Definition of Curriculum Development

Curriculum development is defined as planned, a purposeful, progressive, and systematic

process to create positive improvements in the educational system. Every tim

e there are changes or developments happening around the world, the school curricula are
affected. There is a need to update them to address the society’s needs.

To illustrate this contention, let’s trace back history.

During the ancient times, people taught their children knowledge and skills to survive by
catching fish or hunting animals for food. They had no formal education during that time, but
their children learned and acquired the knowledge and skills for survival. So, during that time,
they already had a curriculum that other educators call as, the saber-tooth curriculum. This type
of curriculum refers to a kind of curriculum that existed during the ancient times in which the
purpose of teaching was for survival.

However, when the effects of discoveries and inventions became inevitable, ancient people’s
way of life had changed for the better. As a result, education became formal, and curriculum
development evolved as systematic, planned, purposeful and progressive, even today.

Importance of Curriculum Development

Curriculum development has a broad scope because it is not only about the school, the
learners, and the teachers. It is also about the development of society in general.

In today’s knowledge economy, curriculum development plays a vital role in improving the
economy of a country. It also provides answers or solutions to the world’s pressing conditions
and problems, such as environment, politics, socio-economics, and other issues of poverty,
climate change, and sustainable development.

There must be a chain of developmental process to develop a society. First, the school
curriculum, particularly in higher education, must be developed to preserve the country’s
national identity and to ensure its economy’s growth and stability. Thus, the president of a
country must have a clear vision for his people and the country as well.

For instance, in the Philippines, if President Aquino would like the country to become the Asia-
Pacific’s tourism hub, then the school curriculum must be developed along that line. Curricular
programs for higher education can be crafted in such a way that it will boost the tourism
industry. For example, different models may arise such as edu-tourism, eco-tourism, cultural
tourism, medo-tourism, biz-tourism, techno-tourism, agri-tourism, archi-tourism, among
others.
If universities have curricular programs that are innovative and in demand in the local or global
markets, many students even from foreign countries will enroll. A higher number of enrollees
would mean income on the part of the universities. As a result, if the income is big, it can be
used for teachers’ promotion, scholarship, and remuneration. It can also be used in funding
research and development endeavors, and in putting up school facilities, libraries, and
laboratories.

I believe that the country’s economy can improve the people’s way of life through curriculum
development. And to develop it, curriculum experts or specialists should work hand in hand
with lawmakers such as senators and congressmen, the local government officials, governors,
mayors, among others. Likewise, business communities and industries, and other economically
oriented players in society may be engaged in setting and implementing rules and policies for
educational reforms.

Hence, curriculum development matters a lot in setting the direction of change in an

organization, not only at the micro but also at macro levels. As long as the goals and objectives
of curriculum development are clear in the planner’s mind, cutting-edge achievements in
various concerns can be realized.

Reference

Bilbao, P. P., Lucido, P. I., Iringan, T. C., and R. B. Javier (2008). Curriculum development.
Philippines: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

© 2014 December 13 M. G. Alvior

Site reference: https://simplyeducate.me/2014/12/13/the-meaning-and-importance-of-

curriculum-development/
What is Curriculum Development?

Curriculum development is an important part of the education process, ensuring that classes at
all levels, from early childhood to post-secondary, are best designed to help students be
successful in learning the material and gaining the skills needed to continue to advance. With
the right background in developing courses and materials, professionals in the field have
opportunities to create everything from textbooks to tests to lectures.

Early Childhood Curriculum

A number of programs are created in order to help children between birth through the age of
six gain the skills that will be needed to continue on in school and be successful. Curriculum
developers design each part of these programs. Curriculum at this level of education includes
such activities as developing fine motor skills, language acquisition, and literacy skills.

Elementary through Secondary Curriculum

Curriculum development teams for high school, middle school, and elementary schools focus
on similar benchmarks as early childhood, with additional development of skills in other
academic areas such as mathematics, science, and humanities. Course developers will identify
textbooks, create course objectives for each section and class, and sometimes will develop
language for a standardized syllabus to use across a specific school or a school district to ensure
quality and consistency.

Curriculum developers at this level of education are also likely to be a part of the test writing
process at a standardized level. State and college entrance examinations are developed using
existing standards for secondary and elementary education. Curriculum developers craft
questions on these tests to ensure that students are gaining and have mastered concepts and
techniques.

Post-Secondary Curriculum

In many universities and colleges, courses, particularly at the beginning level of an academic
discipline, are designed to be standardized in every class. This helps to ensure that every
student is learning the same material and mastering the same skills to move forward.

In addition, the popularity of online courses is continuing to grow, allowing students in all
situations to complete courses and degree programs. Curriculum developers in these programs
design courses completely for every instructor to implement. This includes creating a syllabus,
lesson presentations, lecture materials, assignments, and more.
Professional Training

Either while in school or after a degree has been completed, many future professionals and
professionals already in the workforce look for certification and other training programs that
allow completion of program that advances specific skill sets. These programs also require
design, and curriculum developers are responsible for creating the information to study as well
as the certification tests.

Education and Experience

The requirements to become a curriculum developer vary greatly by subject, field, and purpose.
One requirement that is most likely needed is to be considered an expert in the discipline in
which the curriculum is being developed. Work experience and an advanced graduate degree
are often required. Additionally, certification or a degree in curriculum development is
preferred or sometimes necessary to qualify for positions. Additional information can be found
on the website for the Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Related Resource: Educational Theory

Designing courses requires skills in developing material that matches the objectives of a class.
Advanced knowledge and experience of an academic subject or professional area of skill are
beneficial in beginning to create courses and work in the field of curriculum development.

Reference: https://www.topeducationdegrees.org/faq/what-is-curriculum-development/
What Is Curriculum Development?

Curriculum development - what is it? It is the organized preparation of whatever is going to be

taught in schools at a given time in a given year. They are made into official documents, as
guides for teachers, and made obligatory by provincial and territorial departments.

Teachers use curricula when trying to see what to teach to students and when, as well as what
the rubrics should be, what kind of worksheets and teacher worksheets they should make,
among other things. It is actually up to the teachers themselves how these rubrics should be
made, how these worksheets should be made and taught; it's all up to the teachers. In a
practical understanding, though, there is no concrete way to say what methodology is right to
use. But it is also true that the way in which a certain topic is taught habitually resolves what is
actually taught. This is why it is required to make a distinction between the official or planned
curriculum and the de facto curriculum; the one that is formal and the one that is actually
taught in schools.

Another topic to be discussed in this article about what curriculum development is that in the
year 1959, there gathered at Woods Hole on Cape Cod a group of 35 scientists, educators, and
scholars with the intention of conversing about how to improve science education, with the
purpose of "examining the fundamental procedure concerned in passing on to students a
intellect of the matter and technique of science" '(Bruner, 1960, p. xvii)' (taken from a
Curriculum Development report done by Judith Howard of the Department of Education in Elon
University) They met for ten days, decided on themes and ideas about education that would
have major implications for both science education and also for education in general. In the
book, The Process of Education, Jerome Bruner discussed an account of the more important
themes and conclusions that had emerged from that meeting. The chapter which discusses the
importance of structure is one which speaks most directly about the development of
curriculum, though the whole book is worth reading and rereading.

What was done at that conference was the creation of the structural theme that helped in the
development of the focal points of curricula. The basic structures, which were developed to
help, in turn, in the development of curricula in the aforementioned meeting, are comprised of
vital ideas, like "supply and demand" (economics), "conflict" (history), or energy (physics), as
well as the relationships between them. Such notions, when comprehended, make sure that
students are able to be aware of many of the phenomena in that regulation as well as other
analogous phenomena that may have been tackled in other places.

That report which this was information was taken from, has also referenced another author
who discussed curriculum development a decade earlier than Jerome Bruner, named Ralph
Tyler, who did so in his model text on curriculum development. His work was centered on the
following four ideas:
1. To determine what educational principles must be reached by schools

2. The best way of deciding what kinds of learning experiences are apt to be valuable in
reaching these objectives

3. The best way of putting in order familiarity of learning for effective instruction

4. The best way of evaluating aforementioned familiarity of learning (learning experiences)

Finally, to review, what is curriculum development? It is the idea of organized preparation of

what should be taught to students at a given time in a given year. They are made into certified
documents, as guides to teachers, and made mandatory.

Reference: http://www.teach-nology.com/edleadership/curriculum_development/
Elements of Curriculum Development

Tue, 12/25/2012 - 05:59 -- Umar Farooq

There are five key elements of curriculum development , according to Tyler “it is essential as a
part of comprehensive theory of organization to show just what are the elements will serve
satisfactory as organizing elements.” According to Herrick and Tyler, following are the
components and elements of curriculum development

1. Situational analysis
2. Formulation of objectives
3. Selection of content, scope and sequence
4. Activities, strategies and method of teaching
5. Evaluation

Situational Analysis

Situational analysis means the analysis of different conditions such as emotional, political,
cultural, religious and geographical condition of a country. This will help the curriculum
planners in the selection of objectives, selection of organization of learning materials and in
suggesting appropriate evaluation procedure.

Formulation of Objectives

There are four main factors for formulating the objectives of education. These are

1. The society
2. The knowledge
3. The learner
4. The learning process

All of these factors are to be considered while selecting and formulating the educational
objectives.

Selection of Content

One of the important elements is the selection of content for a subject. At the time of subject
matter selection, the following factors are to be kept in mind:

1. Available sources and resource

2. Demand of the society
3. International needs
 4. Level and age of the learner or student
5. Methods of content organization
6. Number of courses offered
7. Quantity and qualification of teaching staff
8. Scope of subject matter
9. System of examination
10. Type of society and culture

Strategies and Method of Teaching

These are strategies and methods of teaching adopted by the teachers during instruction and
learning experiences. This will certainly not fair to ask a teacher for achieving certain objectives
without giving any guidelines. In most of the countries curriculum development is a centralized
process. Teachers are not directly involved in this phase. Most of the teachers do not know the
process of achieving desired goals. After determining the goals and objectives the next problem
is the selection of strategies and methods of teachers. What we should give to our students.
Should a curriculum be fixed or flexible, constant, common or differentiated?

Evaluation

Evaluation is one of the dynamic process, which needs a continuous research and evaluation for
its betterment in order to cope with the variable demands of the society and bring about
desirable changes. Curriculum evaluation is not a student evaluation. It is a broader term being
used to make judgment about the worth and effectiveness of it. With the help of evaluation
phase experts can modify the curriculum by bringing about desirable changes.

Reference: http://www.studylecturenotes.com/social-sciences/education/384-elements-of-
curriculum-development
Teaching, learning, assessment, curriculum and pedagogy

Teaching, learning and assessment are aspects of the curriculum for which lecturers take
responsibility. Having a shared understanding of these aspects is important. Definitions of these
aspects are given below:

Teaching can be defined as engagement with learners to enable their understanding and
application of knowledge, concepts and processes. It includes design, content selection,
delivery, assessment and reflection.

To teach is to engage students in learning; thus teaching consists of getting students involved in
the active construction of knowledge. A teacher requires not only knowledge of subject matter,
but knowledge of how students learn and how to transform them into active learners. Good
teaching, then, requires a commitment to systematic understanding of learning. The aim of
teaching is not only to transmit information, but also to transform students from passive
recipients of other people's knowledge into active constructors of their own and others'
knowledge. The teacher cannot transform without the student's active participation, of course.
Teaching is fundamentally about creating the pedagogical, social, and ethical conditions under
which students agree to take charge of their own learning, individually and collectively.
[ Education for judgment: The artistry of discussion leadership. Edited by C. Roland Christensen,
David A. Garvin, and Ann Sweet. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School, 1991. ]

Learning can be defined as the activity or process of gaining knowledge or skill by studying,
practicing, being taught, or experiencing something (Merriam-Webster dictionary). Learning is
about what students do, not about what we as teachers do.

Assessment is defined as the act of judging the amount of learning that took place as a result of
learning and teaching.

According to the UNESCO website, curriculum has various meanings and can be envisaged
from different perspectives. The following description is useful:

What societies envisage as important teaching and learning constitutes the "intended"
curriculum. Since it is usually presented in official documents, it may be also called the "written"
and/or "official" curriculum. However, at classroom level this intended curriculum may be
altered through a range of complex classroom interactions, and what is actually delivered can
be considered the "implemented" curriculum. What learners really learn (i.e. what can be
assessed and can be demonstrated as learning outcomes/learner competencies) constitutes the
"achieved" or "learned" curriculum. In addition, curriculum theory points to a "hidden"
curriculum (i.e. the unintended development of personal values and beliefs of learners, teachers
and communities; unexpected impact of a curriculum; unforeseen aspects of a learning process).
Those who develop the intended curriculum should have all these different dimensions of the
curriculum in view. While the "written" curriculum does not exhaust the meaning of curriculum,
it is important because it represents the vision of the society. The "written" curriculum should
therefore be expressed in comprehensive and user-friendly documents, such as curriculum
frameworks; subject curricula/syllabuses, and in relevant and helpful learning materials, such as
textbooks; teacher guides; assessment guides.

In some cases, people see the curriculum entirely in terms of the subjects that are taught, and as
set out within the set of textbooks, and forget the wider goals of competencies and personal
development. This is why a curriculum framework is important. It sets the subjects within this
wider context, and shows how learning experiences within the subjects need to contribute to the
attainment of the wider goals.

All these documents and the issues they refer to form a "curriculum system". Given their guiding
function for education agents and stakeholders, clear, inspired and motivational curriculum
documents and materials play an important role in ensuring education quality. The involvement
of stakeholders (including and especially teachers), in the development of the written curriculum
is of paramount importance for ensuring ownership and sustainability of curriculum processes.

Source: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/strengthening-education-
systems/quality-framework/technical-notes/different-meaning-of-curriculum/

Another term that might become part of the discourse when these elements are discussed is
'pedagogy'. This term refers to the methods and activities of the practice of teaching.
Curriculum Development and The 3 Models Explained

By Amanda Stutt • October 25, 2018

This article will explain what curriculum development is, why it’s important for an instructor’s
pedagogy and discuss the three different types of curriculum design.

Curriculum development can be defined as the step-by-step process used to create positive
improvements in the courses offered by a school, college or university. The world changes
every day and new discoveries have to be roped into the education curricula. Innovative
teaching techniques and strategies (such as active learning or blended learning) are constantly
being devised in order to improve the student learning experience. As a result, an institution
has to have a plan in place for acknowledging these shifts and then be able to implement them
in the school curriculum.

What is curriculum development?

The word curriculum has roots in Latin. It originally meant “racing chariot” and came from the
verb currere, “to run”.

The way we understand and theorize about curriculum nowadays has altered significantly over
the years. Today, the most simple definition of the word “curriculum” is the subjects comprising
a course of study at schools, universities or colleges

Of course differences in course design exist—a math course taken at one university may cover
the same material, but the educator could teach it in a different way—but the core
fundamentals of curriculum development remain the same.

What are the models of curriculum development?

Current curriculum models can be broken down into two broad categories—the product model
and the process model. The product model is results-oriented. Grades are the prime objective,
with the focus lying more on the finished product rather than on the learning process. The
process model, however, is more open-ended, and focuses on how learning develops over a
period of time. These two models need to be taken into account when developing curriculum.

What is curriculum planning?

Curriculum planning involves the implementation of different types of instructional strategies

and organizational methods that are focused on achieving optimal student development and
student learning outcomes. Instructors might structure their curriculum around daily lesson
plans, a specific assignment, a chunk of coursework, certain units within a class, or an entire
educational program.

During the curriculum planning phase, teachers consider factors that might complement or
hinder their lesson curriculum. These include institutional requirements. Each administrator at
a university or college will have guidelines, principles and a framework that instructors are
required to reference as they build out their curriculums. Educators are responsible for
ensuring that their curriculum planning meets the students’ educational needs, and that the
materials used are current and comprehensible.

Educators should employ the curriculum process that best incorporates the six components of
effective teaching. These components are applicable at both the undergraduate and graduate
level:

 To demonstrate knowledge of content;

 To demonstrate the knowledge of students;
 Select suitable instructional strategy goals;
 To demonstrate knowledge of resources;
 To design coherent instruction;
 Assess student learning.

What is curriculum design?

Now that we’ve gone over curriculum development and planning, let’s discuss
curriculum design. Curriculum design is the deliberate organization of curriculum within
a course or classroom. When instructors design their curriculums, they identity what will
be done, who will do it and when, as well as what the objective of each course is.
Remember that the curriculum contains the knowledge and skills that a student needs
to master in order to move to the next level. By thinking about how their curriculum is
designed, teachers ensure they’ve covered all the necessary requirements. From there,
they can start exploring various approaches and teaching methods that can help them
achieve their goals.

What are the types of curriculum design?

There are three basic types of curriculum design—subject-centered, learner-centered,

and problem-centered design.
Subject-centered curriculum design revolves around a particular subject matter or
discipline, such as mathematics, literature or biology. This type of curriculum design
tends to focus on the subject, rather than the student. It is the most common type of
standardized curriculum that can be found in K-12 public schools.
Teachers compile lists of subjects, and specific examples of how they should be studied.
In higher education, this methodology is typically found in large university or college
classes where teachers focus on a particular subject or discipline.

Subject-centered curriculum design is not student-centered, and the model is less

concerned with individual learning styles compared to other forms of curriculum design.
This can lead to problems with student engagement and motivation and may cause
students who are not responsive to this model to fall behind.

Learner-centered curriculum design, by contrast, revolves around student needs,

interests and goals. It acknowledges that students are not uniform but individuals, and
therefore should not, in all cases, be subject to a standardized curriculum. This approach
aims to empower learners to shape their education through choices.

Differentiated instructional plans provide an opportunity to select assignments, teaching

and learning experiences, or activities. This form of curriculum design has been shown
to engage and motivate students. The drawback to this form of curriculum design is that
it can create pressure on the educator to source materials specific to each student’s
learning needs. This can be challenging due to teaching time constraints. Balancing
individual student interests with the institution’s required outcomes could prove to be a
daunting task.

Problem-centered curriculum design teaches students how to look at a problem and

formulate a solution. Considered an authentic form of learning because students are
exposed to real-life issues, this model helps students develop skills that are transferable
to the real world. Problem-centered curriculum design has been shown to increase the
relevance of the curriculum and encourages creativity, innovation and collaboration in
the classroom. The drawback to this format is that it does not always consider individual
learning styles.

By considering all three types of curriculum design before they begin planning,
instructors can choose the types that are best suited to both their students and their
course.

Conclusion

Developing, designing and implementing an education curriculum is no easy task. With

the rise of educational technology and the diverse types of students attending higher
educational institutions these days, instructors have their work cut out for them. But by
following the fundamental guidelines and framework of curriculum development,
educators will be setting themselves — and their students — up for long-term success.
Reference: https://tophat.com/blog/curriculum-development-models-design/

Curriculum Design: Definition, Purpose and Types

by Karen Schweitzer

Updated January 03, 2019

Curriculum design is a term used to describe the purposeful, deliberate, and systematic
organization of curriculum (instructional blocks) within a class or course. In other words, it is a
way for teachers to plan instruction. When teachers design curriculum, they identify what will
be done, who will do it, and what schedule to follow.

Purpose of Curriculum Design

Teachers design each curriculum with a specific educational purpose in mind. The ultimate goal
is to improve student learning, but there are other reasons to employ curriculum design as well.
For example, designing a curriculum for middle school students with both elementary and high
school curricula in mind helps to make sure that learning goals are aligned and complement
each other from one stage to the next. If a middle school curriculum is designed without taking
prior knowledge from elementary school or future learning in high school into account it can
create real problems for the students.

Types of Curriculum Design

There are three basic types of curriculum design:

 Subject-centered design
 Learner-centered design
 Problem-centered design

Subject-Centered Curriculum Design

Subject-centered curriculum design revolves around a particular subject matter or discipline.

For example, a subject-centered curriculum may focus on math or biology. This type of
curriculum design tends to focus on the subject rather than the individual. It is the most
common type of curriculum used in K-12 public schools in states and local districts in the United
States.

Subject-centered curriculum design describes what needs to be studied and how it should be
studied. Core curriculum is an example of a subject-centered design which can be standardized
across schools, states, and the country as a whole. In standardized core curricula, teachers are
provided a pre-determined list of things that they need to teach their students, along with
specific examples of how these things should be taught. You can also find subject-centered
designs in large college classes in which teachers focus on a particular subject or discipline.

The primary drawback of subject-centered curriculum design is that it is not student-centered.

In particular, this form of curriculum design is constructed without taking into account the
specific learning styles of the students. This can cause problems with student engagement and
motivation and may even cause students to fall behind in class.

Learner-Centered Curriculum Design

In contrast, learner-centered curriculum design takes each individual's needs, interests, and
goals into consideration. In other words, it acknowledges that students are not uniform and
adjusts to those student needs. Learner-centered curriculum design is meant to empower
learners and allow them to shape their education through choices.

Instructional plans in a learner-centered curriculum are differentiated, giving students the

opportunity to choose assignments, learning experiences or activities. This can motivate
students and help them stay engaged in the material that they are learning.

The drawback to this form of curriculum design is that it is labor intensive. Developing
differentiated instruction puts pressure on the teacher to create instruction and/or find
materials that are conducive to each student's learning needs. Teachers may not have the time
or may lack the experience or skills to create such a plan. Learner-centered curriculum design
also requires that teachers balance student wants and interests with student needs and
required outcomes, which is not an easy balance to obtain.

Problem-Centered Curriculum Design

Like learner-centered curriculum design, problem-centered curriculum design is also a form of

student-centered design. Problem-centered curricula focus on teaching students how to look at
a problem and come up with a solution to the problem. Students are thus exposed to real-life
issues, which helps them develop skills that are transferable to the real world.

Problem-centered curriculum design increases the relevance of the curriculum and allows
students to be creative and innovate as they are learning. The drawback to this form of
curriculum design is that it does not always take learning styles into consideration.

Curriculum Design Tips

The following curriculum design tips can help educators manage each stage of the curriculum
design process.
  Identify the needs of stakeholders (i.e., students) early on in the curriculum design
process. This can be done through needs analysis, which involves the collection and
analysis of data related to the learner. This data might include what learners already
know and what they need to know to be proficient in a particular area or skill. It may
also include information about learner perceptions, strengths, and weaknesses.
 Create a clear list of learning goals and outcomes. This will help you to focus on the
intended purpose of the curriculum and allow you to plan instruction that can achieve
the desired results. Learning goals are the things teachers want students to achieve in
the course. Learning outcomes are the measurable knowledge, skills, and attitudes that
students should have achieved in the course.
 Identify constraints that will impact your curriculum design. For example, time is a
common constraint that must be considered. There are only so many hours, days, weeks
or months in the term. If there isn't enough time to deliver all of the instruction that has
been planned, it will impact learning outcomes.

 Consider creating a curriculum map (also known as a curriculum matrix) so that you can
properly evaluate the sequence and coherence of instruction. Curriculum mapping
provides visual diagrams or indexes of a curriculum. Analyzing a visual representation of
the curriculum is a good way to quickly and easily identify potential gaps, redundancies
or alignment issues in the sequencing of instruction. Curriculum maps can be created on
paper or with software programs or online services designed specifically for this
purpose.
 Identify the instructional methods that will be used throughout the course and consider
how they will work with student learning styles. If the instructional methods are not
conducive to the curriculum, the instructional design or the curriculum design will need
to be altered accordingly.
 Establish evaluation methods that will be used at the end and during the school year to
assess learners, instructors, and the curriculum. Evaluation will help you determine if
the curriculum design is working or if it is failing. Examples of things that should be
evaluated include the strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum and achievement
rates related to learning outcomes. The most effective evaluation is ongoing and
summative.

 Remember that curriculum design is not a one-step process; continuous improvement

is a necessity. The design of the curriculum should be assessed periodically and refined
based on assessment data. This may involve making alterations to the design part way
through the course to ensure that learning outcomes or a certain level of proficiency will
be achieved at the end of the course.

Reference: https://www.thoughtco.com/curriculum-design-definition-4154176
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE CURRICULUM

4.1 Teaching Strategies

4.1.1 LEARNING TARGETS

Each subject can be broken down into a number of modules. For example, perceptual training
and motor co-ordination are essential modules in the subject of Perceptual Motor Training. The
teacher might need to translate these modules into concrete learning targets for actual
teaching in the classroom.

It will be more beneficial to the children if these learning targets are defined in terms of
different types of outcome such as skills, behaviour, knowledge, attitudes, values and interests.

4.1.2 STEPS FOR PLANNING LEARNING TARGETS

The teacher can plan the learning targets that make up the modules in the following four basic
steps:

(1) Specifying Learning Targets in

Behavioural Terms

All learning targets should be expressed in observable behaviour or skills. For example, when
instructed, the children are to button up their shirts with six buttons for four times. Each
learning target in its written form should contain the following elements :

(a)
Target Behaviour ─ This is the behaviour that the children are
expected to achieve after learning or mastering the target.
(b) Pre-requisite Skills ─ These are the basic skills that the children
should have mastered before learning other more difficult skills.
(c) Instruction and Materials Required ─ This refers to the instruction
and materials required for teaching. The conditions under which the
instruction should be given may sometimes be included.
(d)
Criteria of Success ─ This refers to the number of successful
 performances of a target skill required out of a fixed number of
attempts before the target skill is considered to have been
mastered by the children.
(2) Setting Teaching Priorities

A very important part of curriculum implementation is that the teacher should consider
carefully the order in which learning targets should be learnt. It is logical to put learning targets
requiring lower level skills before those requiring higher level skills, for example, teaching the
children to draw lines before teaching them to write. In some cases, the targets themselves
may form a definite sequence or hierarchy when the skills actually come in a continuous or
chained sequence, for example, putting on a shirt and buttoning it up. Some higher level targets
can be learnt more quickly after the pre-requisite skills have been mastered. For example,
learning to write will become easier when eye-hand co-ordination skill has been acquired. It
follows that unrelated targets can be learnt in any order.

(3) Specifying

Baseline Assessment Procedures

This is the specification of the procedures to identify the current skill level or the pre-requisite
skills of the children. The assessment enables the teacher to know whether or not the children
have acquired the pre-requisite skills required for learning the target. (Refer to Sections 4.5 -
4.5.4 for details)

(4) Procedures for Writing Programmes to Teach Target Skills

With the pre-requisite skills of the children known, the teacher can then design learning
materials to help them achieve the target skills. The learning materials should be designed in
small steps and in order of difficulty. The teacher should choose the appropriate step for the
children according to their pre-requisite skills, so as to bridge the gap between their pre-
requisite skills and the target skills.

4.1.3 TEACHING APPROACHES

To teach target skills effectively, the following teaching approaches are suggested :

(1)

Modelling

Children learn by imitating other people's behaviour. Modelling therefore

underlies most of the learning activities. The teacher can either
demonstrate the behaviour to be learnt or point out the target behaviour
performed by other children and encourage the children to imitate it.
(2)

Task Analysis

Task analysis is a way to break down target skills into smaller steps
according to the children's abilities and learning needs. The teacher can
then teach the steps in a planned sequence. Task analysis should be used
with flexibility to help the children with further difficulties in learning the
planned steps. The technique can also be applied to a blocking step to
further break down the planned steps into even smaller steps for easier
learning. Once the difficulty is overcome, the original teaching steps can
be resumed until the target skill is achieved.

(3)

Chaining

This means breaking down a target skill into a series of steps to describe
the action to be performed in sequence. The sequence can be written in
a forward or backward order, depending on the nature of the target skill
to be learnt. For example, most dressing and undressing skills can be
taught by chaining. The more effective approach to teach dressing skills is
backward chaining because this would ensure that the children will be
able to complete the task. Forward chaining would be more appropriate
in teaching target skills such as operating a washing machine or writing
one’s own name.

(4)

Discrimination Learning

When the target skill to be learnt involves choosing the right answer,
discrimination learning is a more effective approach. For example, a child
is given several choices (including some distractors) from which to pick
out the correct answer. In this approach, it is necessary to control both
the characteristics and the number of the distractors used. At the initial
stage, the difference between the distractors and the target choice
should be as great as possible and the number of distractors used should
be as small as possible. That means the strength of the distractors should
be low (e.g. a circle and a big square, then a circle and a square, and
finally a circle and an eclipse). As the child begins to master the initial
step, the number of distractors used can be increased gradually.

(5)
 Information Gathering

Children may sometimes lack the information required to analyse the

problems they encounter. The teacher should teach them to gather
relevant information from various sources, e.g. teachers, parents,
newspapers or the library and help them develop a more objective and
systematic way to deal with problems. Activities, such as organizing a
birthday party or a picnic, would help the children understand the
procedures of information gathering and its importance.

(6)

Induction

This is an approach to help the children form a holistic concept from the
characteristics of different things. The children are thus trained to
observe the various characteristics of things --their similarities,
differences as well as relationships and then exercise induction.

(7)

Discussion

This approach is often used in group teaching. Through discussions, the

children learn to look into problems and are thus motivated to think.
Through discussions, they express their own views and at the same time
listen to other children's views, so that they can review their own. The
teacher needs to ensure that each child is given equal opportunity to
participate in discussions. Thus, discussions can promote greater
interaction among the children. More important still, they help the
children to realise the importance of accepting other people's views
while expressing their own.

The following are ways to teach target skills :

(1)

Prompting

This skill can be used at any stage of the programme. There are various kinds of
prompts : physical guidance, physical prompts, gestures, verbal prompts, eye
pointing, etc. Prompts should only be used when required and should be faded
out as soon as the children demonstrate certain degree of mastery.
 (2)

Shaping

This refers to the increase in precision in the behaviour to be performed. It

involves successive approximation of the target behaviour. Another aspect of
shaping which is not so obvious is the shaping of the target behaviour by
manipulating the materials used. An example of this is teaching the children to
thread a needle with a big eye using thick thread and then gradually increasing
the precision by using an ordinary needle and sewing thread.

(3)

Fading

This means gradual removal of the various prompts as the children begin to
master the target behaviour. At the initial stage, the teacher can use prompts
with more help . Then at a later stage , he can use prompts with less help. One
common example is the gradual removal of the strokes of a word when teaching
the children to write.

(4)

Generalization

When the children know how to apply the knowledge or skills they have
acquired to new situations, they have achieved generalization. The ultimate
purpose of generalization is to reinforce the children's social adjustment. For
example, when a child applies the table manners he has learnt at school to the
environment of his home or a restaurant , generalization is achieved.

The following are important considerations in formulating teaching approaches for MH children
:

(1) Observing the children’s behaviour, planning goals and targets

appropriate to their ages, levels of development and interests and
building on their areas of strength;
(2) Using situations familiar to the children and those which they can
experience in their everyday life;
(3) Using activities which are as practical as possible;
(4) Making the children feel secure and willing to express themselves
and giving them opportunities to learn by doing;
(5) Breaking down a task into simple steps to facilitate learning;
(6) Providing the children with opportunities for direct sensory contact,
for manipulating real objects or relating learning experiences to real
life situations;
(7) Using various media extensively and varying the teaching
approaches and techniques according to individual learning needs;
(8) Using encouragement and reward to reinforce the children's
motivation to learn.

4.1.4 GROUP TEACHING

Quite often, the teacher is faced with a class of mixed abilities or with different behaviour
problems. He will have to teach them in groups or individually. The following are some
suggested forms of grouping :

(1) Small Group Teaching

Small group teaching means splitting the class into different

ability groups and teaching the children with different
approaches. This would help the children learn by imitating and
helping each other and apply what they have learnt to other
situations. Small group teaching also helps to reinforce the
children's ability to communicate and co-operate with each other.
Take the teaching of colour concept for instance. The teacher can
set the children's baselines according to assessment results and
split the class into three groups as follows:

(a) Junior group － In this group, the concept of red and

blue colours is taught. The children are taught
through a matching game to put the cubes into boxes
of corresponding colours.
(b) Intermediate group － In this group, the concept of
red, yellow, blue and green colours is taught with one
type of teaching aid, such as cubes. The children are
asked to pass cubes of the same colour to the
teacher and name the colour after him.
(c) Senior group － In this group, the concept of red,
yellow, blue, green, black and white colours is taught
with different types of teaching aids which include
cubes, beads, Lego, etc. The children are asked to
pick up different things of the same colour and name
the colour when the teacher picks up one thing. If the
 children can name the colour correctly, the teacher
will ask them to pick out things of the same colour
from the cupboard according to instructions.

(2) Individual Teaching

This allows learning materials to be tailored to meet the specific

needs of individual children. The teacher can focus his attention
exclusively on individual children and likewise the children only
need to attend to one teacher and one set of learning materials
during this period.

4.1.5 ONGOING RECORD-KEEPING

A comprehensive curriculum design should include ongoing assessment and a clear record of
progress. This will ensure that teaching procedures will be consistent and continuous. This
consistency and continuity will in turn ensure that the planned programmes will match the
actual progress of the children.(Refer to Sections 4.5 for details)

4.2 Organization of Resources

Successful curriculum development also depends upon the effective utilization of resources in
the school and in the community, particularly human resources.

All members of staff can contribute to curriculum development in terms of knowledge and
experience. Through regular contacts with the children, the teacher can identify the range of
knowledge, concepts, skills and attitudes which need to be developed in them. His
understanding of the children's learning needs will enable him to see the different parts of the
curriculum as an integral whole. It is therefore essential to involve all teachers in curriculum
development.

Specialist staff such as

educational psychologists,

speech therapists,

occupational therapists,

physiotherapists,
social workers, etc. should also be encouraged to contribute to the enrichment of the
curriculum. They should be encouraged to suggest how existing programmes can be adapted to
meet the needs of children with additional handicaps. The joint involvement of professionals of
different disciplines in curriculum development will foster the co-operation between the school
and related professionals.

Parents are also valuable resources of the school. They should be encouraged to participate in
curriculum development and to follow-up at home on what their children have learnt at school,
thus reinforcing their learning. This joint effort between the school and the parents will
contribute much to the education of the children.

The effective use of space in the school helps to develop in the children an awareness,
understanding and appreciation of their surroundings. Physical constraints can be overcome by
careful planning and flexible utilization of teaching bases and common areas. Arrangements
within the classroom can be varied to suit different teaching purposes.

Community resources should be utilized for teaching purposes as well. Appropriate use of these
resources will help to enhance the children's understanding of the people around them, their
role in society and the relationship between people and their environment. Therefore, facilities
available in the community should be used or introduced to the children to enrich their life
experiences.

4.3 Time Allocation

Time allocation is one of the major concerns in curriculum planning. It is for individual schools
to decide how the curriculum is to be organized in terms of content and time allocation.
Basically, flexibility should be allowed so that the varied needs of different schools, classes and
individual children can be met.

In designing a time-table, apart from classroom availability, options, etc. other variables such as
the children's abilities and learning needs, should be given prior consideration.

At different stages of development, the children require different skills to help them cope with
those needs which are characteristic of a particular developmental stage. Priority of learning
should therefore be given to these skills and emphasis in training should vary according to the
present and future goals of these children. The understanding of the children’s needs will
facilitate time-table arrangements, with due weight given to various subject areas.

Apart from basic and functional academics, the children also need to develop their capacity to
respond appropriately to sensory and social experiences, regardless of their ages and abilities.
This involves the exploration and understanding of aesthetic and creative experiences, which
may be integrated in any part of the curriculum. Music, Art and Craft and Physical Education
contribute particularly to such development. The children also need to acquire these skills as
leisure time activities. In considering the allocation of time to these areas of learning for both
the junior and senior sections of the school, similar emphasis should be given.

Apart from basic and functional academics, the children also need to develop their capacity to
respond appropriately to sensory and social experiences, regardless of their ages and abilities.
This involves the exploration and understanding of aesthetic and creative experiences, which
may be integrated in any part of the curriculum. Music, Art and Craft and Physical Education
contribute particularly to such development. The children also need to acquire these skills as
leisure time activities. In considering the allocation of time to these areas of learning for both
the junior and senior sections of the school, similar emphasis should be given.

4.4 Classroom Arrangements

Classroom arrangements should provide a favourable environment and atmosphere conducive

to learning. This requires good planning in the use of space, arrangement of furniture, display of
learning materials, etc. Flexibility should be allowed so that the arrangements can vary
according to the type of learning activity adopted at the time. For example, desks and chairs
can be arranged in groups rather than in straight lines so that the children can work in groups of
various sizes according to their different abilities and learning needs.

To provide the children with maximum exposure to a diversity of learning environment and
experiences, the following learning corners/interest areas are suggested as possible variations :

o reading corner
o creative work area
o nature corner
o self-care corner
o educational toys corner / toys resources room
(Press Ctrl or Shift Key to zoom in /out)
o role play area
o home bay
o display area

These learning corners and interest areas serve different purposes. For example, the reading
corner is for the display of light reading materials for casual reading; the educational toys
corner is for the children to learn through play; the nature corner serves to nurture in the
children the love of plants and animals as well as the way to look after them and the creative
work area helps with the development of creativity in the children. The children should be
asked to remember where the various materials are kept and to put them back after use.
Therefore, these learning corners and interest areas can provide them with a wide range of
learning experiences.
To enhance the learning environment, display boards are valuable display areas for the
children's work, group projects, charts, diagrams, photos, cut-outs from newspapers or
magazines, etc. all of which have much to contribute to the children's learning and enhance
their sense of achievement. The following is an example of classroom arrangements:

4.5 Assessment

A well-structured curriculum should enable the school to follow a procedure of teaching

intervention, incorporating assessment, programme planning and evaluation. To achieve this
aim, criterion-referenced assessment designed by the teacher is recommended.

Assessment should not be seen as something external to the learning process or something
added on at the end of a learning sequence simply for administrative purposes or as a means of
reporting to parents. Rather, it is an integral part of effective learning, whereby the children are
provided with feedback on their progress. The teacher should plan in his scheme of work the
learning experiences which he will provide for the children. Similarly, as part of his scheme of
work, he should also plan the assessment of the children’s progress.
4.5.1 Purposes of Assessments:

(a) To identify the children's learning needs;

(b) To help the teacher plan educational programmes for the children;
(c) To indicate which specific educational objectives have or have not
been achieved;
(d) To serve as continuous evaluation.

4.5.2 Process in Assessment:

(a) Identifying the children's learning needs;

(b) Assessing the children's baselines in specific subjects and
establishing their pre-requisite skills;
(c) Setting learning objectives;
(d) Implementing curriculum programmes;
(e) Implementing curriculum programmes;
(f) Evaluating the effectiveness of curriculum programmes & Making
adaptations to curriculum programmes.

4.5.3 Assessment Flow Chart

The following flow chart will illustrate the assessment process :

4.5.4 Methods of Assessment

When evaluating the children's performance in terms of specific criteria set, the teacher has to
analyse the curriculum and the method of instruction used before he can develop appropriate
assessment to identify the children's learning needs. As the teacher knows the children better,
he is in a better position to assess their learning needs.

In order to gather relevant information and collect observational data, assessment designed by
the teacher should be used to measure the children's specific skills and abilities. The
assessment may be in the form of checklists, paper-pencil tests, interviews or observation of
the children engaged in activities. They should be individually administered both at the
beginning and at the end of the teaching period, so that the children's progress can be
measured. The assessment results will then reflect the children's strengths and weaknesses.
Assessment is thus an important part of the teaching process.

4.6 A Whole-School Appoach to Curriculum Development

4.6.1 Step to be Taken in Curriculum Development

To ensure the quality of education, schools should be actively involved in curriculum

development and implementation. Curriculum development involves the following steps:

(1) Identifying the learning needs of the children;

(2) Setting priorities in these learning needs for curriculum
development;
(3) Searching and retrieving resources from within and outside the
school;
(4) Designing curriculum programmes;
(5) Implementing curriculum programmes;
(6) Evaluating the effectiveness of curriculum programmes;
(7) Making adaptations to curriculum programmes.

4.6.2 Whole School Approach at Macro and Micro Levels

As schools differ from each other in terms of the needs of their children, resources available,
the environment, the competence of their teachers, etc., a whole-school approach to
curriculum development at a macro or micro level will help to achieve educational efficacy.

From a macro and administrative point of view, the head of school and teachers should not be
the only persons responsible for the design and implementation of the curriculum. Other
professionals such as school social workers, educational psychologists, speech therapists,
occupational therapists, physiotherapists and nurses working in the school and parents should
also participate in curriculum development. The valuable professional knowledge, experiences
and opinions of each specialist group not only help to make the curriculum more relevant, but
also serve as a kind of in-service training for all concerned. With this team approach to
curriculum development, the professionals involved can have a better understanding of
curriculum development through actual participation. This will also guarantee the quality as
well as quantity of the curriculum planned and might possibly reduce the gap between the
planned and the actual progress of the children. Besides, a cross-curriculum approach can also
be adopted in curriculum development, e.g. development across such subjects as Language,
Mathematics and General Studies. The development can also be across levels, e.g. at the
primary level or secondary level, in the whole school or for all autistic children in the school. In
fact, the school-based curriculum development and TOC at present tried out in schools are such
concepts put into practice.

If schools are presently not ready for the implementation of this whole-school approach to
curriculum development at a macro level, they can start at a micro level. For example, several
teachers can jointly undertake the design of curriculum materials in one subject for a group of
children. When ready, this mode of implementation can be extended to a macro level.

To facilitate the development, a good working atmosphere is necessary, under which all
teaching and specialist staff are encouraged to co-operate with and rely upon each other for
sharing of knowledge and experience. Regular channels of communication such as case
conferences, staff seminars, bulletins, etc. should be used to facilitate such sharing. It is also
important that initiative and participation should be encouraged at all levels.

REFERENCE: https://cd.edb.gov.hk/la_03/chi/curr_guides/Mentally/em-4.htm
STAKEHOLDERS IN CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION
Charisse Dela Cruz
Updated 23 September 2015

The home is the extended school environment. In lifelong learning, the achieved learning in
schools are transferred at home. thus, the home becomes the laboratory of learning. Parents
see to it that what children learn in school are practiced at home. they follow up lessons, they
make available materials for learning and they give permission for the participation of their
children.

Learners have more dynamic participation from the planning, designing, implementing and
evaluating. However, the degree of their involvement is dependent on their maturity. the older
they are in high school or college, the more they participate. From another angle, whether
learners are in the elementary or college level, they can make or break curriculum
implementation by their active or non-involvement. Afterall, learners together with the
teachers, place action to the curriculum.

Other stakeholders in Curriculum Implementation and Development

NON-GOVERNMENT AGENCIES

DepEd, TESDA,

CHED

The school composed of parents who are positively involved in school activities have better
achievement than schools with uninvolved parents. Disciplinary problems are minimal, and
students are highly motivated. When parents take interest in their child's learning, they become
closer to the school.

STAKEHOLDERS IN CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION

Community as the Curriculum Resources and a Learning Environment

Stakeholders are individuals or institutions that are interested in the curriculum.

Teachers are curricularists.

Teachers are the stakeholders who plan, design, teachers, implement and evaluate the
curriculum. No doubt, the most important person in curriculum implementation is the teacher.
Teachers' influence upon learners cannot be measured. Teachers should have full knowledge of
the program philosophy, content and components of curriculum and ways of teaching.

MAKING A DECISION WHETHER TO CONTINUE, MODIFY OR TERMINATE THE CURRICULUM

Learners are at the core of the curriculum

CHOOSING THE MATERIALS THAT ARE NECESSARY FOR THE ACTIVITY

HOW DO PARENTS HELP SHAPE THE CURRICULUM IN SCHOOLS?

Parents may not directly be involved in curriculum implementation, but they are formidable
partners for the success of any curriculum development endeavor.

CHOOSING THE ACTIVITIES AND THE METHODS TO BE UTILIZED

It is true that the school is in the community, hence the community is the extended school
ground, a learning environment. All the barangay leaders, the elders, others citizens and
residents of the community have a stake in the curriculum.

Some of the roles that the teachers do in curriculum implementation are:

GOVERNMENT AGENCIES

A school curriculum, whether big or small are influenced by many stakeholders. Each one has a
contribution and influence in what should replace, modify, substitute the current curriculum.
Each one has a significant mark in specific development and change process of curriculum
development.

Metrobank

Foundation

At the end f the curriculum development process, the fundamental question asked is: Have the
students learned?

GUIDING, FACILITATING AND DIRECTING THE ACTIVITIES OF THE LEARNERS

Why do curricularists place a lot of premium on the students?

It is because, the learners make the curriculum alive. A written curriculum that does
notconsider the students, will have a little chance to succeed.
Schools need to listen to parents' concerns about school curriculum like textbooks, school
activities, grading systems and others. Schools have one way of engaging parents cooperation
through Brigada Eskwela. In this event, parents will be able to know the situation in the school.
Most often parents volunteer to help. They can also be tapped in various co-curricular
activities.

Local Government Units (LGU)

School leaders are curriculum managers

Parents are significant school partners. Besides the students, teachers and administrators,
parents play an important role in curriculum implementation.

A teacher design, enriches and modifies the curriculum to suit the learners' characteristics. As
curriculum developers, teachers are part of textbook committees, teacher selection, school
evaluation committee or textbooks and module writers themselves.

Gawad Kalinga (GK)

In most schools, parents associations are organized. This is being encouraged in School Based
Management. In some cases, this organization also include teachers to expand the school
learning community. Many school projects and activities are supported by this organization.
This is considered as the best practice in most performing schools.

The teacher has a great stake in the curriculum. Curriculum planning, designing and
implementing are in the hands of a good teacher. In the educational setting, it is clear that the
teacher has a very significant role in curriculum development.

Professional Regulation Commission (PRC)

and

Civil Service Commission (CSC)

Professional Organizations

Principals and school leads too, have important roles in curriculum implementation process in
schools.

CURRICULUM STAKEHOLDERS

"It takes the whole village to educate the child."

They should understand fully the need for change and the implementation process. They
should be ready to assist the teachers and the students in the implementation. Communication
line should be open to all concerned school leaders a leas in curriculum teamwork.

It is the bigger school community that becomes the venue of learning. The rich natural and
human resources of the community can assist in educating the children. The community is the
reflection of the school's influence and the school is a reflection of the community support.

 Philippine Association For Teacher Education (PAFTE)

 State Universities and College Teacher Educators Association (SUCTEA)
 National Organization of Science Teachers and Educators (NOSTE)
 Mathematics Teachers Association of the Philippines (MTAP) and many more.

SYNERGIEA

- Former First Lady Hillary Clinton

Parents

Convincing the parents on the merits of the new curriculum is the job of the school leads. They
should be committed to change and should employ strategies to meet the needs of the
teachers and learners like buildings, books, library, and other needed resources.

EVALUATING THE WHOLE IMPLEMENTATION AND PROCESS

When a curriculum has already been written,he teacher's role is to implement like a technician,
however, teachers are reflective persons. they put their hearts into what they do. they are very
mindful that in the center of everything they do, is the learner.

Reference: https://prezi.com/j50pp_lvw9gt/stakeholders-in-curriculum-implementation/
The Role of Technology in Curriculum Development and Delivery
Nelson, Masese B.
African Higher Education Review, v3 p83-97 Dec 2010

As the world shifts towards a global knowledge economy, education is the gateway through
which this is set to be achieved, the quality of higher education, is assessed through the
backdrop of technology integration for enhanced performance and achievement. A suitable and
sustainable technology should be used to electronically reach out to a large number of
students, the general public with quality educational material, so as to address the issues of
access to education with equity and quality. Technology has made search, storing, retrieval,
transmission, gathering, dissemination, and reception of knowledge easier, cheaper and faster.
Technology is expected to completely change the way the curriculum is developed and
delivered hence enhancing the quality of higher education. The paper will provide the
approaches to curriculum development through electronic curriculum (E-curriculum) which can
be applied to enhance the quality and accessibility of education at affordable cost, Secondly the
major obstacles to optimal utilization of information technology and measures to overcome
them, thirdly how multimedia systems can be used to enhance delivery of the e-curriculum.

Reference: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1072801

Conceptual framework
Curriculum evaluation is a necessary and important aspect of any national education system. It provides
the basis for curriculum policy decisions, for feedback on continuous curriculum adjustments and
processes of curriculum implementation.

The fundamental concerns of curriculum evaluation relate to:

 Effectiveness and efficiency of translating government education policy into educational practice;
 Status of curriculum contents and practices in the contexts of global, national and local concerns;
 The achievement of the goals and aims of educational programmes.

Student assessment is an important aspect of curriculum evaluation which helps to facilitate the
understanding of the impact and outcome of education programmes. A fundamental measure of the
success of any curriculum is the quality of student learning. Knowing the extent to which students have
achieved the outcomes specified in the curriculum is fundamental to both improving teaching and
evaluating the curriculum.

Curriculum evaluation
The term “evaluation” generally applies to the process of making a value judgment. In education, the term
“evaluation” is used in reference to operations associated with curricula, programs, interventions, methods
of teaching and organizational factors. Curriculum evaluation aims to examine the impact of implemented
curriculum on student (learning) achievement so that the official curriculum can be revised if necessary
and to review teaching and learning processes in the classroom. Curriculum evaluation establishes:

 Specific strengths and weaknesses of a curriculum and its implementation;

 Critical information for strategic changes and policy decisions;
 Inputs needed for improved learning and teaching;
 Indicators for monitoring.

Curriculum evaluation may be an internal activity and process conducted by the various units within the
education system for their own respective purposes. These units may include national Ministries of
Education, regional education authorities, institutional supervision and reporting systems, departments of
education, schools and communities.
Curriculum evaluation may also be external or commissioned review processes. These may be undertaken
regularly by special committees or task forces on the curriculum, or they may be research-based studies on
the state and effectiveness of various aspects of the curriculum and its implementation. These processes
might examine, for example, the effectiveness of curriculum content, existing pedagogies and instructional
approaches, teacher training and textbooks and instructional materials.

Student assessment
The ultimate goal of curriculum evaluation is to ensure that the curriculum is effective in promoting
improved quality of student learning. Student assessment therefore connotes assessment of student
learning. Assessment of student learning has always been a powerful influence on how and what teachers
teach and is thus an important source of feedback on the appropriateness implementation of curriculum
content.

Fulfilling the diverse objectives of diagnosis, certification and accountability requires different kinds of
assessment instruments and strategies selected to achieve specific purposes. Assessment of student
learning could be summative or formative, and there are various types of tests to address different needs
such as standardized tests, performance-based tests, ability tests, aptitude tests and intelligence tests.

Key-words
Evaluation, Assessment, Assessment Instruments and Tools, Impact, Learning Outcomes, Curriculum
Evaluation, Performance, Effectiveness, Decentralization, Accountability, Internal Evaluation, External
Evaluation.
Curriculum evaluation

In relation to curriculum, evaluation is the process of making value judgements about the merit
or worth of a part or the whole of a curriculum. The nature of a curriculum evaluation often
depends on its audience and purpose. The potential audiences include:

 Policy makers and other stakeholders (administrators, teachers, students, parents,

communities) – to inform future action.
 Donors – to attract funding or to report on the utilization of funds.
 Researchers – for international comparison and identification of effective practices.
Evaluation of curricula is typically concerned with the:

 Impact of the curriculum:

o on individual students, their needs, their level of engagement and their
performance;
o on society, including the appropriateness of values communicated and attitudes
fostered, and the level of public satisfaction;
o on the economy including labour markets as an indicator of economic
development;
 process through which the curriculum was developed;
 content and design of the curriculum compared with:
o recent social, technological, economic or scientific changes;
o recent advances in educational research and educational paradigms;
 possible future directions for curriculum change.

Source:
Role of assessment in curriculum design and development

Introduction
The curriculum is a dynamic interplay between content, pedagogy and assessment. Both
formative and summative assessment are integral to good teaching and are key elements that
shape the nature of the curriculum. These sections consider assessment processes. In order to
make judgements about the ‘received curriculum’ (the actual experience pupils have) and
whether the curriculum is delivering value for money, there needs to be an accurate assessment
of pupils’ learning and progression towards their targets. An effective assessment framework
will integrate assessment for and of learning: it will also inform a school’s self-evaluation
processes and provide evidence to inform the evaluation and development of the curriculum.

Assessment of learning

Assessment of learning is a periodic summary of attainment and progress and incorporates:

 national assessment processes, which are a statutory requirement for all schools, and
form part of the mechanism for accountability for the standards of education in the school
 summative assessment processes employed by the school, which stand outside the
national assessment framework and may be used by the school as a further measure of
standards or to assess the progress or learning needs of pupils

Assessment for learning

Assessment for learning is an ongoing process using:

 formative assessment processes, which judge the extent to which individual pupils are
achieving their potential or meeting personal targets

Summative
National assessment processes

Before the introduction of the national curriculum in 1988, there was no national system of
standardised tests and assessment, except that related to external examinations such as the
Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE), General Certificate of Education (GCE) O level,
(replaced by GCSE in 1987), and the GCE A level.

The development of the national curriculum with known level descriptors meant that pupil
progress could be assessed at the end of key stages, a process that enables parents and others to
whom schools are accountable to understand the position of a child relative to the performance
of other children locally and nationally.

Whether the national curriculum itself is followed or not, all schools have a responsibility to
undertake standard assessment tests at the end of Key Stage 2, teacher assessments at Key Stage
3 and GCSE at the end of Key Stage 4. In 2011, Lord Bew (2011) published a review of the
standardised tests at the end of Key Stage 2 for 11 year olds, which gave opportunities for more
teacher assessment for attainment in writing but retained external marking for reading and
mathematics.

National agencies

Two agencies play a central role in the organisation of the national assessment framework:

 The Standards and Testing Agency (STA), an executive agency of the Department for
Education, is responsible for the development and delivery of statutory assessments and
tests. Headteachers and other staff may gain information on this topic from the national
curriculum assessments (NCA) tools website, which is used throughout the national
curriculum test cycle for all test administration.

The Office of Qualifications and Examinations Regulation (Ofqual) is responsible for maintaining
standards, improving confidence and distributing information about qualifications and examinations.
Ofqual regulates general and vocational qualifications in England and vocational qualifications in
Northern Ireland. It grants formal recognition to bodies and organisations that deliver qualifications and
assessments, and accredits their awards and monitors their activities, including fees.

This system of national summative assessments and qualifications provides a framework for
progression from Key Stage 1 through to further and higher education and the world of work. It
is inevitable that the assessment demands at later stages will have some impact upon the
curriculum provided at early stage, and many would see this as desirable if children are to have a
coherent educational experience. For example, secondary headteachers will factor the demands
of post-16 education and training into the design of their 14–16 curriculum.

Purpose of assessment

A key purpose of testing is to enable individual pupils to demonstrate their attainment in a range
of subject areas. Such national testing at Key Stage 4 is clearly important for their future careers.
Testing is also used to benchmark the performance of schools at the end of Key Stage 2 and Key
Stage 4 in order to provide parents with information through the Department for Education's
performance tables. However, this dual function for which tests are used has led some
commentators to express concern that this has resulted in a lack of clarity as to the overall
purpose of assessment in our education system. For example, Pring and Pollard assert that:

The authors identify a number of very important, but different, purposes of assessment:
  young people’s progress in learning – what they know and can do
 knowledge of their capacities to pursue further study at university, say
 diagnosis of learning difficulties
 teacher effectiveness
 school accountability and position in league tables
 young people’s performance and achievements relative to other young people
 selection for further study, training or employment

From this list, they identify three audiences for the outcomes of assessment:

 assessment for learning – teachers

 assessment for accountability – governors, wider community
 assessment for selection – grammar schools, FE colleges, HE institutions and so on

As a headteacher, you will need to be clear about these different purposes and be able to guide
staff on the types of assessment appropriate to each.

Impact of the national assessment on the curriculum

Testing provides parents with information both about their own children and about schools in
their locality. It has also led to increased competition between schools and therefore, some would
argue, has driven standards up. An alternative perspective, maintained by some, is that testing
has led to a distorted curriculum in which teachers ‘teach to the tests’.

There is evidence that performance tables influence a school’s choice of curriculum. For
example, when the EBacc measure was first announced in January 2011 and changes were made
to the value of vocational GCSEs, schools began to change their subject curriculum at Key Stage
4. For example in many secondary schools more pupils are now studying history, geography and
modern foreign languages. The secretary of state has since announced a change of approach at
Key Stage 4, which broadens the subjects that will be used in performance tables. By contrast,
the Cambridge Review of Primary Education (Alexander, 2010) found evidence of ‘the
narrowing of the curriculum because public testing gains dominance’ (quoted in Pring and
Pollard, 2011, p39).

As we shall see later, the removal of level descriptors from programmes of study in the revised
national curriculum has led a number of commentators to argue that this will cause schools to
focus more intensively on the summative assessment of pupils.

Whilst headteachers may not be involved in the administration of such tests or examinations, the
distinctive feature of their work in this area is that they must ensure that systems are in place to
ensure the smooth running of national assessment activities and examination processes in a
manner that is rigorous, in line with specified requirements, and is well integrated into the life of
the school.

Integrating summative and formative assessment process

In addition to external tests, most schools also use a further framework of non-statutory
assessment processes to inform parents and pupils about individual progress, to measure pupil
and teacher performance, and to evaluate learning in a way that will have an impact on the
design of the curriculum.

Such processes may include:

 in-school tests and examinations used for annual or termly reporting systems
 commercial testing systems such as reading-age tests, mathematics tests or reasoning
tests which may be used to assess pupil needs and abilities against standardised measures
 teacher assessment processes which will, or should, include a host of agreed policies on
marking, observation, feedback, etc
 ongoing formative feedback to pupils to support their learning

Such processes are critical to both learning and teaching: they should be planned and linked to
the curriculum and schemes of work. Evidence from these processes should also inform the
school’s self-evaluation processes.

Assessment data from a school’s own data systems and RAISEonline may also be used to
analyse school performance. More can be learned about this topic in the module Using data and
evidence to improve performance, and by accessing the Association for Achievement and
Improvement through Assessment website.

The raising standards cycle

Read Matt Rampton’s account of practice and critically reflect on how he uses the raising
standards cycle.

Pickhurst Junior Academy is a large (460 pupils), mixed, 7–11 school in a generally affluent area
with a lower than average percentage of children eligible for free school meals. The account
explores the following themes:

 curriculum innovation
 monitoring and evaluation systems
 If you are not familiar with current proposals and legislation on testing, visit the
Standards and Testing Agency website to find out more.
 If data analysis is not within your area of responsibility, you may find the leadership
curriculum resource ‘Using and understanding data’ helpful.
Monitoring and evaluation

Matt Rampton, Headteacher, Pickhurst Junior Academy, Bromley, Kent

Pickhurst Junior Academy is a large (460 pupils), mixed, 7–11 school in a generally affluent area
with a lower than average percentage of children eligible for free school meals (8 per cent). The
proportion of pupils with special educational needs and/or disabilities is 8 per cent and 6 per cent
do not have English as their first language. It became an academy in 2010.

Matt Rampton became headteacher of Pickhurst Junior six years before this account of practice
was written. This is his second headship and, under his leadership, Pickhurst Junior Academy
has developed an effective monitoring and evaluation process that ensures that the curriculum
engages children and aids their progress.

This account of practice explores the following themes:

 curriculum innovation
 monitoring and evaluation systems
 conclusion

Curriculum innovation

Matt has a strong vision for the curriculum that is firmly focused on its impact on pupils:

I want the children to become free and independent thinkers who can communicate effectively so that
doors open for them.

Indeed, his rationale for gaining academy status was "to keep a bespoke curriculum for our
children".

When he took over the headship the school was judged to be coasting. With his previous
experience in schools in less advantaged areas, he was shocked at how "cash-rich, spiritually and
culturally poor" the children were:

They’ve been to Disneyland, Florida but haven’t been on a train up to town. They were used to having
things done for them ... They took the wonderful resources and environment for granted.

He started on what he describes as a "creativity journey" to build a curriculum that is creative,

stimulating and challenging for all the pupils – and the staff.

It started with the introduction of philosophy for children (see p4c.com), with intensive staff
training. Matt says it transformed the curriculum because it initiated and continues to underpin
the creative approach to learning. It has high status: philosophy for children is taught in all
classes for the first hour of every Monday morning, as the timetable below shows.
Matt maintains the literacy and numeracy strategies and the National Primary Framework (NPF)
resulted in an overdependence on prescribed ideas, schemes of work and plans, especially in
English and maths. Matt introduced a more creative approach to planning, giving teachers the
learning outcomes and then giving them the freedom to decide how to meet them. They now
work with the children’s interests to make learning purposeful, related to the wider world and
integrated with different areas of the curriculum.

Another innovation that Matt introduced is a three-week rotation programme for the whole
school on Friday mornings in:

 libertas day: where the children choose what to do

 big write: for an extended piece of writing
 maths challenge: such as a Dragon’s Den style enterprise activity

He believes these are exciting for both pupils and staff. The school newsletters frequently feature
enthusiastic articles about them.

For instance, Year 5 pupils’ comments about one event, the enterprise game, included, "It really
felt as if I was in business for real" and "It is a fantastic game, especially for anyone who wants
to go into business in the future and because this game was so interesting I will never forget this
fabulous day."

The non-core subjects are taught through the International Primary Curriculum (IPC) (see
www.greatlearning.com/ipc/) a scheme that was already in place but which Matt relaunched and
invigorated:

We want children to enjoy their learning, develop enquiring minds and the personal qualities they need
to be good citizens of the world, and develop a sense of their own nationality and culture, while at the
same time developing a profound respect for nationalities and the cultures of others.

Topics include world rulers and leaders in Year 5 with activities such as dressing up as a famous
ruler or leader (all children and staff take part) and forming a human timeline to enhance an
understanding of chronology. The development of the forest school, in partnership with the
infant school which shares the same site, is another example of how the outdoor curriculum
makes learning relevant and practical (www.forestschools.com).

Monitoring and evaluation

Matt believes that understanding the curriculum is the key to ensuring that monitoring and
evaluation activities help the school to move towards its vision. He says:

We have very high expectations and are determined that no one gets left behind. Every child counts.
With his staff, Matt has designed structured monitoring and evaluation systems in order to ensure
that the curriculum meets pupils’ needs and identifies areas for improvement. The systems
evaluate pupils’ engagement, enjoyment and creativity as well as checking that they are making
progress, especially in English and maths.

This is achieved by seeking the views of pupils, staff, parents and the governing body. There are
regular questionnaires for pupils and parents. This evidence is enhanced by focus-group
interviews. The head, senior and middle leaders monitor planning, carry out work scrutinies and
lesson observations. Pupils are also involved in observing lessons.

The whole emphasis is on looking for ways to improve, to go beyond outstanding. For instance,
from her evaluation following monitoring through book scrutiny, lesson observations and teacher
discussions, the literacy leader saw that there was a need for different sorts of text (for example,
instructions, stories, persuasive letters) to be taught consistently throughout the school. She
worked with teachers to build this into planning and introduce assessment criteria for the
children to use so that they could see their next steps in writing different literary forms.
Matt’s approach to monitoring and evaluation is set within the school’s termly 'raising standards
cycle of seven' (see the diagram opposite). He says this ensures that information is gathered in a
timely manner to aid school improvement. The seven steps take place over approximately a six-
week period every term. It starts with the assessment week (1) where there are tests and
assessment activities in reading, writing and mathematics. Teachers assess pupils’ work and then
meet (2) to moderate and agree levels. Data is uploaded and analysed by pupil assessment
software.

The head meets (3) with every teacher to discuss each pupil’s progress, and interventions (4) are
designed for pupils who are not making sufficient progress. Intervention groups are formed to
address very specific needs, such as Year 3 low-attaining boys’ non-fiction writing. Then every
teacher meets with his or her appraisal reviewer (5) to discuss progress towards targets related to
school improvement that draw on evidence of pupil performance in writing.

Because children eligible for free school meals have been identified as being at risk of
underachievement, the reviews look particularly closely at the progress of these pupils. Teachers
write brief reports for parents (6) and parents evenings are held to discuss progress so that school
and home can work together. Lastly, the school improvement plan (7) is reviewed and amended
where appropriate.

This account of practice has explored one headteacher’s approach to monitoring and evaluating
the curriculum so that it aids children’s learning. The most recent Ofsted inspection report
judged the curriculum as outstanding:

Pupils are keen learners, inspired by the school’s innovative and creative curriculum which
emphasises the acquisition of personal and learning skills as the basis for academic achievement.
This holistic approach to developing the whole child was referred to by parents and carers as
being a key factor in their children’s enjoyment of school.

Matt says he has developed his leadership skills through the monitoring and evaluation process.
He is a firmer believer in having structured systems and timelines to ensure that the curriculum
provides the greatest opportunities for children to learn. He distributes leadership by trusting
middle and senior leaders to carry out the monitoring activities and evaluate carefully so that no
children slip through the net. The coaching culture that he is establishing in the school has also
helped staff become more evaluative, and the trust that he has in his staff has also increased their
accountability.

The most recent Ofsted report judged all aspects of leadership and management as outstanding:

The inspirational leadership of the headteacher, backed up with rigorous systems to monitor and
improve the quality of education, is a key factor in pupils’ excellent personal and academic
achievements.
Source: http://www.inspiringleaderstoday.com/ILTMaterials/LEVEL3_CD-v4.0-2014_08_22-
14_27/curriculum-development/cd-s03/cd-s03-t04.html#popup-finder