aroma, but lately, the tendency
is shifted to prioritize the minor bioactive components present in it in
addition to these advantages.
Virgin avocado oil (VAO) is extracted from the mesocarp of healthy
or medium-quality (with some levels of physiological disorders and
rots) fruits using mechanical or natural techniques at low temperatures
(< 50 °C) and without refining (Wong, Requejo-Jackman, & Woolf,
2010; Woolf et al., 2009). The mild extraction condition used in VAO
production enables to preserve the color pigments and heat-labile
bioactive components as well as the natural aroma and flavor. VAO has
been promoted as functional oil due to its high level of mono-
unsaturated fatty acids and substantial amounts of health beneficial
bioactive components like phytosterols and antioxidant vitamins
(Berasategi, Barriuso, Ansorena, & Astiasarán, 2012). The production of
high-quality VAO is a relatively recent development globally and the
demand for VAO is increasing, especially in the European Union.
This paper provides an overview of the recent trend of ongoing
research in VAO. Brief explanations on the lipid content, cellular
structure and pre-treatment of avocado mesocarp are presented. The
extraction methods developed for VAO production and their effect on
yield are summarized. Moreover, the physicochemical characteristics of
VAO and the pharmacological properties of avocado oil intake are
compiled and discussed.

E-mail address: tanchinxuan@ymail.com.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2018.12.031
Received 8 October 2018; Received in revised form 19 December 2018; Accepted 19 December 2018
Available online 01 February 2019
1756-4646/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C.X. Tan Journal of Functional Foods 54 (2019) 381–392

Table 1
World production of avocado fruits from 2012 to 2017.
Country Year (tonnes)

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Mexico 1,316,104 1,467,837 1,520,695 1,644,226 1,889,354 2,029,886

Dominican Republic 290,011 387,546 428,301 526,438 601,349 637,688
Peru 268,525 288,387 349,317 367,110 455,394 466,758
Colombia 255,195 294,997 288,739 309,852 309,431 314,275
Indonesia 294,200 289,901 307,326 382,530 304,938 363,157
Brazil 159,903 157,482 156,699 180,652 195,492 213,041
Kenya 166,948 177,799 218,692 136,420 176,045 194,279
USA 238,495 166,106 179,124 203,209 172,630 132,730
Chile 160,000 165,000 160,000 146,204 137,365 133,636

Source: FAO (2018).

2. Avocado varieties targeting oil extraction 4. Pre-treatment of avocado mesocarp

More than 100 types of avocado varieties have been documented in
the California Avocado Society database (Tan, Tan, & Tan, 2017). One
of the industrial usages of avocado fruit is the manufacture of avocado
oil from its fleshy mesocarp. Unlike other plant oils, avocado oil is
produced from the mesocarp rather than the seed as the seed contains
hepatotoxic agents and a low level (< 2%) of oil. Oil extracted from
avocado seed may alter the hepatic lipid metabolism by increasing
hepatic lipogenesis and concentrations of lipid biosynthesis enzymes
(Qin & Zhong, 2016). For the purpose of oil extraction, it is important to
select avocado varieties with high lipid content in the mesocarp. Lee,
Young, Schiffman, and Coggins (1983) investigated the lipid content of
five avocado varieties collected from different locations in California,
United States. Their study showed the lipid content of mesocarp (at 8%
dry weight) decreased in the order of Hass (19.8%) > Bacon
(19.4%) > Fuerte (19.1%) > Pinkerton (18.9%) > Zutano (18.4%).
Also, Tango, Carvalho, and Soares (2004) reported the lipid content of
24 avocado varieties obtained from the germplasm collection located in
the Fruit Center of Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil. Their study showed the
avocado varieties with high lipid content (> 18% fresh weight basis) in
the mesocarp were Carlsbad (19%), Maypan (19%), Ouro Verde (20%),
Anaheim (21%), Collinson (21%), Itzamna (21%), Wagner (21%),
Gloria (26%), Fuerte (30%) and Hass (31%). Among others, Hass
variety (Hass avocado) receives particular interest for its inherently
high lipid content and is the common commercial avocado variety in
the global market. More than 80% of the global production of avocados
is of the Hass variety (Decco, 2018). The main anatomical region of
Hass avocado constituted by mesocarp (65%), subsequently followed by
seed (20%) and peel (15%) (Costagli & Betti, 2015). Moreover, thick
pebbly skin texture of Hass avocado makes it more tolerable to the
postharvest disorders such as bacterial soft rot and anthracnose (Peg,
Coates, & Dann, 2009).
Several methods have been proposed for VAO extraction.
Depending on the extraction methods used, the avocado mesocarp may
need to be dehydrated or to reduce the moisture content prior it is
subjected to oil extraction. After peeling, enzymatic browning can ea-
sily occur in avocado mesocarp due to polyphenol oxidase activity.
Dehydration of avocado mesocarp can inactivate enzymatic and mi-
crobial activities, thereby preserving its shelf life. Four methods,
namely, air oven drying, sun drying, freeze-drying and microwave
drying have been used to dehydrate the high moisture content (> 60%)
avocado mesocarp (Dorantes, Parada, & Ortiz, 2004). Improper drying
conditions can greatly influence the quality of avocado mesocarp,
thereby affecting the physicochemical of VAO produced. It has been
reported that off-flavor may be generated if the processing time and
temperatures used in air oven drying are too high (Dorantes et al.,
2004). Freeze-drying and microwave drying are considered as better
alternatives to the air oven drying and sun drying. According to
Dorantes et al. (2004), the color and flavor of avocado mesocarp are
better preserved in microwave drying than in conventional air oven
drying.
5. Virgin avocado oil extraction methods
The ripe avocado fruit is initially washed, peeled and destoned.
Depending on the extraction methods, the avocado mesocarp may be
subjected to pre-treatments such as dehydration and pulverization be-
fore oil extraction. According to the definition of VAO, it is understood
that as long as the avocado oil is extracted under the temperature of
50 °C using the natural methods and does not go through the refining
process, the oil can be deemed as VAO. Several techniques have been
established for the production of VAO and details for these methods are
outlined below.

5.1. Cold-pressed extraction

3. Cellular structure of avocado mesocarp
The avocado mesocarp is makeup by a moderately uniform cellular
composition, consisting of thin-walled parenchyma cells and thick-
walled idioblast cells. The latter are evenly distributed and are sur-
rounded by parenchyma cells in a circular arrangement. A majority
(> 97%) of the avocado mesocarp constitutes by the parenchyma cells
(40–60 µm diameter) whereas the idioblast cells ( 80 µm diameter)
constituted the rest (Yang et al., 2018). Both parenchyma and idioblast
cells are the oil-bearing cells. Triacylglycerols, which make up about
85% of the lipids in avocado mesocarp, appear as several small in-
dividual droplets or oil bodies dispersed throughout the cytoplasm of
parenchyma cells (Yang et al., 2018). In contrast, idioblast cells contain
a large droplet of oil sac scattered throughout the avocado mesocarp.
Cold-pressed extraction of avocado oil was initially introduced by
Werman and Neeman (1987). They diluted the avocado mesocarp with
water at a ratio of 1:3 and agitated the mixture under defined pH
(4.5–8), temperatures (25–85 °C) and sodium chloride solution (0–8%)
for 30 min before centrifuging to obtain oil. Their study demonstrates
the feasibility of using a centrifugation system to obtain avocado oil
free of organic solvent residues and appropriate for food application.
According to Finau (2007), cold pressed VAO can be produced in la-
boratory scale by malaxing the mesocarp at 45–49 °C for about 2 h
(until dispersing and settling of oil on top layer) using an Omni-mixer
set, followed by centrifugation at 12,000g for an hour. The yield of
avocado oil obtained by cold-pressed extraction (74.5%) was greater
than the Soxhlet extraction (67.4%).
Commercial production of cold-pressed VAO began in New Zealand

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C.X. Tan
Table 2
Commercial cold-pressed extraction of VAO.
Step Role
Fruit washing The fruit is washed using water to remove the dust, dirt and pesticide residue on the peel.
Pelling and destoning The peel and seed are separated from the mesocarp.
Grinding The mesocarp is crushed into a fine paste to aid in disrupting the oil-bearing cells in the mesocarp.
Malaxing Avocado paste is malaxed at 40–50 °C for 60–90 min for the oil released from the oil-bearing cells.
Decanting The liquid phase (oil and water) is separated from the solid phase (pomace) at 3000–4000 rpm.
Centrifuging The liquid phase passes through a polishing disc centrifuge to separate the oil from the water.
by two local oil manufacturer companies, namely, Olivado Ltd,
Northland and Grove Avocado Oil, Bay of Plenty (Wong et al., 2008).
After washing, peeling and destoning, the mesocarp is ground into a
fine paste, in order to disrupt the oil-bearing cells (parenchyma and
idioblast cells) and promote oil release during slow mixing of the paste
in the malaxer. A horizontal decanting centrifuge operated at
3000–4000 rpm is then utilized to separate the malaxed paste into li-
quid (oil and water) and solid (defatted avocado paste) phases. To re-
move oil from water, a high-speed centrifuge is used. There are six
stages in commercial cold-pressed VAO production and the details for
each stage are summarized in Table 2. The latest cold-pressed system no
longer uses a grinder to reduce the particle size of the mesocarp. During
the peeling and destoning step, in the latest system, uses paddles that
rotate at constant speeds, resulting mesocarp is fine enough for effective
malaxing (Wong, Eyres, & Ravetti, 2013). In addition, a three-outlet
decanter centrifuge is introduced in the latest cold-pressed system,
where the malaxed avocado paste is directly separated into three
phases, namely, oil, water and defatted avocado paste (Costagli & Betti,
2015).
Yang et al. (2018) utilized electrical impedance spectroscopy and
light microscopy to investigate the changes of cellular structure of
avocado mesocarp at defined steps (destoning, grinding, malaxing and
decanting) of the cold-pressed VAO extraction. Their study indicated
the parenchyma cells were mostly ruptured during destoning, grinding
and malaxing steps whereas the idioblast cells remained intact and
unruptured throughout the extraction process. These observations
suggest that VAO is only recovered from the parenchyma cells of me-
socarp during the cold-pressed extraction. Their study also highlighted
that malaxing of avocado paste enables the oil droplets to aggregate and
forming a larger oil phase, thus oil could be easily recovered in the
decanting step.
5.2. Expeller pressed extraction
Expeller pressed extraction, also known as mechanical pressed ex-
traction, is one of the popular conventional method utilized in edible oil
production in the world. This method is usually used to extract plant
materials with high lipid content (> 20%) (Southwell, Harris, &
Swetman, 1990). An expeller press is a screw type equipment, which
presses plant materials through a caged barrel-like cavity. This equip-
ment utilizes friction and continuous pressure from the screw drives to
compress the plant materials and releasing the oil. Due to the high
moisture content of avocado mesocarp, pressing of the raw mesocarp is
problematic (Southwell et al., 1990). Thus, avocado mesocarp is typi-
cally dried before subjected to expeller pressing. The study of Southwell
et al. (1990) showed the extraction efficiencies of VAO using a Mini-40
expeller on sun-dried avocados was 79.4–90.3%. The latest study
published by Krumreich, Borges, Mendonça, Jansen-Alves, and
Zambiazi (2018) indicated the yield of VAO obtained by expeller-
pressed extraction of air-oven (40 °C) dried mesocarp was 25%, which
was lower than Soxhlet extraction (55%).
5.3. Subcritical CO2 extraction (SCO2)
Subcritical CO2 extraction (SCO2), also known as subcritical CO2
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Journal of Functional Foods 54 (2019) 381–392
Soxhlet extraction and CO2-Soxhlet extraction, is the extraction of plant
oil below the critical pressure (72.9 bar) and critical temperature
(31.1 °C) of CO2. The CO2 maintain in liquid state during subcritical
conditions (< 72.9 bar and < 31.1 °C) and this allows the polar and
non-polar components to be extracted out of plant samples (Tunna
et al., 2018). This condition is in contrast to the supercritical CO2 ex-
traction, which is commonly used for the extraction of non-polar
compounds from plant samples (Azmir et al., 2013). The adoption of
supercritical CO2 extraction in the edible oil industry is rare, probably
the requirement of high operating cost to achieve the critical tem-
perature (> 31.1 °C) and the critical pressure (> 72.9 bar) of CO2. The
relatively lower extraction temperature and pressure in SCO2 is a more
economical alternative to the former.
Extraction of VAO using SCO2 was reported by Tan, Chong,
Hamzah, and Ghazali (2018b). They used a SCO2 system composed of
three main parts, namely, condenser, extractor and reboiler (Fig. 1). A
complete cycle of extraction is accomplished when the CO2 gas of the
reboiler unit flow back into the condenser unit and condensed into li-
quid CO2. Tan et al. (2018b) extracted the VAO at 27 °C and 68 bar for
7.5 h. Their study showed the yield obtained by SCO2 (17%) was lower
than Soxhlet extraction (21%).
5.4. Aqueous enzymatic extraction
Plant cell walls are composed of the interlinked polymer network,
consisting of proteins and carbohydrates such as pectin, cellulose,
hemicellulose and starch. Commercial exogenous or food-grade en-
zymes can be utilized to break down the cell walls and to release oil
from the oil-bearing cells. Buenrostro and López-Munguia (1986) in-
vestigated the aqueous enzymatic extraction of VAO using different
enzymes (cellulase, α-amylase and protease) and their mixture. They
diluted the avocado paste with water at a ratio of 1:4, followed by
adding 1% of the enzyme to the paste and incubated at 40 °C for an
hour before recovering the oil by centrifugation. The greatest oil yield
was achieved when α-amylase (70%) was used, followed by protease
(51%) and cellulase (42%). A combination of α-amylase with any of
these enzymes did not enhance the oil yield (62–67%). These findings
highlight the specificity of enzymes on the cellular structure and com-
position of avocado mesocarp. The presence of a greater amount of
starch in the cellular structure of avocado mesocarp indicates that the
oil is released more rapidly from the cellular matrix by decomposing
the starch, which is accomplished by the action of α-amylase.
5.5. Ultrasound-assisted aqueous extraction (UAAE)
Application of ultrasound in the aqueous extraction of edible oil has
received considerable interest in recent years. Ultrasound is a type of
mechanical energy that creates compression and expansion cycles when
passing through the liquid medium. Ultrasound-assisted aqueous ex-
traction (UAAE) can be performed using an ultrasonic transducer and
an ultrasonic water bath. The mechanical effects of ultrasound create a
greater penetration of solvent into the cellular structure of plant and
enhance mass transfer. This in turns, can facilitate polar and non-polar
components leaching from the cellular structure (Azmir et al., 2013).
Extraction of VAO using an ultrasonic water bath was reported by
C.X. Tan
Fig. 1. Subcritical CO2 system. Avocado samples are placed inside the extractor unit. A complete cycle of extraction is achieved when the CO2 gas from the reboiler
unit flow back into the condenser unit and condensed into liquid CO2. Oil is collected via the valve.
Tan, Chong, Hamzah, and Ghazali (2017). They diluted avocado
powder with water at the ratio of 1:4, 1:5 and 1:6 and sonicated in an
ultrasonic water bath (frequency: 40 kHz) for 20 to 40 °C and 10 to
30 min, followed by expeller pressed and centrifuged to obtain VAO.
The most efficient oil recovery was obtained at the 1:6 ratio of avocado
powder to water and sonication temperature of 35 °C for 30 min. Under
these conditions, the oil yield obtained by UAAE was 15%, which was
lower than Soxhlet extraction (21%).
Segura, Amarillo, Martinez, and Grompone (2018) proposed VAO
extraction using an ultrasonic transducer. Their study demonstrated the
application of ultrasound transducer (1.73 MHz) for 1 min on malaxing
avocado paste added with water at a ratio of 1:1 at 40 °C was able to
enhance the yield of VAO by 40%, after centrifugation. The major ad-
vantages and limitations of various extraction methods are summarized
in Table 3.
6. Physicochemical properties of virgin avocado oil
6.1. Fatty acid and triacylglycerol profiles
The global avocado oil market is predicted to rise at a compound
annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7.6% during the period of 2017–2026
(Fact, 2018). Since its first introduction to the market, VAO has been
widely accepted by consumers as functional oil and the demand is
growing constantly, particularly in the European Union. Due to that,
VAO is commercially widespread in the market. Typically, commercial
VAO is produced using cold-pressing. Table 4 shows the fatty acid
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Journal of Functional Foods 54 (2019) 381–392
profile of commercial cold-pressed VAO and refined avocado oil. The
relative concentrations of saturated fatty acids (SFA), monounsaturated
fatty acids (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in VAO
(SFA: 13.41–19.25%, MUFA: 65.29–71.31% and PUFA:11.30–16.41%)
did not vary much from the refined avocado oil (SFA: 12.48–17.00%,
MUFA: 70.60–72.68% and PUFA: 12.20–14.70%). The main fatty acids
in VAO were oleic (59.46–67.69%), palmitic (12.79–17.50%) and
linoleic (10.50–15.15%) acids. An early study conducted by Werman
and Neeman (1987) showed the SFA of centrifuge-extracted VAO
(12.2%) was lower than solvent (hexane, petroleum ether and
chloroform-methanol mixture)-extracted avocado oil (12.7–17.8%).
Similarly, Tan et al. (2018b) demonstrated the SFA of VAO extracted
using SCO2 and UAAE (29.21–31.11%) was lower than crude avocado
oil extracted using the solvent (hexane) extraction (35.55%). In another
study, Krumreich et al. (2018) reported the solvent (petroleum ether)-
extracted avocado oil (23.70%) contained a greater level of SFA than
expeller-pressed VAO (22.30%). These studies, taken together, suggest
the relative contents of fatty acids in avocado oil depends on the
extraction methods.
From Table 4, it can be concluded that VAO is high-oleic fruit oil.
Oleic acid is highly stable against oxidation and able to enhance the
action of antioxidants and anti-polymerization agents (Hernandez,
2016). High relative concentration of oleic acid in VAO is desirable, in
the perspective of nutrition and oxidative stability, as it is suitable for
the usage in domestic cooking applications. Prolonged intakes of diets
rich in oleic acid may be beneficial for the protection against cardio-
vascular disease (CVD) (Kris-Etherton, 1999). As reported by Kris-
C.X. Tan Journal of Functional Foods 54 (2019) 381–392

Table 3
Advantages and limitations of VAO extraction methods.
Extraction method Advantage Drawback

Cold-pressed extraction • No pre-treatment is required • Expensive equipment investment

Expeller pressed extraction • Simple and inexpensive technology • Avocado mesocarp need to be dehydrated
• Temperature need to be monitored and kept under 50 °C
• Lower oil yield than Soxhlet extraction
SCO2 • Inexpensive CO • Avocado mesocarp need to be dehydrated and pulverized
• Operation • Expensive
2
temperature and pressure are lower than supercritical CO equipment investment
• Lower
2
extraction oil yield than Soxhlet extraction
Aqueous enzymatic extraction • Low energy consumption • High cost of enzymes
• Aqueous medium allows simultaneous separation of phospholipids
from the oil
• Lower oil yield than Soxhlet extraction
UAAE • Simple and cost-effective technology • Prolonged sonication may lead to degradation of bioactive
• Reduced extraction time components
• Greater penetration of solvent into cellular materials • Lower oil yield than Soxhlet extraction
• Aqueous medium allows simultaneous separation of phospholipids
from the oil

Table 4 antioxidants that are useful in inhibiting the process of autocatalytic

Fatty acid composition of commercial cold-pressed VAO and refined avocado lipid peroxidation and the production of free radicals. Wong et al.
oil. (2010) reported the main form of tocopherol detected in cold-pressed
Fatty acid Cold-pressed (%) Refined (%) VAO was α-tocopherol (70–190 mg/kg) whereas β-, δ- and γ-toco-
pherols were present in minor amounts (< 10 mg/kg). In contrast, Tan,
Prescha Flores et al. Rueda Cicero Martin Haiyan Chong, Hamzah, and Ghazali (2018a) only reported two types of to-
et al. (2014) et al. et al. et al. et al. copherol compounds in VAO, which were α-tocopherol
(2014) (2014) (2018) (1986) (2007)
(69.18–226.69 mg/kg) and γ-tocopherol (14.16–29.62 mg/kg). Their
C14:0 0.10 NR 0.14 0.01 NR NR study showed the tocopherol content of VAO obtained by SCO2
C16:0 17.50 12.79–13.41 16.30 14.21 11.80 16.30 (256.31 mg/kg) was three folds greater than UAAE (83.34 mg/kg),
C16:1 8.10 3.34–3.81 4.59 7.06 2.18 7.70 probably the good solubility of non-polar tocopherols in the non-polar
C17:0 0.60 NR 0.34 0.01 NR NR
extracting solvent such as CO2.
C17:1 NR NR NR 0.08 NR NR
C18:0 0.70 0.63–0.98 1.50 2.15 0.68 0.60 The level of certain minerals is associated with oil quality para-
C18:1 61.00 64.43–67.69 60.61 59.46 70.50 62.70 meters. It is reported that edible oil with high levels of pro-oxidant
C18:2 10.50 13.54–15.15 14.70 14.66 14.20 11.40 elements like copper and manganese can promote the oil oxidation
C18:3 0.80 1.21–1.26 0.73 1.30 0.50 0.80
process, thereby reducing the quality and storability (Marfil et al.,
C20:0 0.10 0.09–0.18 0.36 0.41 NR 0.10
C20:1 0.30 0.23–0.28 0.09 0.51 NR 0.20 2008). In contrast, selenium, an essential trace element with anti-
C22:0 NR NR 0.11 0.08 NR < 0.10 oxidant properties, can provide benefit to human health. The main
C24:0 NR NR 0.50 0.06 NR NR minerals present in VAO were iron (2.90 µg/kg), calcium (2.83 µg/kg),
SFA 19.00 13.41–14.13 19.25 16.93 12.48 17.00 magnesium (1.64 µg/kg) and selenium (0.13 µg/kg) while other mi-
MUFA 69.40 69.47–71.31 65.29 67.11 72.68 70.60
nerals like sodium, potassium, manganese, zinc and copper were be-
PUFA 11.30 14.75–16.41 15.43 15.96 14.70 12.20
yond traceable (Cicero et al., 2018).
NR: Not reported; SFA: Saturated fatty acids; MUFA: Monounsaturated fatty Phytosterols are cholesterol-like compounds present in plant mate-
acids; PUFA: Polyunsaturated fatty acids. rials. Consumption of phytosterols at doses between 1.5 and 3 g/day
can efficiently decrease the low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C)
Etherton (1999), isocaloric replacement of approximately 5% of energy up to 15% – (Quilez, Garcia-Lorda, & Salas-Salvado, 2003). It has been
from SFA by oleic acid decreased the risk of CVD by 20–40%. Moreover, reported that phytosterols are capable to reduce intestinal cholesterol
oleic acid was able to inhibit thrombotic action and platelet aggregation absorption due to the displacement of cholesterol in micelles
(Menendez, Vellon, Colomer, & Lupu, 2005). (Hernandez, 2016). Majority of the phytosterols in commodity oil are
The triacylglycerol composition of commercial cold-pressed VAO degraded during the process of refining (Hernandez, 2016). Wong et al.
available in Hungary was determined by Jakab, Heberger, and Forgacs (2010) reported β-sitosterol (2.23–4.48 g/kg) as the main phytosterol
(2002). Their study showed the major triacylglycerols of VAO present in cold-pressed VAO. Similarly, Tan et al. (2018a) also reported
were triolein (OOO: 31.88–32.80%), palmitoyl-dioleoyl-glycerol the main phytosterol of VAO obtained by SCO2 and UAAE was β-si-
(POO: 23.39–24.80%), palmitoyl-linoleoyl-oleoyl-glycerol (PLO: tosterol (1.91–2.47 g/kg) whereas other phytosterols like campesterol
11.14–12.31%), linoleoyl-dioleoyl-glycerol (LOO: 9.68–10.71%) and (0.28–0.37 g/kg), stigmasterol (0.19–0.21 g/kg) and Δ5-avenasterol
dipalmitoyl-oleoyl-glycerol (PPO: 9.20–10.78%). Tan et al. (2018b) (0.21–0.38 g/kg) were present in minor amount. Fig. 2 shows the
compared the triacylglycerol composition of VAO extracted using SCO2 chemical structures of these phytosterols. The β-sitosterol has been
and UAAE with the crude avocado oil extracted using conventional scientifically validated for its ability in mitigating the risk of cancers
solvent (hexane) extraction. Results of their study showed the VAO and lowering blood cholesterol (De Jong, Plat, & Mensink, 2003; Jesch
contained a greater amount of tri-unsaturated triacylglycerols & Carr, 2017).
(25.25–25.30%) than hexane-extracted avocado oil (22.47%).

6.3. Phenolic, carotenoid and chlorophyll contents

6.2. Tocopherol, mineral and phytosterol contents
Tocopherols are a set of lipid soluble components that exist in four
different forms (α-, β-, δ- and γ-), depending on the position and
number of methyl groups on the phenolic ring. Tocopherols are natural
The nutritional quality and stability of VAO are affected by the
concentrations of phenolic content. The total phenolic content (TPC) of
VAO, expressed as mg of gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/100 g, was in the
range of 4.26–130.17 (Table 5). In a study conducted by Santos, Escher,

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C.X. Tan Journal of Functional Foods 54 (2019) 381–392

Fig. 2. Chemical structures of phytosterols reported in VAO.

Table 5 grapeseed, pequi, olive and palm) oils, with a range value of
Total phenolic, chlorophyll and carotenoid contents of VAO. 2.15–18.60 µg/g. Four types of phenolic compounds, namely, apigenin
Method Total phenolics Total Chlorophylls Total carotenoids
7-glucoside (0.25 µg/g), p-hydroxybenzoic acid (0.21 µg/g), caffeic acid
(mg GAE/100 g) (mg/kg) (mg β-carotene/kg) (0.06 µg/g) and luteolin (0.03 µg/g), were reported in VAO (Cicero
et al., 2018). Fig. 3 shows the chemical structures of these phenolic
Cold-presseda 4.26–5.69 22.3–69.8 11.10–46.90 compounds.
SCO2b 111.27 ± 0.03 NR 4.27 ± 0.18
Chlorophylls and carotenoids are natural pigments constituting the
UAAEb 130.17 ± 0.04 NR 3.08 ± 0.22
Expeller-pressedc 46.07 ± 0.35 1.23 ± 0.03 75.00 ± 3.39 color of VAO. The concentrations and types of pigments in VAO are
important parameters of health attribute and product quality (appear-
a
Data obtained from Flores et al. (2014). ance). Chlorophylls are the predominate pigments affect the color of
b
Avocado pulp was air-oven dried at 35 °C before oil extraction. VAO (Wong et al., 2008). The color of VAO has been reported to be
b
Data obtained from Tan et al. (2018a). varied from green to yellow (Tan et al., 2018b; Wong et al., 2010). For
c
Avocado pulp was air-oven dried at 40 °C before oil extraction. instance, VAO extracted using cold-pressed, SCO2 and UAAE were re-
c
Data obtained from Krumreich et al. (2018).
ported to be emerald green, light yellow and dark yellow, respectively
SCO2: subcritical CO2 extraction, UAAE: ultrasound-assisted aqueous extrac-
(Tan et al., 2018b; Wong et al., 2010). The emerald green color of cold-
tion, NR: Not reported, GAE: gallic acid equivalents.
pressed VAO is due to the high concentration of chlorophylls (Wong
et al., 2010). Other than extraction methods, the concentration of total
da Silva Pereira, Marinho, and Prado-Silva (2018), the TPC (expressed
chlorophylls in the VAO is depended on the amount of outer green flesh
as mg of GAE/100 mL) of cold-pressed plant oils followed the order of
tissue used in the oil extraction process (Ashton et al., 2006). The total
buriti (3.61) > pequi (3.44) > copaiba (3.00) > castor
chlorophyll content of VAO, as determined using the spectro-
(1.16) > pomegranate (0.97) > sunflower (0.53) > rice
photometric method, was in the range of 1.23–69.8 mg/kg (Table 5).
(0.44) > avocado (0.37). Haiyan, Bedgood, Bishop, Prenzler, and
Four chlorophyll components, namely, pheophytin a (1.1 µg/g), pheo-
Robards (2007) reported the HPLC total area counts of total phenolics
phytin b (2.2 µg/g), chlorophyll a (4.9 µg/g) and chlorophyll b (5.1 µg/
in VAO and refined avocado oil were 2.4 × 104 and 0, respectively.
g) have been reported in cold-pressed VAO (Wong et al., 2008).
Also, their study showed the HPLC chromatogram of phenolic com-
Chlorophylls are highly reactive in the presence of oxygen and under
pounds in VAO was characteristic and distinctive, as compared to the
the light, leading to their degradation. Werman and Neeman (1986)
refined avocado oil. Although the study of Haiyan et al. (2007) did not
reported that after exposure to fluorescent light for 27 days, the total
report the concentration of individual phenolic compound present in
chlorophyll content of avocado oil declined by 18% of its original value.
VAO, but their study showed the process of oil refining could sig-
Carotenoids are plant pigments responsible for the yellow, red and
nificantly influence the phenolic compound present in avocado oil.
orange color of VAO. It serves as natural antioxidants to inhibit free
Cicero et al. (2018) reported the phenolic profile of several cold-pressed
radical chain reactions. Spectrophotometric determination showed the
plant oils. Their study showed the total phenolics of VAO (0.55 µg/g)
total carotenoid content of VAO was in the range of 3.08–75.00 mg β-
were inferior to other cold-pressed plant (coconut, canola, macadamia,

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C.X. Tan Journal of Functional Foods 54 (2019) 381–392

Fig. 3. Chemical structures of phenolic compounds reported in VAO.

carotene/kg (Table 5). Wong et al. (2010) reported the individual
carotenoid compounds present in cold-pressed VAO were lutein
(1.6 µg/g), neoxanthin (0.2 µg/g), violaxanthin (< 0.5 µg/g) and an-
theraxanthin (< 0.5 µg/g). However, they did not detect any car-
otenoid compound in refined avocado oil (Wong, 2005). The level of
total carotenoids in the VAO is affected by the stage of fruit ripeness
and oil extraction methods. During fruit ripening, > 50% of the total
carotenoids in the avocado mesocarp was reduced (Ashton et al., 2006).
The declining of carotenoids concentration along with fruit ripeness
means that extracting VAO from mesocarp at a later stage of ripeness
will result in the lower concentration of carotenoids of the oil.
6.4. Antioxidant capacity
Several in vitro assays have been utilized to analyse the antioxidant
activity of VAO. These include trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity
(TEAC), β-carotene bleaching activity (BBA), ferric reducing anti-
oxidant power (FRAP), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical
scavenging activity and 2,2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sul-
fonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging activity (Table 6). VAO is rich in
bioactive components such as tocopherols, phytosterols and car-
otenoids. These components are correlated with antioxidant capacity
(Santos et al., 2018; Tan et al., 2018a). As reported by Tan et al.
(2018a), strong positive correlations (p < 0.01) were observed be-
tween tocopherols (α- and γ-) of VAO and antioxidant capacities mea-
sured by FRAP, BBA and TEAC. Tan et al. (2018a) also reported the β-
sitosterol, campesterol, Δ5-avenasterol and carotenoids were positively
correlated with FRAP. In another study, Santos et al. (2018) found
positive correlations (p < 0.05) between TPC of VAO and antioxidant
capacities determined by DPPH and ABTS.
Up to now, the antioxidant properties of VAO are determined using
in vitro assays. There is little or no study on measuring the antioxidant
potentials of VAO using in vivo (e.g. humans or experimental animals)
and ex vivo (e.g. cell cultures) techniques. Future researches on these
aspects are highly warranted.
6.5. Volatile organic compounds
The aroma and quality of VAO are affected by its volatile profile.
Solid phase microextraction (SPME), simultaneous distillation

Table 6
Antioxidant capacities of VAO.
Method FRAP TEAC BBA DPPH ABTS
(mM TE/kg) (mM TE/kg) (%) (%) (mg AAE/100 mL)

SCO2a 13.09 ± 0.15 4.52 ± 0.14 75.88 ± 1.66 NR NR

UAAEa 6.59 ± 0.08 1.71 ± 0.04 64.40 ± 1.11 NR NR
Cold-pressedb NR NR NR 0.61 ± 0.05 15.74 ± 0.03

SCO2: subcritical CO2 extraction; UAAE: ultrasound-assisted aqueous extraction; FRAP: ferric reducing antioxidant power; TEAC: Trolox equivalent antioxidant
capacity; BBA: β-carotene bleaching activity; DPPH: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; TE: Trolox equivalents; AAE: ascorbic acid equivalents.
a
Data obtained from Tan et al. (2018a).
b
Data obtained from Santos et al. (2018).

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C.X. Tan Journal of Functional Foods 54 (2019) 381–392

Table 7
Volatile components of VAO.
Compound Aroma Cold-pressed SCO2 UAAE
Haiyan et al. (2007) Tan et al. (2018a) Tan et al. (2018a)

1-Hexanol Herbaceous and greena +

1-Acetoxy-2-propanol – +
1-Methoxy-2-propyl acetate Sweet ether-likec +
1, 2-Propanediol Odorlessa +
2-Methylpentanal Fruitya +
2,3-Butanediol Odorlessb +
3-Carene Sweet turpentine-likea +
α-Cubebene Mild woody balsamice + +
α-Piene Pine and turpentine-likea +
β-Piene Sweet, lemone +
(E)-2-Decenal Fattya + +
(E)-2-Hexenal Fruity and almond-likea +
(E)-Hept-2-enal Fatty and almond-liked + +
(E)-Caryophyllene Cloves and turpentine-likec + +
(E)-Nerolidol Woody-floral and waxye +
Acetic acid Vinegara + + +
Acetoin Buttery and creamyd +
Bicyclo [2.2.2] octane-1-carboxylic acid – + +
Farnesol Florald +
Heptanal Fatty, green and nut-liked + +
Hexanal Fatty, green and grassya + + +
Nonanal Fatty, floral and grassy4 + + +
Octanal Strong fruityb + +
Pentanal Slightly fruity and nut-likea + +

a
Burdock (2016).
b
Larrañaga, Lewis, Lewis, and Hawley (2016).
c
CAMEO Chemicals (https://cameochemicals.noaa.gov/).
d
Flavor Extract Manufacturers Association (https://www.femaflavor.org/).
e
Galvao et al. (2016).

extraction (SDE), dynamic headspace (DHS) and static headspace (SHS)
are the typical techniques used to extract the volatile compounds in
plant oils. The extracted volatile compounds are then identified and
quantified using a gas chromatography-flame ionization detection (GC-
FID) or a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The quan-
tity of volatile components present in VAO is affected by analytical
techniques and conditions utilized to analyse the volatile compounds as
well as the oil extraction conditions (e.g. temperature, solvent and
time) and varietal difference of avocados. By using SPME-GC–MS
technique, Haiyan et al. (2007) identified 9 volatile components in
cold-pressed VAO. Meanwhile, Tan et al. (2018a) analysed the volatiles
components in VAO using SHS-GC–MS. They identified 15 and 14 vo-
latile components in VAO extracted using SCO2 and UAAE, respectively.
Table 7 shows the volatile components identified in the VAO. These
volatile components suggest VAO are characterized with the fatty, nutty
and grassy aromas.
7. Pharmacological properties of avocado oil
Recently, the exploration of nutraceutical specialty oil has become
the interest of scientists. Nutraceutical specialty oil, also known func-
tional oil, is rich in unsaturated fatty acids (MUFA and PUFA) and
bioactive components such as vitamin E (tocopherols and tocotrienols),
phytosterols, phenolics, carotenoids and chlorophylls. Owing to the
growing awareness over the downsides rendered by continuous ad-
ministration of synthetic pharmaceutical medicines, patients are
seeking natural functional oil for the management of chronic diseases.
The use of dietary bioactive components as part of disease prevention
and management has been highly accepted due to its vast health ben-
efits besides the low cost and safe property. Several studies showed that
regular consumption of avocado oil, particularly VAO, provide health
benefits in terms of disease prevention or management (Table 8).
7.1. Hypercholesterolemia management
Hypercholesterolemia is defined as the elevated levels of cholesterol
and LDL-C in the blood . This asymptomatic disease is one of the main
risk factors for the development of CVD. Prolonged consumption of
foods rich in saturated fat, trans-fat and cholesterol are the dietary
factors leading to the occurrence of this disease. Hypercholesterolemia
is a chronic disease inflicting the world population. Globally, elevated
cholesterol is predicted to cause 2.6 million death and 29.7 million
disability-adjusted life years (WHO, 2017).
The hypocholesterolemic activity of SCO2-extracted VAO in high-
cholesterol diet-induced hypercholesterolemia rats was reported by
Tan, Chong, Hamzah, and Ghazali (2018d). Once the hypercholester-
olemia model had been established, the rats were continuing the high-
cholesterol diet while oral administrated VAO (450 and 900 mg/kg
body weight per day) for 4 weeks. In comparison with the hypercho-
lesterolemia control group, administration of VAO significantly in-
creased (p < 0.05) the serum level of high-density lipoprotein-cho-
lesterol (HDL-C) and significantly reduced (p < 0.05) the serum levels
of total cholesterol (TC), total triacylglycerols (TG) and LDL-C at the
end of the experiment. The researchers postulated the hypocholester-
olemic action of VAO was due to its high levels of phytosterols and
MUFA. Phytosterols, particularly β-sitosterol, play an important role in
inhibiting the intestinal cholesterol absorption (Hernandez, 2016; Jesch
& Carr, 2017). Dietary intakes of cholesterol and fat (400–450 mg/day)
may enhance the effectiveness of phytosterols in inhibiting the in-
testinal cholesterol absorption (Vanstone, Raeini-Sarjaz, Parsons, &
Jones, 2002). In the intestinal lumen, the phytosterols are retained in
the micellar structures and competing with cholesterol, thus decreasing
cholesterol absorption (Fig. 4). This can lead to a compensatory in-
crease in endogenous cholesterol synthesis and LDL-receptor expres-
sion, thereby decreasing circulating LDL-C level (De Jong et al., 2003;
Jesch & Carr, 2017). Also, intake of MUFA rich diet can reduce the LDL-
C level and increase the HDL-C level (Schwingshackl & Hoffmann,
2012).

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C.X. Tan Journal of Functional Foods 54 (2019) 381–392

Table 8
Health benefits of avocado oil.
Pharmacological property Experimental model Amount of avocado oil used Reference

Hypercholesterolemia management
Cardiometabolic risk management
Hypertension management
Diabetes management
Hepatoprotective effect
Antimicrobial activity
High-cholesterol diet-induced Sprague
Dawley rats
Overweight humans
Nω-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester-induced
Wistar rats
Streptozotocin-induced Wistar rats
High-sucrose diet-induced Wistar rats
High-cholesterol diet-induced Sprague
Dawley rats
Gram-positive and Gram-negative
bacteria
450 and 900 mg/kg body weight/
day
9.6% in weight of VAO
1 mL/250 g body weight/day
1 mL/250 g body weight/day
5%, 10%, 20% and 30% in weight
of avocado oil
450 and 900 mg/kg body weight/
day
Not specified
Tan et al. (2018d)Tan et al. (2018d)
Furlan et al. (2017)
Márquez-Ramírez et al. (2018)
Ortiz-Avila, Esquivel-Martínez, et al. (2015a)Ortiz-Avila,
Gallegos-Corona, et al. (2015b)
Toro-Equihua et al. (2016)
Tan et al. (2018d)
Santos et al. (2018)

To understand the therapeutic mechanism of VAO in diet-induced
hypercholesterolemia rats, assessment of urinary metabolomics using
1
H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) was performed (Tan, Chong,
Hamzah, & Ghazali, 2018c). Administration of VAO increased the me-
tabolite levels of citrate, 2-oxoglutarate, succinate, hippurate, taurine,
trigonelline, glutamine and allantoin while reduced the metabolite le-
vels of glucose, acetone, alanine, leucine, trimethylamine-N-oxide,
lactate and 3-hydroxybutyrate. This implies VAO could partially re-
cover the metabolism dysfunction induced by hypercholesterolemia
mainly via energy, lipid, gut microbiota and amino acid metabolism.
7.2. Cardiometabolic risk management
Overweight and obesity are characterized by the abnormal or ex-
cessive body fat accumulation that may impair health (WHO, 2018).
Excessive body fat accumulation is a key factor in developing cardio-
metabolic diseases such as dyslipidemia, hypertension, diabetes and
CVD (Klein et al., 2007). Typically, body mass index (BMI), a ratio of
the body weight to the square of body height, is a parameter used to
classify overweight and obesity in adults. According to WHO (2018),
adults with BMI 25 are classified as overweight whereas adults with
BMI 30 are classified as obese. Overweight and obesity rates record
higher in both developed and developing nations due to nutrition
transition for the past 30 years (Karageorgi, Alsmadi, & Behbehani,
2013).
Furlan, Valle, Östman, Maróstica, and Tovar (2017) reported the
postprandial metabolic responses of cold-pressed VAO to a hyperca-
loric-hyperlipidic diet in overweight humans. In this cohort study,
overweight humans were consumed either a control meal (the diet
consisted of butter, bacon, potatoes, eggs, iced sugar and wheat bread)
or a test meal (the diet consisted of VAO, bacon, potatoes, eggs, iced
sugar and wheat bread) and blood collections were performed at de-
fined times over a 240 min period. Results of their study indicated no
differences in the postprandial plasma levels of HDL-C and glucagon-

Fig. 4. Cholesterol (CHL) lowering effect of VAO.

Cholesterol in the lumen of small intestine origi-
nates mainly from both dietary and biliary sources.
In the intestinal lumen, dietary cholesterol and
phytosterols (PS) mix with biliary cholesterol and
other components such as bile salts, fatty acids and
phospholipids to form micelles. Micelles play an
important role in lipid absorption, acting as ve-
hicles that transport both amphiphilic and lipo-
philic components towards the intestinal wall. With
the aid of transporters such as Niemann-Pick C1-
Like 1 (NPC1L1) and scavenger receptor class B
type I (SR-BI), majority of the cholesterol and
phytosterols are transported into the enterocyte.
Within the enterocyte, cholesterol is esterified by
acyl-coenzyme A cholesterol acyltransferase
(ACAT) to form cholesterol esters, incorporated
into chylomicrons and then secreted into mesen-
teric lymph. Meanwhile, ATP-binding cassette
(ABC) transporters, particularly ABC-G5 and ABC-
G8, redirect back the unesterified cholesterol and
nearly all the phytosterols into the intestinal lumen.
Owing to structural similarities, phytosterols com-
pete with cholesterol for micellarization and thus
reducing intestinal cholesterol absorption. The un-
absorbed cholesterol is excreted in feces.

389
C.X. Tan
like peptide-1 in the humans consumed either a test meal or a control
meal. However, the postprandial plasma levels of C-reactive protein,
glycemia, interleukin-6, insulin, TG, TC and LDL-C of humans con-
sumed a test meal were found to be improved significantly (p < 0.05).
These findings illustrate the possibility of VAO to modulate the negative
physiological impacts associated with a hypercaloric-hyperlipidic diet
related to cardiometabolic health. The possible mechanism may be
related to the increment mRNA expression of peroxisome proliferator-
activated receptor (PPAR)-γ and adiponectin, which can reduce the risk
of obesity and dyslipidemia (Padmanabhan & Arumugam, 2014).
7.3. Hypertension management
Hypertension, also known as high blood pressure, occurs due to the
persistently elevated blood pressure in the arteries. There are two major
categories of hypertension, namely, essential and secondary. About
90–95% of cases are essential hypertension, defined as high blood
pressure due to nonspecific lifestyle (e.g. high sodium diet and physi-
cally inactive) and genetic factors (MacGill., 2018). The remaining
5–10% of cases are secondary hypertension, defined as high blood
pressure due to an underlying medical problem, such as kidney disease
and sleep apnea (MacGill., 2018).
The effects of commercial avocado oil (Ahuacatlan, Mexico) intake
on mitochondria oxidative stress, blood pressure and renal vascular
function in Nω-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME)-induced hy-
pertensive rats were reported by Márquez-Ramírez et al. (2018). The
hypertensive rats were orally administrated with avocado oil (1 mL/
250 g body weight per day) for 45 days. Their study showed the intake
of avocado oil decreased diastolic and systolic blood pressures and
improved renal endothelium-dependent vasodilation in association
with increased kidney mitochondrial function and reduced the gen-
eration of reactive oxygen species in the complex I via diminution of
oxidized glutathione concentrations. The researchers suggest the ob-
served outcomes possibly related to the blocking of angiotensin-II ac-
tions on mitochondria, as achieved by losartan, an antihypertensive
medicine.
Virgin avocado oil contains a high concentration of oleic acid
(> 59%) (Table 4). Following dietary intake of avocado oil, oleic acid
may incorporate into the phospholipids of cell membranes and alter its
biophysical properties. Oleic acid can modify the organization of
membranes from Lα lamellar phase to HII non-lamellar phase, which in
turn, affecting the signaling pathways of α- and β-adrenergic receptors,
the key elements in the central and peripheral control of blood pressure
(Fig. 5) (Lopez et al., 2014; Teres et al., 2008).
7.4. Diabetes management
Diabetes mellitus is a complex metabolic disorder characterized by a
Fig. 5. Hypotensive property of VAO.
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Journal of Functional Foods 54 (2019) 381–392
high level of blood glucose over an extended period of time. It causes
hyperglycemia and disturbances of carbohydrate, lipid and protein
metabolism in the body (Toro-Equihua, Velasco-Rodríguez, López-
Ascencio, & Vásquez, 2016). This is due to insulin deficiency or insulin
resistance, or both. In 2017, 425 million adults aged 20–79 years old
were living with diabetes and this number is predicted to rise to
629 million by the year 2054 (International Diabetes Federation, 2018).
The most common form of diabetes mellitus is type 2 diabetes mellitus,
accounting for 90–95% of all diabetic patients (International Diabetes
Federation, 2018).
The effect of commercial avocado oil (Ahuacatlan, Mexico) intake in
oxidative status and brain mitochondrial function of streptozotocin
(STZ)-induced diabetic rats was evaluated by Ortiz-Avila, Esquivel-
Martínez, et al. (2015a). The diabetic rats were orally administrated
with avocado oil (1 mL/250 g body weight per day) for 3 months. Their
study demonstrated the intake of avocado oil improved brain mi-
tochondrial function and glutathione/oxidized glutathione ratio while
diminished oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, electron transport chain
complex III activity and TG levels in the brain of diabetic rats. These
findings show the potential of avocado oil intake in preventing brain
mitochondrial dysfunction induced by diabetes.
Another study of Ortiz-Avila, Gallegos-Corona, et al. (2015b) re-
ported the protective effects of commercial avocado oil (Ahuacatlan,
Mexico) on exacerbated oxidative stress and impaired electron trans-
port chain function in liver mitochondria of STZ-induced diabetic rats.
The rats were orally administrated with avocado oil (1 mL/250 g body
weight per day) for 3 months. At the end of the experiment, reduction in
lipid peroxidation, oxidative stress and reactive species production in
the liver mitochondria was observed. Furthermore, their study also
demonstrated that avocado oil intake normalized the serum levels of TC
and TG caused by diabetes, but failed to normalize hyperglycemia,
polyphagia and polydipsia. Findings of this study indicate the possibi-
lity of avocado oil to attenuate the negative physiological effects of
diabetes on the oxidative condition of liver mitochondria.
Meanwhile, the potential of avocado oil intake on reducing insulin
resistance of high-sucrose diet-induced diabetic rats was investigated by
Toro-Equihua et al. (2016). The diabetic rats were consumed sucrose-
rich diet supplemented with avocado oil (5%, 10%, 20% and 30%) for
8 weeks. Their study showed dietary supplementation of avocado oil at
5%, 10% and 20% could reduce the insulin resistance and glucose
tolerance, but the same trend was not observed in the rats supple-
mented with 30% avocado oil. The researchers postulated the supple-
mentation of 30% avocado oil could increase the free fatty acids and
subsequently altered the insulin signalling. Generally, high intake of
oleic acid, a major fatty acid component of avocado oil, may reverse the
inhibitory effect in insulin secretion of the inflammatory cytokine tu-
mour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) (Vassiliou et al., 2009). Also, oleic acid
can promote the secretion of glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide
C.X. Tan
(GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), which are the key elements
for stimulating insulin secretion (Toro-Equihua et al., 2016).
7.5. Hepatoprotective effect
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease is defined as the accumulation of
lipids inside hepatocytes in the absence of significant alcohol intake. It
occurs as a result of high dietary fat intake, de novo hepatic lipogenesis
and adipose tissue lipolysis (Asrih & Jornayvaz, 2014). This asympto-
matic disease can develop through four distinct stages starting from
simple steatosis to steatohepatitis, fibrosis and lastly cirrhosis (Asrih &
Jornayvaz, 2014). Cirrhosis is the end stage of non-alcoholic fatty liver
disease, which is irreversible and can cause liver failure. Non-alcoholic
fatty liver disease affects 10–35% of the world population and is the
most common cause of liver disease in developed countries (Ferramosca
& Zara, 2014; Gunn & Shiffman, 2018).
Liver biopsy using hematoxylin and eosin stain was performed by
Tan et al. (2018d) in rats received high-cholesterol diet administrated
with SCO2-extracted VAO (450 and 900 mg/ kg body weight per day).
Microscopic investigation of the hepatocytes of hypercholesterolemia
control rats showed diffuse microvesicular and macrovesicular stea-
tosis. Formation of macrovesicular steatosis (large droplets) is due to
the fusion of microvesicular steatosis (small droplets) that originally
formed on the endoplasmic reticulum (Tandra, Yeh, Brunt, &
Vuppalanchi, 2011). The formations of small and large droplets were
reduced in the hepatocytes of the rats received with 450 mg/kg body
weight/day of VAO. Moreover, the rats received 900 mg/kg body
weight/day of VAO showed remarkably reduced accumulation of small
droplets in the hepatocytes. The researchers concluded that adminis-
tration of VAO able to ameliorate the lipids accumulation in the he-
patocytes.
One of the important factors affecting the hepatic lipid metabolism
is the fatty acid composition of dietary fat and oil (Ferramosca & Zara,
2014). More than 67% of the total fatty acids in VAO is constituted by
MUFA (Table 4). MUFA can activate PPAR-α and PPAR-γ, inhibit de
novo lipogenesis and increase β-oxidation, thereby leading to a reduc-
tion in hepatic steatosis (Pepa et al., 2017). Oxidative stress is con-
sidered as the main trigger for the progression of simple fatty liver
(steatosis) to a more severe inflammatory form of steatohepatitis (Sato
et al., 2015). VAO contains a high level of α-tocopherol. The most
biologically active form of vitamin E is α-tocopherol, which can act as
an antioxidant agent to reduce oxidative stress generated, hence, re-
ducing the presence of inflammation and ballooning in the liver (Sato
et al., 2015).
7.6. Antimicrobial activity
Foodborne disease, also known as food poisoning and foodborne
illness, is usually caused by intake of food or beverage contaminated
with bacteria, viruses, parasites or chemicals. The Centres for Disease
Control and Prevention estimates that 48 million cases of foodborne
disease occur annually (CDC, 2018). Most foodborne diseases are acute
with the symptoms of diarrhea, nausea, stomach cramps and vomiting.
The antimicrobial property of cold-pressed VAO was evaluated
against various Gram-positive (Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus and
Listeria monocytogenes) and Gram-negative (Salmonella typhimurium and
Salmonella Enteritidis) bacteria by Santos et al. (2018) using plate-cavity
agar diffusion technique. They made a 6 mm cavity in the middle of the
agar plate and filled it with VAO. Results showed that VAO possessed
inhibitory activity against the Gram-negative bacteria, but the same
observation was not found in the Gram-positive bacteria. The re-
searches postulated the observed effects can possibly be related to the
hydrophobic property of VAO to penetrate through the lipopoly-
saccharide layer present in the cell walls of Gram-negative bacteria.
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Journal of Functional Foods 54 (2019) 381–392
8. Conclusion
The lipid content of avocado mesocarp is influenced by the vari-
eties. Hass variety avocado receives particular interest for its inherently
high lipid content and is the common commercial avocado variety in
the global market. Up to now, VAO has been extracted using methods
such as cold-pressing, expeller pressing, SCO2, UAAE and aqueous en-
zymatic extraction. Detailed analysis of efficiency and reproducibility
of these methods need to be further evaluated. VAO is mainly composed
of MUFA (> 67%), predominately oleic, linoleic and palmitic acids.
The oil also contains high concentrations of bioactive components,
particularly α-tocopherol and β-sitosterol. These properties offer it to
be used as functional oil in the management of chronic diseases such as
hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, diabetes and fatty liver disease.
Also, the oil reduces cardiometabolic risk and possess antimicrobial
property. Most of the literature data on the pharmacological effects of
avocado oil are based on animal models, particularly rat. In future, the
health benefits associated with VAO intake should be on clinical trials.
Moreover, research interests in isolating and identifying bioactive
components as well as illustrating action mechanisms and potential
allergy and toxic reactions of VAO can be explored.
Ethics statement
This study does not involves the use of animals and human subjects.
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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