Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Communication
Communication
Chain Network
In chain network, communication travels up and down through the hierarchy. Each person
communicates with only the person directly above or below in terms of reporting relationships.
The chain network rigidly follows the formal chain of command.
Y Network Communication
Y Network
In the Y network, the flow of communication resembles an upside down Y; information flows
upward and downward through the hierarchy, widening to encompass the number of employees
reporting to a supervisor.
Wheel Network
In a wheel network, information flows to and from a single person. Employees in the group
communicate primarily with that person rather than with each other. Such a communication
network is a fast means of getting information to employees, since the person at the hub of the
wheel can do so directly and efficiently. The wheel network relies on the leader to act as the
central conduit (channel) for the entire group's communication.
The chain network, the Y network and the wheel network are fairly centralized in that most
messages must flow through a pivotal (essential, crucial) person in the network. In the wheel
network, the most centralized, all messages must flow through the individual at the centre of the
wheel. In the chain network, some members can communicate with more than one member of the
network, but the individual in the centre of the chain still tends to emerge as the controller of the
messages. In the Y network, the member at the fork of the "Y" usually becomes the central
person in the network.
Circle Network
In a circle network, employees communicate only with adjoining members of the organization.
The circle network is analogous to a group working in a physical arrangement such that workers
can communicate with their immediate neighbour but not with others in the group.
The all-channel network is best if you are concerned with having high member satisfaction.
The circle network and the all-channel network are more decentralized in that there is freer
communication among the various members. In the circle network, each member can
communicate with the individual on either side. The all-channel network is the most decentralized
of the networks; each member can communicate with any other member.
commuication channels are the means through which people in an organization communicate.
Thought must be given to what channels are used to complete various tasks, because using an
inappropriate channel for a task or interaction can lead to negative consequences. Complex
messages require richer channels of communication that facilitate interaction to ensure clarity.
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is a two-way process of giving and receiving information through any number of
channels. Whether one is speaking informally to a colleague, addressing a conference or
meeting, writing a newsletter article or formal report, the following basic principles apply:
Know your audience.
Know your purpose.
Know your topic.
Anticipate objections.
Present a rounded picture.
Achieve credibility with your audience.
Follow through on what you say.
Communicate a little at a time.
Present information in several ways.
Develop a practical, useful way to get feedback.
Use multiple communication techniques.
Communication is complex. When listening to or reading someone else's message, we often
filter what's being said through a screen of our own opinions. One of the major barriers to
communication is our own ideas and opinions.
There's an old communications game, telegraph, that's played in a circle. A message is
whispered around from person to person. What the exercise usually proves is how profoundly
the message changes as it passes through the distortion of each person's inner "filter."
Environmental factors
Communication can be influenced by environmental factors that have nothing to do with the
content of the message. Some of these factors are:
the nature of the room, how warm it is, smoke, comfort of the chair, etc
outside distractions, what is going on in the area.
the reputation/credibility of the speaker/writer.
the appearance, style or authority of the speaker.
listener's education, knowledge of the topic, etc.
the language, page layout, design of the message.
People remember:
10% of what they read
20% of what they hear
30% of what they see
40% of what they hear and see
Communication with Decision Makers
Innovation and change often depends upon persuading potential users of the benefits of an
innovation.
To deal persuasively with decision makers, it is necessary to know and understand their interests
and opinions. The following questions are helpful in organizing technology transfer efforts:
Whether making a formal presentation at a meeting or writing a report or fact sheet, the following
principles hold.
Do not oversell or overstate your case. Make effective use of understatement.
Outline the topic you are trying to cover into two parts. The first part should give broad
background information, while the second part provides a detailed summary.
Persuasion depends on clarity and simplicity. Avoid the use of jargon and buzz words.
Be prepared to back up claims or facts immediately.
Incorporate major anticipated objections into your program or presentation.
Address all relevant aspects of a topic, especially those that may affect the functioning of an
organization.
Use graphics and audiovisuals appropriately.
Consider ways to get meaningful input from people. Find out what they think about the innovation
or change.
Selling New Ideas
Feedback (Listening)
Getting and giving feedback is one of the most crucial parts of good communication. Like any
other activity, there are specific skills that can enhance feedback. Listening is a key part of
getting feedback:
Listen to the Complete Message. Be patient. This is especially important when listening to a
topic that provokes strong opinions or radically different points-of-view. In these situations, it's
important not to prejudge the incoming message. Learn not to get too excited about a
communication until you are certain of the message.
Work at Listening Skills. Listening is hard work. Good listeners demonstrate interest and
alertness. They indicate through their eye contact, posture and facial expression that the
occasion and the speaker's efforts are a matter of concern to them. Most good listeners provide
speakers with clear and unambiguous feedback.
Judge the Content, Not the Form of the Message. Such things as the speaker's mode of dress,
quality of voice, delivery mannerisms and physical characteristics are often used as excuses for
not listening. Direct your attention to the message--what is being said--and away from the
distracting elements.
Weigh Emotionally Charged Language. Emotionally charged language often stands in the way of
effective listening. Filter out "red flag" words (like "liberal" and "conservative," for instance) and
the emotions they call up. Specific suggestions for dealing with emotionally charged words
include
Eliminate Distractions. Physical distractions and complications seriously impair listening. These
distractions may take many forms: loud noises, stuffy rooms, overcrowded conditions,
uncomfortable temperature, bad lighting, etc. Good listeners speak up if the room is too warm,
too noisy, or too dark. There are also internal distractions: worries about deadlines or problems
of any type may make listening difficult. If you're distracted, make an effort to clear your head. If
you can't manage it, arrange to communicate at some other time.
Think Efficiently and Critically. On the average, we speak at a rate of 100 to 200 words per
minute. However, we think at a much faster rate, anywhere from 400 to 600 words per minute.
What do we do with this excess thinking time while listening to someone speak? One technique
is to apply this spare time to analyzing what is being said. They critically review the material by
asking the following kinds of questions:
Messages should be clear and accurate, and sent in a way that encourages retention, not
rejection.
Use Verbal Feedback Even If Nonverbal Is Positive And Frequent. Everyone needs reassurance
that they are reading nonverbal communication correctly, whether a smile means "You're doing
great," "You're doing better than most beginners," or "You'll catch on eventually."
Focus Feedback On Behavior Rather Than On Personality. It's better to comment on specific
behavior than to characterize a pattern of behavior. For example, instead of calling a colleague
inefficient, specify your complaint: "You don't return phone calls; this causes problems both in
and outside your office."
Focus Feedback On Description Rather Than Judgment. Description tells what happened.
Judgment evaluates what happened. For example, in evaluating a report don't say, "This is a
lousy report!!" Instead, try: "The report doesn't focus on the information that I think needs
emphasis," or "This report seems to have a lot of grammatical and spelling mistakes."
Make Feedback Specific Rather Than General. If feedback is specific, the receiver knows what
activity to continue or change. When feedback is general, the receiver doesn't know what to do
differently. For example, in an office situation, instead of saying "These folders are not arranged
correctly," it's better feedback to say, "These should be arranged chronologically instead of
alphabetically."
In Giving Feedback, Consider the Needs and Abilities of the Receiver. Give the amount of
information the receiver can use and focus feedback on activities the receiver has control over.
It's fruitless to criticize the level of activity, if the decision to grant the necessary monies for
materials, personnel or technology is made at a different level.
Check to See if the Receiver Heard What You Meant to Say. If the information is important
enough to send, make sure the person understands it. One way of doing this is to say, "I'm
wondering if I said that clearly enough. What did you understand me to say?" or "This is what I
hear you saying. Is that right?"
In communicating with decision makers, use the most appropriate communications method. One
way to do this is to ask yourself the following questions.
What is the purpose of your message? Do you plan to tell them something new? Inform? Do
you plan to change their view? Persuade?
What facts must be presented to achieve your desired effect?
What action, if any, do you expect decision makers to take?
What general ideas, opinions and conclusions must be stressed?
Are you thoroughly familiar with all the important information on the innovation?
What resources and constraints affect adoption of the innovation? How much time is available?
How much money is available
Which method, or combination of methods, will work most effectively for this situation? Personal
contact--requires scheduling, time and interpersonal skills.
As your business grows, you may develop a diverse group of employees and customers. While
diversity often enriches the workplace, cultural differences in business can bring complications as
well. Various cultural differences can interfere with productivity or cause conflict among
employees. Stereotypes and ignorance about different traditions and mannerisms can lead to
disruptions and the inability of some employees to work effectively as a team or to handle
business dealings with potential customers in other countries.
It's not unusual for female colleagues in Russia to walk arm in arm, for example, while the same
behavior in other cultures may signify a more personal or sexual relationship.
Don't be surprised if colleagues and customers in the UK and Indonesia are more reserved with
their responses and hide their emotions. Those in France and Italy, like the US, are more effusive
and aren't afraid to show their emotion.
Make sure, too, that your staff understands that cultural differences matter in business and can
easily be misunderstood by either party. Above all, when you encounter unexpected behavior, try
not to jump to conclusions. Someone who seems unimpressed with your ideas may actually be
from a culture where emotions aren't readily expressed. Potential cultural barriers in business can
be avoided simply by understanding the impact of culture on business environment.
NATIONAL CULTURE
Professor Geert Hofstede conducted one of the most comprehensive studies of how values in the
workplace are influenced by culture. He defines culture as “the collective programming of the
mind distinguishing the members of one group or category of people from others”.
The six dimensions of national culture are based on extensive research done by Professor Geert
Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov and their research teams.
The application of this research is used worldwide in both academic and professional
management settings.
The Hofstede model of national culture consists of six dimensions. The cultural dimensions
represent independent preferences for one state of affairs over another that distinguish countries
(rather than individuals) from each other.
The country scores on the dimensions are relative, in that we are all human and simultaneously
we are all unique. In other words, culture can only be used meaningfully by comparison. The
model consists of the following dimensions:
This dimension expresses the degree to which the less powerful members of a society accept
and expect that power is distributed unequally. The fundamental issue here is how a society
handles inequalities among people.
People in societies exhibiting a large degree of Power Distance accept a hierarchical order in
which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification. In societies with low Power
Distance, people strive to equalise the distribution of power and demand justification for
inequalities of power.
The high side of this dimension, called Individualism, can be defined as a preference for a
loosely-knit social framework in which individuals are expected to take care of only themselves
and their immediate families.
Its opposite, Collectivism, represents a preference for a tightly-knit framework in society in which
individuals can expect their relatives or members of a particular ingroup to look after them in
exchange for unquestioning loyalty. A society’s position on this dimension is reflected in whether
people’s self-image is defined in terms of “I” or “we.”
The Masculinity side of this dimension represents a preference in society for achievement,
heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards for success. Society at large is more competitive.
Its opposite, Femininity, stands for a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak and
quality of life. Society at large is more consensus-oriented.
In the business context Masculinity versus Femininity is sometimes also related to as “tough
versus tender” cultures.
The Uncertainty Avoidance dimension expresses the degree to which the members of a society
feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. The fundamental issue here is how a society
deals with the fact that the future can never be known: should we try to control the future or just
let it happen?
Countries exhibiting strong UAI maintain rigid codes of belief and behaviour, and are intolerant of
unorthodox behaviour and ideas. Weak UAI societies maintain a more relaxed attitude in which
practice counts more than principles.
Every society has to maintain some links with its own past while dealing with the challenges of
the present and the future. Societies prioritize these two existential goals differently.
Societies who score low on this dimension, for example, prefer to maintain time-honoured
traditions and norms while viewing societal change with suspicion.
Those with a culture which scores high, on the other hand, take a more pragmatic approach: they
encourage thrift and efforts in modern education as a way to prepare for the future.
In the business context, this dimension is referred to as “(short-term) normative versus (long-
term) pragmatic” (PRA). In the academic environment, the terminology Monumentalism versus
Flexhumility is sometimes also used.
Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human
drives related to enjoying life and having fun. Restraint stands for a society that suppresses
gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.
♦ Try our Country Comparison tool or compare your personal preferences to the scores of a
country of your choice, with Culture Compass™ ♦
Professor Geert Hofstede conducted one of the most comprehensive studies of how values in the
workplace are influenced by culture. He analysed a large database of employee value scores
collected within IBM between 1967 and 1973.
Listening Skills
Listening is so important that many top employers provide listening skills training for their
employees. This is not surprising when you consider that good listening skills can lead to better
customer satisfaction, greater productivity with fewer mistakes, and increased sharing of
information that in turn can lead to more creative and innovative work.
Many successful leaders and entrepreneurs credit their success to effective listening skills.
Richard Branson frequently quotes listening as one of the main factors behind the success of
Virgin.
Spend some time thinking about and developing your listening skills – they are the building blocks
of success.
A greater number of friends and social networks, improved self-esteem and confidence, higher
grades at school and in academic work, and even better health and general well-being.
Studies have shown that, whereas speaking raises blood pressure, attentive listening can bring it
down.
Listening, however, requires more than that: it requires focus and concentrated effort, both mental
and sometimes physical as well.
Listening means paying attention not only to the story, but how it is told, the use of language and
voice, and how the other person uses his or her body. In other words, it means being aware of
both verbal and non-verbal messages. Your ability to listen effectively depends on the degree to
which you perceive and understand these messages.
Listening is not a passive process. In fact, the listener can, and should, be at least as engaged in
the process as the speaker. The phrase ‘active listening’ is used to describe this process of being
fully involved.
Of this, research shows that an average of 45% is spent listening compared to 30% speaking,
16% reading and 9% writing. (Adler, R. et al. 2001). That is, by any standards, a lot of time
listening. It is worthwhile, therefore, taking a bit of extra time to ensure that you listen effectively.
Listening serves a number of possible purposes, and the purposeof listening will depend on the
situation and the nature of the communication.
Effective listening requires concentration and the use of your other senses - not just hearing the
words spoken.
Listening is not the same as hearing and in order to listen effectively you need to use more than
just your ears.
For example, one common problem is that instead of listening closely to what someone is saying,
we often get distracted after a sentence or two and instead start to think about what we are going
to say in reply or think about unrelated things. This means that we do not fully listen to the rest of
the speaker’s message.
This problem is attributed, in part, to the difference between average speech rate and average
processing rate. Average speech rates are between 125 and 175 words a minute whereas we
can process on average between 400 and 800 words a minute. It is a common habit for the
listener to use the spare time while listening to daydream or think about other things, rather than
focusing on what the speaker is saying.
Of course the clarity of what the speaker is saying can also affect how well we listen. Generally
we find it easier to focus if the speaker is fluent in their speech, has a familiar accent, and speaks
at an appropriate loudness for the situation. It is more difficult, for example, to focus on somebody
who is speaking very fast and very quietly, especially if they are conveying complex information.
We may also get distracted by the speaker’s personal appearance or by what someone else is
saying, which sounds more interesting.
These issues not only affect you, but you are likely to show your lack of attention in your body
language.
Generally, we find it much harder to control our body language, and you are likely to show your
distraction and/or lack of interest by lack of eye contact, or posture. The speaker will detect the
problem, and probably stop talking at best. At worse, they may be very offended or upset.
There are five key active listening techniques you can use to help you become a more effective
listener:
1. Pay Attention
Give the speaker your undivided attention, and acknowledge the message. Recognize that non-
verbal communication also "speaks" loudly.
Look at the speaker directly.
Put aside distracting thoughts.
Don't mentally prepare a rebuttal!
Avoid being distracted by environmental factors. For example, side conversations.
"Listen" to the speaker's body language .
Nod occasionally.
Smile and use other facial expressions.
Make sure that your posture is open and interested.
Encourage the speaker to continue with small verbal comments like yes, and "uh huh."
3. Provide Feedback
Our personal filters, assumptions, judgments, and beliefs can distort what we hear. As a listener,
your role is to understand what is being said. This may require you to reflect on what is being said
and to ask questions.
Reflect on what has been said by paraphrasing. "What I'm hearing is... ," and "Sounds like you
are saying... ," are great ways to reflect back.
Ask questions to clarify certain points. "What do you mean when you say... ." "Is this what you
mean?"
Summarize the speaker's comments periodically.
Tip:
If you find yourself responding emotionally to what someone said, say so. And ask for more
information: "I may not be understanding you correctly, and I find myself taking what you said
personally. What I thought you just said is XXX. Is that what you meant?"
4. Defer Judgment
Interrupting is a waste of time. It frustrates the speaker and limits full understanding of the
message.
It takes a lot of concentration and determination to be an active listener. Old habits are hard to
break, and if your listening skills are as bad as many people's are, then you'll need to do a lot of
work to break these bad habits.
There are five key techniques you can use to develop your active listening skills:
Pay attention.
Show that you're listening.
Provide feedback.
Defer judgment.
Respond appropriately.
Start using active listening techniques today to become a better communicator, improve your
workplace productivity, and develop better relationships.
Verbal communication is the use of words to share information with other people. It can therefore
include both spoken and written communication. However, many people use the term to describe
only spoken communication. The verbal element of communication is all about the words that you
choose, and how they are heard and interpreted.
Clarity of speech, remaining calm and focused, being polite and following some basic rules of
etiquette will all aid the process of verbal communication.
The ambiguity occurs when a word or phrase has more than one meaning. It is also a fact that
ambiguity tends to increase with frequency of usage. Here it is important to understand the
ambiguity and its common usage rather than multifaceted types and different situations.
Ambiguity and its fallacies can stretch from linguistic to scientific covering commercial aspects
and technicalities. It is important to know that technically or scientifically ambiguity may be
ineffective in its significant way. However, linguistically it may cause a disaster or a lesser
damage.
The clarity of communication, whether in words or deeds, often reflects a balanced attitude of a
person. In such a situation communication clarity will make the aims achievable. The use of
simple and appropriate words and phrases will make the whole episode of life an achiever. It
holds water very high in political, business like, commercial and cultural fields.