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Modes of Heat Transfer
Modes of Heat Transfer
Whenever a temperature gradient exists, either within a medium or between media, the transfer of heat will
occur. This may take the form of either conduction, convection or radiation.
Conduction
When a temperature gradient exists in either a solid or stationary fluid medium, the heat transfer which takes
place is known as conduction. When neighbouring molecules in a fluid collide, energy is transferred from the
more energetic to the less energetic molecules. Because higher temperatures are associated with higher
molecular energies, conduction must occur in the direction of decreasing temperature.
This phenomenon can be seen in both liquids and gases. However, in liquids the molecular interactions are
stronger and more frequent, as the molecules are closer together. In solids, conduction is caused by the
atomic activity of lattice vibrations as explained in Tutorial 2.2.
The equation used to express heat transfer by conduction is known as Fourier's Law. Where there is a linear
temperature distribution under steady-state conditions, for a one-dimensional plane wall it may be written as:
Equation 2.5.1
Where:
= Heat transferred per unit time (W)
k = Thermal conductivity of the material (W/m K or W/m°C)
A = Heat transfer area (m2)
ΔT = Temperature difference across the material (K or °C)
= Material thickness (m)
Example 2.5.1
Consider a plane wall constructed of solid iron with a thermal conductivity of 70 W/m°C, and a thickness of 25
mm. It has a surface area of 0.3 m by 0.5 m, with a temperature of 150°C on one side and 80°C on the other.
The thermal conductivity is a characteristic of the wall material and is dependent on temperature. Table 2.5.1
shows the variation of thermal conductivity with temperature for various common metals.
Near the surface where the fluid velocity is low, diffusion (or random molecular motion) dominates. However,
moving away from the surface, bulk motion holds an increasing influence. Convective heat transfer may take
the form of either forced convection or natural convection. Forced convection occurs when fluid flow is induced
by an external force, such as a pump or an agitator. Conversely, natural convection is caused by buoyancy
forces, due to the density differences arising from the temperature variations in the fluid.
The transfer of heat energy caused by a phase change, such as boiling or condensing, is also referred to as a
convective heat transfer process.
The equation for convection is expressed by Equation 2.5.2 which is a derivation of Newton's Law of Cooling:
Equation 2.5.2
Where:
= Heat transferred per unit time (W)
A = Heat transfer area of the surface (m2)
h = Convective heat transfer coefficient of the process (W/m2 K or W/m2°C)
ΔT = Temperature difference between the surface and the bulk fluid (K or °C)
Example 2.5.2
Consider a plane surface 0.4 m by 0.9 m at a temperature of 20°C.
A fluid flows over the surface with a bulk temperature of 50°C.
The convective heat transfer coefficient (h) is 1 600 W/m2°C.
Radiation
The heat transfer due to the emission of energy from surfaces in the form of electromagnetic waves is known
as thermal radiation. In the absence of an intervening medium, there is a net heat transfer between two
surfaces of different temperatures. This form of heat transfer does not rely on a material medium, and is
actually most efficient in a vacuum.
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The general equation used to calculate heat transfer across a surface used in the design procedure and
forming a part of heat exchange theory is:
Equation 2.5.3
Where:
= Heat transferred per unit time (W (J/s))
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K or W/m2°C)
A = Heat transfer area (m2)
ΔT = Temperature difference between the primary and secondary fluid (K or °C)
Note:
will be a mean heat transfer rate ( M) if ΔT is a mean temperature difference (ΔT LM or ΔT AM).
The overall heat transfer coefficient (U)
This takes into account both conductive and convective resistance between two fluids separated by a solid
wall. The overall heat transfer coefficient is the reciprocal of the overall resistance to heat transfer, which is the
sum of the individual resistances.
The overall heat transfer coefficient may also take into account the degree of fouling in the heat transfer
process. The deposition of a film or scale on the heat transfer surface will greatly reduce the rate of heat
transfer. The fouling factor represents the additional thermal resistance caused by fluid impurities, rust
formation or other reactions between the fluid and the wall.
The magnitude of the individual coefficients will depend on the nature of the heat transfer process, the physical
properties of the fluids, the fluid flowrates and the physical layout of the heat transfer surface.
As the physical layout cannot be established until the heat transfer area has been determined, the design of a
heat exchanger is by necessity, an iterative procedure. A starting point for this procedure usually involves
selecting typical values for the overall heat transfer coefficient of various types of heat exchanger.
An accurate calculation for the individual heat transfer coefficients is a complicated procedure, and in many
cases it is not possible due to some of the parameters being unknown. Therefore, the use of established
typical values of overall heat transfer coefficient will be suitable for practical purposes.
Temperature difference T
Newton's law of cooling states that the heat transfer rate is related to the instantaneous temperature difference
between the hot and the cold media. In a heat transfer process, this temperature difference will vary either with
position or with time. The general heat transfer equation was thus developed as an extension to Newton's law
of cooling, where the mean temperature difference is used to establish the heat transfer area required for a
given heat duty.
However, as the secondary fluid passes over the heat transfer surface, the highest rate of heat transfer occurs
at the inlet and progressively decays along its travel to the outlet. This is simply because the temperature
difference between the steam and secondary fluid reduces with the rise in secondary temperature.
The resulting temperature profile of the steam and secondary fluid is typically as shown in Figure 2.5.1.
An easier (but less accurate) way to calculate the mean temperature difference is to consider the Arithmetic
Mean Temperature Difference or AMTD or ΔT AM . This considers a linear increase in the secondary fluid
temperature and for quick manual calculations, will usually give a satisfactory approximation of the mean
temperature difference to be used in Equation 2.5.3. The AMTD temperature profile is shown in Figure 2.5.2.
Where:
T p1 = Primary fluid in temperature
T p2 = Primary fluid out temperature
T s1 = Secondary fluid in temperature
T s2 = Secondary fluid out temperature
For steam, where the temperature of the primary fluid (steam) remains constant, this equation may be
simplified to:
Equation 2.5.4
Where:
T s = Steam temperature (°C)
T 1 = Secondary fluid in temperature (°C)
T 2 = Secondary fluid out temperature (°C)
Because there is no temperature change on the steam side, the AMTD normally provides a satisfactory
analysis of the heat transfer process, which is easy to manipulate in manual calculations.
However, a log mean temperature difference can also be used, which accounts for the non-linear change in
temperature of the secondary fluid.
Equation 2.5.5
Where:
T s = Steam temperature (°C)
T 1 = Secondary fluid in temperature (°C)
T 2 = Secondary fluid out temperature (°C)
ln = A mathematical function known as 'natural logarithm'
Both Equations 2.5.4 and 2.5.5 assume that there is no change in the specific heat capacity or the overall heat
transfer coefficient, and that there are no heat losses.
In reality the specific heat capacity may change as a result of temperature variations. The overall heat transfer
coefficient may also change because of variations in fluid properties and flow conditions. However, in most
applications the deviations will be almost negligible and the use of mean values will be perfectly acceptable.
In many cases the heat exchange equipment will be insulated from its surroundings, but the insulation will not
be 100% efficient. Therefore, the energy transferred between the steam and the secondary fluid may not
represent all of the heat lost from the primary fluid.
Example 2.5.3
Steam at 2 bar g is used to heat water from 20°C to 50°C.
The saturation temperature of steam at 2 bar g is 134°C.
In this example the AMTD and the LMTD have a similar value. This is because the secondary fluid temperature
rise is small in comparison with the temperature difference between the two fluids.
Example 2.5.4
Consider a pressurised process fluid tank, which is heated from 10°C to 120°C using steam at 4.0 bar
g. The saturation temperature of steam at 4.0 bar g is 152°C.
By using the AMTD rather than the LMTD, the calculated heat transfer area would be almost 15% smaller than
that required.
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Agitation of the product may eliminate the effect of the stagnant film, whilst regular cleaning on the product side
should reduce the scale.
Regular cleaning of the surface on the steam side may also increase the rate of heat transfer by reducing the
thickness of any layer of scale, however, this may not always be possible. This layer may also be reduced by
careful attention to the correct operation of the boiler, and the removal of water droplets carrying impurities
from the boiler.
Dropwise condensation
If the droplets of water on the heat transfer surface do not merge immediately and no continuous condensate
film is formed, 'dropwise' condensation occurs. The heat transfer rates which can be achieved during dropwise
condensation, are generally much higher than those achieved during filmwise condensation.
As a larger proportion of the heat transfer surface is exposed during dropwise condensation, heat transfer
coefficients may be up to ten times greater than those for filmwise condensation.
In the design of heat exchangers where dropwise condensation is promoted, the thermal resistance it produces
is often negligible in comparison to other heat transfer barriers. However, maintaining the appropriate
conditions for dropwise condensation have proved to be very difficult to achieve.
If the surface is coated with a substance that inhibits wetting, it may be possible to maintain dropwise
condensation for a period of time. For this purpose, a range of surface coatings such as Silicones, PTFE and
an assortment of waxes and fatty acids are sometimes applied to surfaces in a heat exchanger on which
condensation is to be promoted. However, these coatings will gradually lose their effectiveness due to
processes such as oxidation or fouling, and film condensation will eventually predominate.
As air is such a good insulator, it provides even more resistance to heat transfer. Air may be between 1 500
and 3 000 times more resistant to heat flow than steel, and 8 000 to 16 000 more resistant than copper. This
means that a film of air only 0.025 mm thick may resist as much heat transfer as a wall of copper 400 mm
thick! Of course all of these comparative relationships depend on the temperature profiles across each layer.
Figure 2.5.4 illustrates the effect this combination of layers has on the heat transfer process. These barriers to
heat transfer not only increase the thickness of the entire conductive layer, but also greatly reduce the mean
thermal conductivity of the layer.
The more resistant the layer to heat flow, the larger the temperature gradient is likely to be. This means that to
achieve the same desired product temperature, the steam pressure may need to be significantly higher.
The presence of air and water films on the heat transfer surfaces of either process or space heating
applications is not unusual. It occurs in all steam heated process units to some degree.
To achieve the desired product output and minimise the cost of process steam operations, a high heating
performance may be maintained by reducing the thickness of the films on the condensing surface. In practice,
air will usually have the most significant effect on heat transfer efficiency, and its removal from the supply
steam will increase heating performance.
Fig.
2.5.4 Temperature gradients across heat transfer layers
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Defining the overall heat transfer coefficient (U value)
The five main most commonly related terms associated with the subject of heat transfer are:
The following text in this Tutorial describes them and how they are related to each other.
The traditional method for calculating heat transfer across a plane wall considers the use of an overall heat
transfer coefficient 'U', or more correctly, the overall thermal transmittance between one side of the wall and
the other.
U values are quoted for a wide range and combination of materials and fluids and are usually influenced by
empirical data and operating experience. The previously mentioned films of condensate, air, scale, and product
either side of the metal wall can have a significant effect on the overall thermal transmittance and because of
this, it is worth considering the whole issue of heat transfer across a simple plane wall and then a multi-layer
barrier.
Ignoring the possible resistance to heat flow at the two surfaces, the process of heat flow through the wall can
be derived from Fourier's law of conduction as shown in Equation 2.5.1.
The term 'barrier' refers to a heat resistive film or the metal wall of a heat exchanger.
Equation 2.5.1
Where:
= Heat transferred per unit time (W)
A = Heat transfer area (m2)
k = Thermal conductivity of the barrier (W / m K or W / m°C)
T = Temperature difference across the barrier (K or °C)
= Barrier thickness (m)
Equation 2.5.6
Where:
= Heat transferred per unit time (W)
A = Heat transfer area (m2)
T = Temperature difference across the barrier (°C)
= Barrier thickness / material thermal conductivity
It can be seen from their definitions in Equation 2.5.6 that is the thickness of the barrier divided by its
inherent property of thermal conductivity. Simple arithmetic dictates that if the length () of the barrier
increases, the value will increase, and if the value of the barrier conductivity (k) increases, then the value
of will decrease. A characteristic that would behave in this fashion is that of thermal resistance. If the
length of the barrier increases, the resistance to heat flow increases; and if the conductivity of the barrier
material increases the resistance to heat flow decreases. It can be concluded that the term in Equation
2.5.6 relates to the thermal resistance of a barrier of known length.
The results of simple electrical theory parallel the equations appertaining to heat flow. In particular, the concept
of adding resistances in series is possible, and is a useful tool when analysing heat transfer through a multi-
layer barrier, as will be seen in a later section of this tutorial.
Equation 2.5.7
Where:
= Heat transferred per unit time (W)
A = Heat transfer area (m2)
T = Temperature difference across the barrier (°C)
R = Thermal resistance of the barrier (m2 °C / W)
Thermal resistance denotes a characteristic of a particular barrier, and will change in accordance to its
thickness and conductivity.
In contrast, the barrier's ability to resist heat flow does not change, as this is a physical property of the barrier
material. This property is called 'thermal resistivity'; it is the inverse of thermal conductivity and is shown in
Equation 2.5.8.
Equation 2.5.8
Where:
r = Thermal resistivity (m°C / W)
k = Thermal conductivity (W / m°C)
Equation 2.5.3
Where:
U = The overall thermal transmittance (W / m2 °C)
and therefore,
Equation 2.5.9
Therefore, U value (thermal transmittance) is the inverse of resistance.
These films can be thought of as 'fouling' the flow of heat through the barrier, and consequently these
resistances are considered by heat exchanger designers as 'fouling factors'.
All of these films, in addition to the resistance of the metal wall, constitute a resistance to heat flow and, as in
an electrical circuit, these resistances can be added to form an overall resistance.
Therefore:
Equation 2.5.10
Where:
R1 = Resistance of the air film
R2 = Resistance of the condensate film
R3 = Resistance of the scale film on the steam side
R4 = Resistance of the of the metal wall
R5 = Resistance of the scale film on the water side
R6 = Resistance of the product film
As resistance is as shown in Equation 2.5.6, then Equation 2.5.10 can be rewritten as Equation 2.5.11:
Equation 2.5.11
The resistance of air to steel is roughly two thousand times more, and the resistance of air to copper is roughly
twenty thousand times more. Because of the high resistances of air and water to that of steel and copper, the
effect of small thicknesses of air and water on the overall resistance to heat flow can be relatively large.
There is no point in changing a steel heat transfer system to copper if air and water films are still present; there
will be little improvement in performance, as will be proven in Example 2.5.5.
Air and water films on the steam side can be eradicated by good engineering practice simply by installing a
separator and float trap set in the steam supply prior the control valve. Scale films on the steam side can also
be reduced by fitting strainers in the same line.
Scale on the product side is a little more difficult to treat, but regular cleaning of heat exchangers is sometimes
one solution to this problem. Another way to reduce scaling is to run heat exchangers at lower steam
pressures; this reduces the steam temperature and the tendency for scale to form from the product, especially
if the product is a solution like milk.
Example 2.5.5
Consider a steam to water heat exchanger where the air film, condensate film and scale on the steam side is
0.2 mm thick; on the water side, the water and scale films are 0.05 mm and 0.1 mm thick respectively.
1. Calculate the overall U value (U1) from the conditions shown in Table 2.5.3
Equation 2.5.11
2. Remove the air and the condensate from the steam supply
Now consider the same heat exchanger where the air and condensate have been removed by a separator in
the steam supply.
Calculate U2
It can be seen from U2 that by fitting a separator in the steam supply to this heat exchanger, and assuming that
all air and condensate has been removed from the steam, the thermal transmittance is more than 11 times
greater than the original value.
The thermal transmittance has increased another fourfold by eradicating the scale.
4. Revert to the original conditions but change from steel tube to copper tube of the same thickness.
It can be seen that the greater conductivity offered by the copper over the steel has made very little difference
to the overall thermal transmittance of the heat exchanger, due to the dominating effect of the air and other
fouling factors.
Please note that, in practice, other factors will influence the overall U value, such as the velocities of the steam
and water passing through the heat exchanger tubes or plates, and the combination of heat transfer by
convection and radiation.
Also, it is unlikely that the fitting of a separator and strainer will completely eradicate the presence of air, wet
steam, and scale from inside a heat exchanger. The above calculations are only being shown to highlight the
effects of these on heat transfer. However, any attempt to remove such barriers from the system will generally
prove successful, and is virtually guaranteed to increase heat transfer in steam heating plant and equipment as
soon as this is done.
Rather than having to calculate individual resistances of film barriers, Tables exist showing overall U values for
different types of heat exchange application such as steam coil heating of water or oil. These are
documented in Tutorial 2.10, 'Heating with coils and jackets'.
U values for heat exchangers vary considerably due to factors such as design ('shell and tube' or 'plate and
frame' construction), material of construction, and the type of fluids involved in the heat transfer function.
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