Mineral — a naturally occurring (not man-made or machine generated), inorganic (not a

byproduct of living things) solid with an orderly crystalline structure and a definite chemical
composition.
-Minerals are the basic building blocks of rocks.

DIFFERENT MINERAL PROPERTIES

1. Luster – it is the quality and intensity of reflected light exhibited by the mineral.
a. Metallic – generally opaque and exhibit a resplendent shine similar to a polished metal
b. Non-metallic – vitreous (glassy), adamantine (brilliant/diamond-like), resinous, silky,
pearly, dull (earthy), greasy, among others.
2. Hardness – it is a measure of the resistance of a mineral (not specifically surface) to
abrasion.
a. the hardness scale is designed by German geologist/mineralogist Friedrich Mohs in 1812
(Mohs Scale of Hardness).
b. The Mohs Scale of Hardness measures the scratch resistance of various minerals from a
scale of 1 to 10, based on the ability of a harder material/mineral to scratch a softer one.
c. Pros of the Mohs scale: i. The test is easy. ii. The test can be done anywhere, anytime, as
long as there is sufficient light to see scratches. iii. The test is convenient for field geologists
with scratch kits who want to make a rough identification of minerals outside the lab.
d. Cons of the Mohs scale: i. The Scale is qualitative, not quantitative. ii. The test cannot be
used to accurately test the hardness of industrial materials.
3. Crystal Form/Habit- The external shape of a crystal or groups of crystals is displayed /
observed as these crystals grow in open spaces. The form reflects the supposedly internal
structure (of atoms and ions) of the crystal (mineral). It is the natural shape of the mineral
before the development of any cleavage or fracture. Examples include prismatic, tabular,
bladed, platy, reniform and equant. A mineral that do not have a crystal structure is
described as amorphous.
4. Color and streak
a. A lot of minerals can exhibit same or similar colors. Individual minerals can also display a
variety of colors resulting from impurities and also from some geologic processes like
weathering.
b. Examples of coloring: quartz can be pink (rose quartz), purple (amethyst), orange (citrine),
white (colorless quartz) etc.
c. Streak, on the other hand, is the mineral’s color in powdered form. It is inherent in almost
every mineral, and is a more diagnostic property compared to color. Note that the color of a
mineral can be different from its streak.
d. Examples of streak: pyrite (FeS2) exhibits gold color but has a black or dark gray streak.
e. The crystal’s form also defines the relative growth of the crystal in three dimensions, which
include the crystal’s length, width and height.
5. Cleavage – the property of some minerals to break along specific planes of weakness to
form smooth, flat surfaces.
a. These planes exist because the bonding of atoms making up the mineral happens to be
weak in those areas.
b. When minerals break evenly in more than one direction, cleavage is described by the
number of cleavage directions, the angle(s) at which they meet, and the quality of cleavage
(e.g. cleavage in 2 directions at 90°).
c. Cleavage is different from habit; the two are distinct, unrelated properties. Although both
are dictated by crystal structure, crystal habit forms as the mineral is growing, relying on how
the individual atoms in the crystal come together. Cleavage, meanwhile, is the weak plane
that developed after the crystal is formed.
6. Specific Gravity – the ratio of the density of the mineral and the density of water.
a. This parameter indicates how many times more the mineral weighs compared to an equal
amount of water (SG 1).
b. For example, a bucket of silver (SG 10) would weigh ten times more than a bucket of
water.
7. Others – magnetism, odor, taste, tenacity, reaction to acid, etc. For example, magnetite is
strongly magnetic; sulfur has distinctive smell; halite is salty; calcite fizzes with acid as with
dolomite but in powdered form; etc.

MINERAL GROUPS
1. Silicates – minerals containing the two most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust, namely,
silicon and oxygen.
a. When linked together, these two elements form the silicon oxygen tetrahedron - the
fundamental building block of silicate minerals.
b. Over 90% of rock-forming minerals belong to this group.
2. Oxides – minerals composed of oxygen anion (O2-) combined with one or more metal ions.
3. Sulfates – minerals containing sulfur and oxygen in the form of the (SO4)- anion.
4. Sulfides – minerals containing sulfur and a metal; some sulfides are sources of economically
important metals such as copper, lead, and zinc.
5. Carbonates – minerals containing the carbonate (CO3)2- anion combined with other
elements
6. Native Elements – minerals that form as individual elements.
a. Metals and Intermetals – minerals with high thermal and electrical conductivity, typically
with metallic luster, low hardness (gold, lead).
b. Semi-metals – minerals that are more fragile than metals and have lower conductivity
(arsenic, bismuth).
c. Nonmetals – nonconductive (sulfur, diamond).
7. Halides – minerals containing halogen elements combined with one or more metals

EVALUATION

1.Summarize the different characteristics that define a mineral.
Answer: inorganic, naturally occurring, crystalline, solid and must have a consistent chemical
composition.
2.Which among the following mineral groups, if any, contain silicon: halides, carbonates or
sulfides? Explain.
Answer: None. The identified mineral groups are nonsilicates.
3.Which is more abundant in the Earth’s crust: silicates or all the other mineral groups
combined? Explain.
Answer: Silicates. Silicon and oxygen are the main components of silicates and these are the
two most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust.
4. An unknown opaque mineral has a black streak and has a density of 18g/cm3. Is the
mineral metallic or non-metallic?
 Answer: The mineral is more likely to be metallic because it is opaque and metallic minerals
are usually heavy and with dark streaks.
5.How does streak differ from color, and why is it more reliable for rock identification?
Answer: Streak is the color of a mineral in powdered form. It is more reliable because it is
inherent to most minerals. Color is not reliable because a mineral can be formed with
varieties of color, an effect of impurities and weathering.
6. Differentiate between habit and a cleavage plane.
Answer: Habit is the external shape of a crystal that is developed during the formation of
the mineral. A cleavage plane is a plane of weakness that may develop after the crystal
formation.
7. Is it possible for a mineral to have a prismatic habit without having any cleavage? Why or
why not? If yes, give an example.
Answer: Yes, the prismatic habit is simultaneously developed while the mineral is growing.
During the process, there is no repetitive plane of weakness being created which makes the
mineral break only by fracturing. An example of this scenario is quartz.
8. Define “rock-forming mineral,” and give three examples. Answer: A rock-forming mineral
is a mineral that is common and abundant in the Earth's crust; one making up large masses of
rock.

ROCKS - Rocks are classified on the basis of the mode of formation. The three rock types are
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

Rock Classifications
Rocks are classified on the basis of the mode of formation. The three rock types are igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
1.Igneous rocks - rocks that are formed from the solidification of molten rock material
(magma or lava). Molten rock material can solidify below the surface of the earth (plutonic
igneous rocks) or at the surface of the Earth (volcanic igneous rocks). Minerals are formed
during the crystallization of the magma. Note that the rate of cooling is one of the most
important factors that control crystal size and the texture of the rock in general.
Question: Differentiate magma and lava.
Magma is a molten rock material beneath the surface of the earth. Lava is molten rock
material extruded to the surface of the earth through volcanic or fissure eruptions.
Question: Describe plutonic or intrusive rocks and define the process of formation, the
texture and give examples.
• from solidified magma underneath the earth
• gradual lowering of the temperature gradient at depth towards the surface would cause
slow cooling/crystallization
• Phaneritic texture
• Examples: granite, diorite, gabbro
Question: Describe volcanic or extrusive rocks and define the process of formation, the
texture and give examples.
• from solidified lava at or near the surface of the earth
• fast rate of cooling/crystallization due to huge variance in the temperature between Earth’s
surface and underneath
• common textures: aphanitic, porphyritic and vesicular
• examples: rhyolite, andesite, basalt
 • pyroclastic rocks: fragmental rocks usually associated with violent or explosive type of
eruption. Examples tuff and pyroclastic flow deposits (ignimbrite)
Igneous rocks are also classified according to silica content: felsic, intermediate, mafic and
ultramafic. • felsic: also called granitic; >65% silica, generally light-colored
• intermediate: also called andesitic; 55-65% silica; generally medium colored (medium gray)
• mafic: also called basaltic; 45-55% silica; generally dark colored
• ultramafic: <45% silica; generally very dark colored; composed mainly of olivine and
pyroxene which are the major constituents of the upper mantle
2. Sedimentary rocks- These are rocks that formed through the accumulation, compaction, and
cementation of sediments. They generally form at surface or near surface conditions.
• Sedimentary processes at or near the surface of the Earth include: weathering of rocks,
sediment transport and deposition, compaction and cementation
• Factors in sedimentary processes: weathering and transport agents (water, wind ice)
• Common sedimentary features: strata and fossils
• Strata: >1cm is called bedding and anything less is called lamination; layering is the result
of a change in grain size and composition; each layer represents a distinct period of
deposition.
• Fossils: remains and traces of plants and animals that are preserved in rocks
Non-clastic / Chemical/Biochemical – derived from sediments that precipitated from
concentrated solutions (e.g. seawater) or from the accumulation of biologic or organic
material (e.g. shells, plant material). They are further classified on the basis of chemical
composition.
Clastic/terrigenous - form from the accumulation and lithification of sediments derived from
the breakdown of pre-existing rocks. They are further classified according to dominant grain
size.
3. Metamorphic rocks - rocks that form from the transformation of pre-existing rocks
(igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks) through the process of metamorphism.
Metamorphism can involve changes in the physical and chemical properties of rocks in
response to heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids. They are commonly formed
underneath the earth through metamorphism
Contact metamorphism
• Heat as the main factor: occurs when a pre-existing rocks get in contact with a heat source
(magma)
• Occurs on a relatively small scale: around the vicinity of intruding magma
• Creates non-foliated metamorphic rocks (e.g. hornfels)
Regional metamorphism
• Pressure as main factor: occurs in areas that have undergone deformation during orogenic
event resulting in mountain belts
• Occurs in a regional/large scale
• Creates foliated metamorphic rocks such as schist and gneiss
• Non-foliated rocks like marble also form thru regional metamorphism, where pressure is not
intense, far from the main geologic event
THE ROCK CYCLE

EVALUATION
1. How does a vesicular texture in a volcanic rock develop?
Answer: As magma rises up to the surface, it is subjected to decreasing pressure, allowing
dissolved gases to come out of the solution forming gas bubbles. When the magma reaches
the surface (as lava) and cools, the rock solidifies around the gas bubbles. The bubbles are
then preserved as holes or vesicles. Also, the texture can also be formed thru the rapid
escape of gases.
2. Explain why the vesicular texture is not associated with peridotites.
Answer: Peridotites are intrusive rocks formed beneath the earth’s surface and the high
pressure conditions prevent gases from forming and escaping.
3. How do clastic rocks differ from non-clastic rocks in terms of process of formation?
Answer: Clastic rocks form from rock fragments transported away from their source by wind,
water, gravity or ice rather than by chemical processes such as precipitation or evaporation.
4. Explain how the physical features of sediments change during transport.
Answer: The farther the sediment is transported, the longer the transport takes, and the
smaller, more rounded and smoother the sediment becomes.
5. Differentiate between a foliated and non-foliated rock.
Answer: Foliated rocks has a texture in which the mineral grains are arranged in bands or
grains, which is absent in a non-foliated rock.
6. What do butterflies and metamorphic rocks have in common?
Answer: Butterflies and metamorphic rocks both undergo change from an earlier form
(caterpillar for butterfly, parent rock for metamorphic rock) to a new one.
7. Heat is a major agent in metamorphism and igneous rock formation, but not in
sedimentary rocks. Why?
Answer: Sedimentary processes occur in surface conditions - low temperature and pressure
conditions. 8. Does every rock go through the complete rock cycle, i.e. changing from
igneous to sedimentary rock to metamorphic then back to igneous rocks? Explain.
Answer: No. Rocks can change into any type of rock or even reform as the same kind of rock
for several cycle.