Audio Power Meter

06/07/2019 Audio power meter.
Audio Power Meter.

Arduino Based Power Meter Has Linear Scale.
There are a number of ways to measure the power output of
an audio amplifier. The one that requires the least amount of
equipment is the measure and calculate method. Measure
the voltage across a resistive load and then use the formula
P = V2 / R
Where P is the power output of the amplifier, V is the

voltage measured across the load, and R is the resistance of
the load. Everyone has a voltmeter of some kind and anyone
who works on or designs audio amplifiers has a dummy
load of 8 ohms or maybe one that offers 4, 8, and 16 ohms
so the equipment is already on the bench.
There are other ways.

I should say at the outset that I am not discussing ways of
continuously measuring the power of an amplifier that is
connected to speakers and is being listened to. That requires
a power meter with a very wide dynamic range and the
meters must have a logarithmic scale covering several
decades.
Special meter scales.
Someone on the Fun With Tubes email list posted a sample

meter that he created using a French speaking program. The
sample had a linear scale, a squared scale, and a log scale. I
searched in vain for an English speaking version that would
do the nonlinear scales. I have a feature that creates linear
scales that is built into my drawing program and I briefly
considered adding squared and log capability to it. However
I had written it in a hurry and now several years later I
couldn't figure it out. Again I briefly considered starting
from scratch to write a standalone program to make custom
www.angelfire.com/electronic/funwithtubes/Audio_Power_Meter.html 1/61
meter scales and I still might do that. My search on the web

found several programs for making meter scales even a
couple of specialty nonlinear ones. There was a VSWR
scale and an S-meter scale for a receiver. There were several
linear scale makers but no squared or log scales.
Analog Methods.
Although it may not be readily apparent a meter with a
special scale is a form of analog computer. The computation
is done by the meter movement in conjunction with a
nonlinear scale that reads out the correct value without any
calculations on the part of the user.
Having grown up with analog electronics and having used

an analog computer when in graduate school at U of F, I
thought of that method next. 20 years ago that would have
been the method of choice. The decision would have been
made and the breadboarding begun. A 595 four quadrant
multiplier would have been the chip of choice. Simply
feeding the voltage signal to both inputs would have been
the method for squaring. Since the squared voltage is
divided by a constant it would have been a simple matter of
scaling to accomplish the "over R" part of the equation. The
scaling resistors could have even been switched to select
loads of 4, 8, or 16 ohms. I have in fact experimented with
this in the distant past and the resultant circuit was accurate
and stable. The output of the multiplier was directly
proportional to power so a linear scale meter would have
read it correctly.
But that was then, this is now.
What we have now is a little wonder called Arduino. I have

one, and am learning how to use it. It turned out to be
almost embarrassingly simple. I found a quad op amp IC
and Breadboarded a linear rectifier on the Arduino
development shield. It didn't take me long to figure out that
I couldn't run the op amps from 5 volts so I set up a +/- 12
volt power supply for the op amps and used the plus 12 volt
side to feed the pre regulator input of the Arduino. One of
the analog outputs of the Arduino will deflect an analog
milliammeter when the proper value of current limiting
resistor is connected in series. I used a meter that was
liberated from a junked HP 400D.
The first thing I did was to acquire the signal from the
analog input and just send it directly to the analog output of
the Arduino. Score one, it worked. Then I included the code
to square the input voltage and divide it by the load
resistance. Score a second one. The meter indicates power,
the scale is linear, and it's accurate. (Note: The idea of a
load resistance is purely hypothetical at this point because I
am using a signal generator to drive the input. But the
Arduino doesn't know there is no high power circuit driving
a low resistance load.) Here is the schematic I worked up.
Figure 1 Arduino Based Power Meter.

For a verbal description click here.
Meter Movement Selection.
As I see it there are two possible sources of analog meter

movements to indicate the output. (Oh yes, there are digital
panel meters that cost less than analog meter movements but
this would not be the proper way of building a digital
version of the power meter.) There is the 1, 3, 10, scale as
used in the HP 400 series of AC only VTVMs and the 410
series of multi function VTVMs. Then there are a multitude
of meters using the 1.5, 5, 15, scales as used in multi
function VTVMs by Heath, Eico, RCA, and all of those
correspondence schools such as DeVry and National Radio
Institute.
The HP meter has a full scale current of 1 mA and has the

scales correctly printed on the scale plate. There is also a dB
scale which will not be correct for power and a legend
above the main scales that says "RMS Volts". If you have
steady hands you can remove the scale plate, scan it, and
operate on it in a graphics program to erase the dB scale the
HP logo and "RMS Volts". You can then add the text
"POWER IN WATTS" or "POWER (WATTS)". This is
what I did to obtain the graphic below. I also rotated the
image a little so the inserted text would be square with the
meter face. That is why the boarder isn't square with the
frame. The image of the meter face is. I backed the scale
plate with black paper so it would be easy to properly scale
the replacement scale. Print out the scale on photo quality
paper and glue it to the back of the scale plate.
If you want to use the 1 3 10 scale but you don't have an HP

meter you can use any meter of the approximate size just by
putting in the proper printed scales. Here is a modified HP
meter scale as described above.
Figure 2 Scan of Modified HP Meter Face.
The zeros of the two scales are in alignment at the left. At right the 1 point and the 3
point are not in alignment. See text.
What's so special about this meter face.
The relative placement of the values on the two scales

makes each step of the range switch exactly 10 dB. The
value of 1 on the 0 to 1 scale is not at 3 on the 0 to 3 scale
but is actually at the square root of 10 which is
approximately 3.1622776. If you do 20 * Log of (square
root (10)) you get 10.0000. (Note: I know we are building a
power meter but this meter is a refugee from a voltmeter.
When the scales are interpreted as power the 10 dB per
range step no longer applies. If you carry out the same
exercise using 10 * Log of (square root (10)) you get 5.000
dB per range switch step).
The 1,3,10, scale.

If you have a nice meter movement but it doesn't have this
special 1, 3, 10, scale you can use the graphic above but you
will probably need to resize it according to the steps below.
1. Right click on the image and download it to your

computer.
2. Open MS Word (almost everyone has it).
3. Select the INSERT tab on the ribbons.
4. Click on "Pictures" on the ribbon.
5. Find the downloaded image on your computer.
In case you forgot its file name it is
"Audio_Power_Meter-C.gif".
6. Right click on the image and select "Format Picture"
from the drop down menu.
7. In the dialog box select the "Size" tab.
8. Leave the checkboxes near the bottom of the box
checked.
9. Change either width or height. The other will follow
along.
10. Make your best guess as to what size you need for
your meter.
11. Print out the image on plain printer paper.
12. Check to see how it fits on the scale plate from your
meter.
13. If it isn't right change the size again and print again.
14. When you have it right print it on photo quality paper
and glue it to the back of the scale plate.
The 1.5, 5, 15, scale.

There were probably tens of thousands of VTVMs produced
starting in the late 1940s and continuing into the 1960s that
used the 1.5, 5, 15 etc,, set of ranges. A meter removed from
a junked RCA VoltOhmyst is pictured below. (Note: This is
not a scan but a photograph. It isn't good enough to be used
as a scale in an existing meter that does not have the correct
scales.)
Figure 3 Photo of RCA VoltOhmyst Meter.
At left the zero points of the two scales align. At right the 15 and 50 points of the two
scales also align.
You will note that at the right end of the scales the 15 and
50 points coincide. This means that when changing from the
5 volt to the 15 volt range the ratio is 3, and when changing
from 15 to 50 the ratio is 3.333… These ratios must be
correctly accounted for in the values of resistors on the
range switch. This is why the first 4 resistors on the power
range switch have only R# designations. The power ranges

are also dependent on which type of meter is used so the
settings of the range switch are designated as PR# .
When a 1, 3, 10, meter is used the lowest range is 1 watt.

When a 1.5, 5, 15, meter is used the lowest range is 1.5
watts. This requires additional head room in the rectifier and
filter so the gain of the summing amplifier must be lowered
for the latter meter. The feedback resistor R13 must have a
different value depending on which meter is used.
The meter used by HP has a full scale current of 1 mA while

the meter from the RCA has a FS current of 385 μA. How
they arrived at that one I'll never know and I'll bet there is
no one left alive who does. The meter movements that were
used by Heath, Eico and the others are most likely to be 1
mA full scale. You should test the meter you intend to use to
be sure. Simply connect the seriesed combination of the
unknown meter and a known resistor across a power supply.
Use ohms law to calculate the current. The resistance of the
meter movement should be very approximately 100 ohms so
can be neglected if your test resistor is 4.7 k ohms or greater
which it should be. There is a remote possibility that the
meter you have may be a 200 μA meter or even more
remote, 50 μA. Values of R17 and R18 are given for all
these possibilities.
A Problem with Some Meter Movements.

The part of the meter that moves is suspended in one of two
ways. They are taught band, and jeweled bearings. The
taught band suspension is essentially frictionless so the
meter pointer will always move to the correct reading. The
jeweled bearing suspension is the same as jeweled bearings
in watches. Old meters are not as easily cleaned and
relubricated as are old watches. Consequently the meter is
sluggish and needs to be gently tapped to make it come to
the correct reading. If at all possible you should find a
taught band suspension meter. When they first became
available the taught band types were more expensive than
jeweled bearing ones. A movement from an HP meter
unless it is very old should be a taught band movement.
Table 1, Range and Gain Resistor Values and Power Ra
Type R1 R2 R3 R4 R13 PR1 PR2 P

of (W) (W) (
Meter
Scale
1, 3,
20,570 11,567 6,505 3,658 22,000 1 3
10
1.5, 5,
19,865 12,273 6,282 3,881 18,000 1.5 5
15
Table 2, Calibration Pot and Resistor, R17 & R18.
Full Scale Meter Current R17 R18
1 mA 2.4 kΩ 5 kΩ
385 μA 6.8 kΩ 10 kΩ
200 μA 12 kΩ 20 kΩ
50 μA 47 kΩ 100 kΩ
Construction.
What I intend to do is buy another Arduino with a
development shield but without the breadboarding socket.
The PC pattern that is hidden by the socket is very different
from it. I will build the 4 op amp circuit on the shield in the
same manner as I have for many other projects on these
pages. You may want to do the same but of course you are
free to do it however you desire. The two pictures below
show how I have Breadboarded the circuit.
Figure 4 Two Photos of Breadboarded Power Meter.
The switch mounted on the left is the power range switch

and the one on the right is the load impedance switch. I
wired both sets of resistors on the range switch. The 1, 3, 10
resistors starting at the counter clockwise end and the 1.5, 5,
15 resistors starting at the fully clockwise end. I did this to
make evaluating both meters easier. You will wire only one
set of range resistors on a 5 position switch. Their values
will depend on which meter scale you are going to use.
Resistor Values.
I calculated the resistor values from the spreadsheet below.
You can order precision resistors if you desire. But if you
have a really accurate DMM you can use it to make the
resistors out of standard 5% values.
FULL 16 OHM LOAD 8 OHM LO

SCALE
POWER
(WATTS)
Rin Rin Next
VOLTAGE A' Rf VOLTAGE A
Total on switch
1 4.000 1.0000 4,700 0 4,700 2.828 1.4
3 6.928 0.5623 8,358 3,658 4,700 4.899 0.
10 12.649 0.3162 14,863 6,505 4,700 8.944 0.4
30 21.909 0.1778 26,430 11,567 4,700 15.492 0.
100 40.000 0.1000 47,000 20,570 4,700 28.284 0.
Rin and Rin Next are the same for 8 and 4 ohm loads. Rf Next On Switc
1.5 4.899 1.0000 4,700 0 4,700 3.464 1.4
5.0 8.944 0.5477 8,581 3,881 4,700 6.325 0.
15 15.492 0.3162 14,863 6,282 4,700 10.954 0.4
50 28.284 0.1732 27,135 12,273 4,700 20.000 0.
150 48.990 0.1000 47,000 19,865 4,700 34.641 0.
Rin and Rin Next are the same for 8 and 4 ohm loads. Rf Next On Switc
Figure 5 Spreadsheet That Calculated Resistor Values.
When spreadsheets first came on the scene I viewed them as

being a tool for bean counters. I held that view for a few
decades. I have discovered the power of putting formulas in
cells and letting the values be calculated even as I change
the basic data. The graphs aren't very intuitive for engineers
but with some effort they can be contained but not mastered.
And if you click on Help……….don't get me started on that
one.
Making precision Resistors.

Making precision resistors depends on owning two things.
A highly accurate DMM and a complete stock of 5% 1/4
watt resistors. I stocked up many years ago when I could get
resistors for a penny a piece in lots of 100 per value. At 1
dollar per value it wasn't all that expensive. Most people's
monthly cable or phone bill is more than that. On the other
hand accurate test instruments come for real money and
there is no getting around it. But there is a certain
satisfaction in measuring a voltage, current, or resistance

and knowing it is within 0.1% of what the display says.
Let's take as an example the 6,505 ohm resistor which is R3

on the 1, 3, 10 range selector. That's too far away from
6,800 or 6,200 ohms to pick one out of the parts drawer. In a
large number of 5% resistors about half of them will fall
within 1%. Almost all will fall within 2.5%.
1. Start with a 6,800 ohm resistor. Don't waste your time

looking for one that is exactly 6,800 ohms.
2. You want one that is on the low side but don't waste a
lot of time looking for the lowest one in your 6,800
bin.
3. Write down its value so you won't forget it. Let's say
it is 6,730 ohms.
4. Now apply the formula R2 = R1*Rd/(R1 - Rd).
Where R1 is the 6,730 ohm resistor you picked out of
your parts bin,
Rd is the desired value of resistance, and
R2 is the resistor you are going to solder in parallel
with R1.
5. Given the numbers the value of R2 = 194,572 ohms.
6. Now select the standard value that is closest, either up
or down, to this value.
7. That would be 200 k ohms.
8. You might want to check it to make sure it wasn't
mislabeled in the factory but
don't waste your time looking for a 194,572 ohm
resistor.
9. Assuming R2 is 200 k ohms the value of R1 and R2
in parallel is 6510.9 ohms.
10. This is an error of -0.0908%.
Solder the two resistors in parallel and make the remaining

resistors. It is left as an exercise for the student to determine
how much a 2.5% change in the value of the 200 k ohm
resistor will effect the resistance of the parallel combination.
Parts List.
I'm not going to list each resistor. The enclosure and power
transformers are some that I had on hand. You are on your
own for these parts.
1. Arduino Board. I bought my first Arduino as part of

a beginner's educational kit. The second one was
bought on eBay. This is the one that will be used as
part of the power meter.
2. Shield Board. I also bought this on eBay. The layout
isn't quite standard but the differences weren't enough
to cause any hardship. I recommend getting a kit
because it will come with the non stacking
connectors. You don't need to stack another shield on
top of this one so there is no point in installing the
stacking connectors.
3. Rotary Switches - 2. Single pole, 2 to 12 position.
Circuit Specialists #10WA364.
4. IC Socket - 14 pin. Anti wicking. I just happened to
have one on hand.
5. TLO74. Quad op amp.
6. 0.1 uf 50 V Capacitors - 4. Very small.
7. Diodes - 2, 1N6263, Schottky.
8. Diodes - 2, 1N4148, Silicon.
9. Prototyping circuit board for power supply. Jameco
part number 616649 Click here.
10. Miscellaneous
A. Meter Movement.
B. Power Supply Parts.
C. Knobs.
D. Switch, Fuse, Indicator lamp, and Line Cord.
E. Enclosure and Chassis.
F. Wire and Solder.
Shield Board Wiring.

I am aware that a total or low partial could not accomplish
this style of construction. The few totals I have known who
wired and soldered their own circuits had developed
techniques all their own. I am going to assume that any
totals who want to construct this project will also have their
own techniques for doing so. Therefor I will make no effort
to describe the wiring beyond what is already in the text. If
you feel that you could accomplish this wiring with just a
little more information don't hesitate to contact me. Be sure
to explain exactly what information you need. Just asking
for more information won't give me enough guidance to
help you.
I bought my blank circuit boards off eBay so wherever you

buy yours they will likely look a little different. I expect that
the main features will be essentially the same. Here is a
photo of the blank board as viewed from the component
side.
Figure 6 Blank Shield Board.
In the paragraph below you will do the first soldering on the

board. This is a plated through board which means that
solder will flow into the hole and fill it up. Most people who
solder to PC boards want to build up a cone of solder
around the pin or wire. With plated through holes this is not
necessary and because of the wiring techniques used in
constructing this board it is not recommended. Use solder

like it is gold. Very sparingly.
Mistakes will happen.

You will likely use too much solder on a connection and
you may accidentally form a solder bridge between two
adjacent pins or wire connections. The best way to correct
these mistakes is with a product known as Solder Wick or
Chem Wick. I strongly recommend that you buy some of
this product before starting this project. You may ignore this
advice if you have never made a mistake and are sure you
never will. The wire used is number 22 AWG insulated.
When bear wire is called for in a step remove the insulation
from the specified length of any color wire.
Colors In the Diagrams.

I have drawn this board after the manner of the prototyping
boards I have used ever since giving up on etching my own
PC boards. The pads surrounding the holes are shown in red
and are more representational than accurate depictions.
These pads appear on both sides of the board. Lines in red
that connect pads are on the component side of the board.
Lines in blue are on the other side of the board. The
component side of the board is the side that faces away from
the Arduino when the two boards are plugged together.
The color code for wires that I have added and you will add
are, white for wires and components that are on the
component side, green for wires on the other (back) side
that you will install in the initial wiring steps, and magenta
(purple) for wires on the back side that are extensions of
component leads or insulated wires that start out on the
component side.
Mount the 14 pin IC socket with pin 1 in hole L14 and pin
14 in hole H14. The socket will cover up all but the first w
of the Arduino URL and the row of holes marked with a J.
The idea is to have 5 rows of holes above the socket and 5
more below it. If your board is different, adjust the position
of the socket to allow 5 rows above and 5 rows below. Hold
the socket as best you can and solder only two pins on
opposite corners of the socket. Place two fingers on the
corners of the socket which were not soldered and melt the
solder in the two pins you just soldered. Most likely you
will feel the socket move slightly as it becomes fully seated.
Solder the remaining pins of the socket. It will be the
reference for all wiring to follow. Remember not to build up
a cone of solder around the pins.
Wires On the Back of the Board.
Figure 7 Wiring Diagram of Board Shown From Back.
In the following steps you will be instructed to pass bear

wire through some of the holes in the board. DO NOT
SOLDER THE WIRES AT THE HOLES. After you have
been instructed to solder the wire to the pins of the IC
socket you will be instructed to cut off the wire end that
passes through the hole in the board. This is done to make it
easier to hold the wire in place while it is being soldered.
Prepare a 3 inch length of bare wire. In the photo below the

wire is shorter than it should be. Use your plyers to remove
any bends in the wire making it completely straight. Pass
the ends of this wire through holes B16 and S16. Make right
angle bends near each end of the wire until it fits properly
between the two holes. Do not solder the wire at these two
holes. Push the wire down flat against the board and bend
the ends on the other side to hold it in place. Position the
wire on the right side of pins 3 and 12 of the socket and also
to the right of the holes, just overlapping slightly, on all the
pads it passes. Make sure the wire is in firm contact with
pins 3 and 12 and solder the wire to them. Now it is
necessary to build up a cone of solder around the socket
pins. The wire will be buried in the cone which will hold it
securely. Without lifting it, cut the wire just above hole C16
and just below hole Q16. Pull the cutoff ends of the wire
from the holes in the board and discard them.
Cut a 2 inch length of bear wire and make a right angle bend
very close to one end. Pass the bent end through hole J16
just below pin 12 of the socket. The socket is in the way so
you won't be able to push it very far into the hole. If it
doesn't go all the way in cut off a little and try again. Route
this wire on the right side of pin 5 and insert the other end
into any convenient hole. Do not solder the wire at this hole.
Bend the wire on the other side of the board to hold it in
place. Be sure the wire is firmly against pin 5 and solder it
to the board at the hole just below pin 12. Be sure solder
also flows to the wire that is connected to pins 3 and 12.
Solder the wire to pin 5. Cut off the excess wire on the
outside of pin 5 and remove it from the board. These wires
will eventually connect pins 3,5, and 12, to ground.
Figure 8 First Steps in Wiring the Board.
Remember that the wire in column 16 was cut short of hole

C16 by mistake. (Who me? I don't make mistakes.)
Figure 9 Wiring the Back of the Board.
Prepare a 4 inch length of bare wire. Form a bend in the

middle so the two parallel sections are 1/10 inch apart.
(Note: One tenth inch is the spacing of the holes on the
board.) Refer to figure 7 and lay the wire down on the board
next to columns 19 and 20 with the bend between the two
rows of socket pins. Insert one end through hole S20 and
extend the other end beyond the edge of the board and bend
it over to hold the wire in place. Position the wire to the
right of socket pins 6 and 7 and also to the right of the holes
along columns 19 and 20. Solder the wire at pins 6 and 7.
Cut off the bend inside the two rows of socket pins. Cut off
the other ends of the wire just beyond row Q. Discard all cut
off pieces of wire.
Prepare a 3 inch length of bear wire. Make a bend in the

middle and from the component side push the ends through
holes S15 and S17. On the back side bend the two ends
down against the board and route them so they pass to the
left of socket pins 2 and 4. Bend the loop on the other side
to hold the wire firmly in place. Solder the connections at
socket pins 2 and 4 (holes L15 and L17). Cut the wire just
past (farthest from the socket) hole P15 and Q17. Pull out
the excess wire and discard it.
Prepare a 3 inch length of bare wire. Bend this wire in the

middle and from the component side pass the ends through
holes C15 and C17. Push the wire down against the board
and rout the ends just to the right of socket pins 11 and 13.
Solder the wire to pins 11 and 13. Cut off the wire just past
holes D15 and D17. Remove and discard the cut off wire.
Prepare another 3 inch length of bear wire. Bend the wire in

the middle and from the component side pass this wire
through holes B18 and B20. Route the ends to the left of
socket pins 8 and 10. Solder the wire only to pin 10 at hole
H18. Cut off excess length at the socket. Cut off the wire in
column 18 just past hole C18. Remove and discard the cut
off wire.
The remaining point to point wiring on the back of the

board will be continuations of insulated wires on the
component side or the leads of components such as
resistors, capacitors, diodes, etc. Instructions will be given
for each wire and component.
Wires On the Front Side Of the

Board.
Figure 10 Wiring on the Front of the Board.

Figure 11 Wiring the Front of the Board.
Cut a 1-3/4 inch length of yellow hookup wire. Strip 1/2

inch of insulation from each end. Lay this wire on the board
spanning from hole K4 to F10. You probably will have to
remove a little more insulation to make the wire fit. Bend
the bear ends of the wire at right angles and insert them into
holes K4 and F10. Bend them outwards on the other side to
hold the wire in place. Solder at both holes. The lead of the
4.7 k ohm resistor will be used to complete the connection.
In the same way prepare and install a blue wire between

holes L4 and G10.
Cut a 3-1/2 inch length of orange wire. Remove 1/2 inch of

insulation from one end and 1/4 inch from the other. This
wire is to run between holes M4 and J13. The 1/4 inch bare
end goes to J13. In addition the wire will extend from J13 to
H14 as a bare wire on the back of the board. If necessary to
make the wire fit strip off a little more insulation from the
end that goes to hole M4. Bend the bear ends at right angles
and install the wire. On the back of the board bend the bare
end from hole J13 flat against the board to touch the IC
socket pin at hole H14. If it is too long and threatens to
touch and short other connections cut off a little from the
end. Position the end of the wire against the IC socket pin
and solder it. Also solder the wire at holes M4 and J13.
Cut a 1 inch length of orange wire. Remove 0.4 inch of

insulation from one end and 0.25 inch from the other. Use
the holes in the board as your ruler. Bend the ends and
adjust them to fit between holes O10 and L13. The short
bare end goes into hole L13. On the back of the board bend
the wire from hole L13 flat against the board to touch the
connection at hole J13. If the lead is too long cut off a little.
Solder the connections at holes J13, L13, and O10.
Cut a 4 inch length of violet wire. Form this wire as

indicated in the drawing and as shown in the photograph to
fit between holes N3 and D17. Be sure to route the wire
between pads C16 and D16 so the leads from the
components in these holes won't touch the insulation and
melt through it when the lead is soldered. Also route the
wire to give enough clearance from hole D15 so the wire
won't interfere with the installation of the resistor. Solder
both ends of the wire being sure to make connection to the
wire coming out from socket pin 11.
Install a short length of black wire between holes O4 and

O6. Solder both ends of the wire.
Cut a 2-1/2 inch length of red wire and remove 1/2 inch of
insulation from each end. Insert one end into hole Q15 and
the other end into hole P4. You may have to remove more
insulation from one end. Be sure to allow enough room for

the 20 K and 10 k ohm resistors to be installed later. Solder
the connection at P4. At Q15 bend the wire against the
board and form it to make a detour around pad Q16. It will
be connected to Q17. Solder the connection at Q15 but do
not solder the connection at Q17.
Cut a very short piece of red wire and connect it between

holes Q17 and S18. Solder the connection at S18 and cut off
excess lead. Solder all three wires together at Q17 and cut
off excess length from the red wire you just installed.
Cut a short length of black wire and connect it between

holes Q16 and S17. Solder both ends of the wire and cut off
excess lead. When soldering at Q16 be sure solder flows to
the bare wire coming from pin 3 of the IC socket. Also be
careful not to form a solder bridge between the bear wire
that detours around the Q16 pad and the pad itself.
Resistors Flat on the Board.

For these resistors a lead former will come in handy. Oh,
you can do without it but it will make the board look neater
if you have one.
Figure 12 Photograph of Lead Former.
When I bought this one more than 40 years ago it was called
a lead bender but it is exactly as those being sold today.
Preventing Trouble.
I want to do all I can to prevent you from
having difficulty with soldering components to
the board. This board was hard enough to do
without having wires fall off when heat is
applied. This can happen to a wire that has been
soldered to an IC socket pin if another
connection must be made to the wire very close
to the pin. I hope to prevent this from

happening to you by installing a component out
of order. Such a step will be indented and
appear under the same heading as this
paragraph.
Locate a 1N4148 diode and bend the anode

lead as shown in figure 13 below. The anode is
the end opposite to the end with the band
around it. Insert the straight lead into hole D15
and the bent lead into hole D16. Position the
body of the diode approximately 1/4 inch from
the board and solder the lead at hole D15 on the
other side of the board. Be sure solder flows to
the wire that is coming from the IC socket but
don't use too much heat or you may melt the
solder at the socket and cause the wire to come
loose. Make sure the diode is perpendicular to
the board and solder the lead at hole D16. The
same caution applies. Cut off excess lead length
at both locations.
Bend the leads of one of the two "selected for value" 4.7 k
ohm resistors at right angles to the resistor body to provide a
spacing of 0.4 inches. Insert the leads of this resistor into
holes G11 and G15. At hole G11 bend the lead over toward
hole G10 and cut off excess lead that extends past G10.
Make sure the resistor is flat against the board and solder all
three points at holes G10, G11, and G15. Be sure that solder
flows to the other lead at G10 and G15. Cut off excess lead
at G15.
In the identical manner install the other selected 4.7 k ohm

resistor at holes F10, F11, and F15. Be sure to solder all
connections and cut off excess lead length.
Form the leads of a 10 k ohm resistor to a spacing of 0.4

inch. Insert the leads into holes O11 and O15. At the O11
end bend the resistor lead over toward hole M13. Cut off the
lead just past M13. Make sure the resistor body is flat
against the board and solder the leads at O11 and O15.
When soldering the connection at O15 be sure solder flows
to the wire connected to pin 2 of the IC socket. The
connection at M13 will be soldered later when a diode is
installed in this location.
Form the leads of another 10 k ohm resistor and insert them

into holes P11 and P15. Bend the lead from O11 over
toward hole O10 and cut it off just past O10. Use only a
very small amount of solder at P11 or don't solder it at all.
Another lead will be soldered there later. Solder the lead at
O10 and be sure solder flows to the end of the orange wire.
Solder the wire at P15 and cut off excess lead. Be sure
solder flows to the wire from pin 2 of the IC socket.
Preventing Trouble.
Install a 0.1 uf 50 volt (small) capacitor at holes
E20 and E22. Bend the lead from E22 over
toward G22 and cut it off just past the hole.
Bend the other lead over at E20 to touch the
socket pin at hole H20. Solder the connections
at E22, E20, and H20.
Form the leads of another 10 k ohm resistor to fit a 0.5 inch

space. Insert the leads of this resistor into holes K21 and
P21. Bend the lead from K21 over to contact pin 8 of the IC
socket. Cut off excess wire and solder the lead to the socket
pin along with a wire which is already there. Route the lead
from P21 to hole S20. Bend the lead and push it up through
the hole. Solder the connections at holes K21, P21, and S20.
Cut off excess lead length sticking out on the component
side at hole S20.
Preventing Trouble.
Prepare a 1-1/2 inch length of bear wire and
form it for a 0.1 inch spacing. Insert the ends
through holes G19 and G20 from the
component side. Bend the wire from G19 over
to contact pin 9 of the IC socket. Cut off excess
lead length just past pin 9. Solder the
connection to pin nine but leave hole G19
unsoldered. Cautiously solder the connection at
hole G20. The connection at H20 will likely
melt due to the close proximity. The connection
to the capacitor at the other end should hold it
in place until the solder cools. If you try to
leave insulation on this wire it will most likely
melt as mine did.
Before installing the next resistor you should

tack solder the wire from pin 7 of the IC socket
to the pad at P20. No other component is slated
to be installed here. This is intended to prevent
the wire from coming unsoldered when you
solder the lead from the following resistor to
this wire.
Form the leads of a 1 Meg ohm resistor to 0.4 inch. Install

this resistor into holes G22 and L22. At hole L22 bend the
lead over toward hole M20 and cut off excess lead so the
end of the wire touches the wire soldered to pin 7 of the IC
socket. When soldering this connection be sure that the wire
does not come unsoldered from pin 7. At hole G22 solder
the resistor lead to the one from the capacitor at hole E22.
Cut off excess lead. Also solder the connection at L22.
Preventing Trouble.
Install another small 0.1 uf 50 v capacitor
between holes C16 and C18. Cut off excess
lead at both connections and make sure solder
flows between the capacitor leads and the wires
to the IC socket.
Form the leads of another 1 Meg ohm resistor to fit 0.4 inch
spacing. Insert the leads into holes F18 and F22. Solder the
connections and cut off excess lead length.
Form the leads of the resistor that is your chosen value for
R17, 2.4 k ohms in my case, to fit 0.4 inch. Install this
resistor between holes C25 and G25. At C25 bend the wire
over toward B22. Insert the lead up through hole B22 . At
the other end bend the lead from hole G25 over toward hole
H24 and cut it off just a little past the hole. Solder the
connections at G25, C25, and B22. On the component side
cut off excess lead at B22.
Resistors that Stand Up From the

Board.
Figure 13 Photograph of Resistors With Leads Formed For Vertical Mounting.
Form the leads of a 10 k ohm resistor as shown in the photo

above. Insert the lead that comes directly from the resistor
body into hole Q13 and the bent over lead into q14. Position
the body of the resistor about 1/4 inch above the board and
on the other side bend the lead from Q13 over toward hole
O11. Cut off the lead just a little past O11 and solder it to
the other wires that are there. Make sure the bent over wire
is flat against the board after emerging from hole Q13 and
solder it to the board. Make sure the resistor is
perpendicular to the board and bend the shorter lead over in
the general direction of S15. It will be connected later but
not to S15. Solder the connection at Q14.
Install your chosen value of R13, 22 k ohms in my case, as

follows. Form the leads as shown in figure 13. Insert the
straight lead into hole Q19 and the bent lead into hole Q20.
Position the body about 1/4 inch from the board and bend
the long lead over in the general direction of the lead left
unsoldered from the previous step. Make sure the bent lead
is flat against the board at hole Q19 and solder the
connection. Make sure the resistor is vertical and solder the
short lead at Q20. Cut off excess lead at Q20.
Now bring the two unconnected leads together making sure

they do not short out to the lead which detours around hole
Q16. Also make sure they do not contact the pads in row S.
Cut off excess lead length so they overlap by about 1/8 inch
and solder them together.
Form the leads of a 20 k ohm resistor as shown in figure 13.

Insert the straight end into hole Q11 and the bent lead into
hole Q12. Position the body of the resistor 1/4 inch from the
board and on the other side bend the long lead over toward
hole P11. Cut the wire off just a little past P11 and make
sure the bent over part of the lead is flat against the board.
Solder both connections at Q11 and P11.
Make sure the resistor is perpendicular to the board and

solder the connection at hole Q12. Bend the lead over in the
general direction of hole S14 and join it up with the leads
from holes Q14 and Q19. Form a neat looking join up
which does not short to any other wires or pads and solder it
in place.
Installing the Rest of the Capacitors.

Insert the leads of a 0.1 uf 50 volt capacitor into holes F16
and G17. Solder the capacitor leads to the wires coming
from socket pins 11 and 12 and cut off the excess capacitor
leads.
Insert the leads of another 0.1 uf 50 volt capacitor into holes

N16 and M17. Solder the capacitor leads to the wires
coming from socket pins 3 and 4 and cut off the excess
capacitor leads.
Installing the Rest of the Diodes.

Bend the anode lead of a 1N4148 diode as shown in figure
13. The anode lead comes from the end that does not have
the band. Insert the straight lead into hole E16 and the bent
lead into hole E15. Position the body of the diode
approximately 1/4 inch above the board and solder the
connection at M16 on the other side of the board. Make sure
the diode is standing straight up and solder the connection at
hole E15 on the back of the board.
Bend the anode lead of a 1N6263 diode as shown in figure

13. Insert the straight lead into hole N15 and the bent over
lead into hole N14. Position the diode body approximately
1/4 inch above the board and solder the connection at N14
on the back of the board. Cut off excess lead. Make sure the
diode is standing straight up and bend the remaining lead
over toward pin 1 of the IC socket. Make sure the bent lead
is flat against the board on the back side and solder the
connection at hole N14. Route the diode lead to the left of
pin 1 as viewed from the back of the board and cut off
excess lead just a little past pin 1. Solder the diode lead to
pin 1.
Bend the anode lead of another 1N6263 diode as shown in

figure 13. Insert the straight lead into hole M14 and the bent
lead into hole M13. Position the diode body approximately
1/4 inch above the board and solder the connection at M14
on the back of the board. Make sure the diode is vertical and
turn the board over again. There should be the end of a
resistor lead from hole O11 very near hole M13. If
necessary reposition it to touch the diode lead. Solder the
connection at M14 making sure to flow solder to the lead
from hole O11. Cut off excess diode leads.
Finishing.
Install your chosen value of R18, a 20 turn trimming
potentiometer 5 k ohm in my case, into holes H24, J24, and
K24. Position the adjustment screw closest to row K. This

will cause a clockwise rotation of the screw to produce an
increase in meter reading. Solder all three connections and
be sure to flow solder to the resistor lead at hole H24. I
omitted I because it might be mistaken for a 1. Why didn't I
do a similar thing for the letter O? Don't ask.
Connector installation.
Figure 14 Photo Showing Type of Connecters to be Installed.
Install an 8 pin connector from the back of the board with

the short ends of the pins going into the board. Insert the
pins into the row of holes closest to the edge of the board in
the area at the top right of the board in the position labeled 0
through 7 and DIGITAL. Make sure the body of the
connector is flat against the board and the pins are
perpendicular to the board. Solder the 8 pins on the

component side of the board.
In exactly the same way mount another 8 pin connector at

the location of holes 8 through AREF. Solder the
connections on the component side of the board. Do not
attempt to cut off excess pin length.
Install a 6 pin connector on the back of the board at the

lower right in the location labeled ANALOG 0 through 5.
Insert the short end of the pins into the row of holes closest
to the edge of the board. Make sure the body of the
connector is flat against the board and the pins are
perpendicular to the board. Solder the connections on the
component side of the board.
Install an 8 pin connector at the location labeled POWER in

the row of holes closest to the edge of the board. Solder the
connections on the component side of the board.
This completes the wiring of the shield board.
NEW PARTS VS PARTS

ON HAND
A Change in Philosophy.
When I started out to publish projects for viewers of this site
to duplicate I was very idealistic. I assumed that there were
hordes of home brewers out there who would jump at the
chance to duplicate my construction projects.
Over the last several years I have spent a considerable

amount of money buying new and currently available parts
rather than using parts on hand that I have spent the last 40
years or so accumulating to be used for home brew projects
built in my retirement. I have little evidence that those who
read my pages are exactly duplicating what I build. Well, I
should have expected that because when I read a
construction article if I want to build one I never duplicate it
exactly. I use parts on hand, add features, remove features
that I don't need, etc. Apparently most of you do things the
same as I do.
So, NO MORE BUYING PARTS that I already have. I will

give specifications as for example the transformers in the
circuit below but you will have to search out equivalents
from current manufacturers, unless you are like me and
have enough parts on hand to stock an electronics store.
A Note On Electrical Safety.

Some may question my decision not to use a grounded
power cord and to use a double pole power switch. While
grounded power cords are considered safe, they are only as
safe as the electrician who wired the power outlet. There
was considerable excitement at the university where I used
to teach when a colleague found out the hard way that one
of the outlets in his lab was wired with the ground contact
connected to the hot, 120 volt, side of the line. He became a
charter member of the great balls of fire chapter at Western
Kentucky University. But I must admit this is a low
probability occurrence. My main reason for not using a
ground is the dreaded ground loop. Well designed and tested
insulation is just as effective a safety measure as is
grounding. It wasn't until electrical and electronics
equipment started to be made overseas by penny pinching
bosses who valued a penny more than the safety of the end
user that grounding became necessary. My approach is to
not bond the frames of the transformers to the chassis and
use a double pole switch that will disconnect both sides of
the line when power is turned off. While this will not satisfy
those who see disaster around every corner it satisfies me
and I'm the end user.
Power Supply 1.0.

Parts List.
2 - Bridge rectifiers. DF01M 100 V @ 1A. Click
here.
Proto typing circuit board.
2 - Transformers 12.6 V @ 300 mA. From Radio
Shack a long time ago. Current rating may be as low
as 100 mA. Remember, Google is your friend.
2 - 1000 uf 25 volt radial lead capacitors.
1 - Lamp ML-1819 28 V 40 mA and socket. You may

wish to substitute an LED.
Heat shrink sleeving that is just large enough to pass
the hookup wire through.
1/2 A fuse and holder.
DPST switch.
Power cord and strain relief.
Figure 15 Schematic Diagram of Power Supply 1.0.
For a verbal description click here.
Board Preparation.
The circuit board used is available from Jameco Electronics.
This is the board I always use rather than to mess around
with ferric chloride or endure the expense of having a PCB
house make boards for me.
The enclosure and internal chasses are recycled from some

earlier projects. This represents a considerable savings of
money. Probably you can do the same.
The prototyping board requires a little modification to fit

my specific enclosure. Here is what I did. What you do may
be very different.
1. Use a band saw to cut off the ends of the board just
outside of columns 1 and 47.
2. Create new mounting holes by enlarging existing
holes at X2, Y2, X46, and Y46. I used a 9/64 inch
which is the clearance hole for a 6-32 screw.
Obviously those outside the United States will use
metric sizes.
3. If you are using a PC mount transformer or
transformers enlarge the holes for the transformer
pins but only if necessary. The extra holes are the
result of what is technically known as a screw up.
The transformers I have on hand don't have a center tap but

I have plenty of them because I stocked up on them when
they were available from Radio Shack. They are 120 V
primary and 12.6 V @ 300 mA secondary.
Figure 16 Circuit Board Layout Diagram of Power Supply 1.0..
Lines in Green indicate wires on the back of the board.
Figure 17 Photo Showing Wiring on Back of Board.
Refer to figures 16 and 18 and install a bridge rectifier on

the front of the board in holes F17, f19, E17, and E19 as
shown in the diagram and picture.
Similarly install another bridge rectifier in holes F29, F31,

E29, and E31 as shown in the diagram and picture. These
will be your guide for wires and capacitors so be sure to get
them placed correctly.
Install the two wires on the back of the circuit board as

shown in figures 16 and 17..
Figure 18 Photo Showing Wiring on front of Board.
Install the 14 wires on the front of the board as shown in

figures 16 and 18.
Note: The two wires, one black and one white, which run
almost the length of the board are routed under the
transformers. If there is no clearance under your
transformers these wires must be rerouted to avoid pinching
them and creating a short and possible shock hazard.
Install 4 0.1 uf 50 V capacitors and two voltage regulator

ICs on the board as follows. Refer to figures 16 and 19.
Figure 19 Photograph Showing Installation of Voltage Regulators, Capacitors, and

Wires Going Off-Board.
Holes H23, H24.

Holes G24, H25.
Holes C23, D24.
Holes C24, D25.
Solder the leads to the foils and cut off excess lead length.
Install a 78L12 voltage regulator IC at holes I23, I24, and

I25 with the flat side away from the center of the board as
shown.
Install a 7812 IC in holes B23, B24, and B25 with the metal
side away from the center of the board as shown.
Wires Connecting to Off Board Components.

The Arduino shield board features plated through holes
which reduces the risk of lifting foils to near zero. There are
no plated through holes on the board used for the power
supply. A wire which has its other end free can easily be
flexed putting stress on the bond between the board and foil
resulting in lifting the foil from the board. Once this
happens you may or may not be able to make a repair that
will last. Most likely the board is toast and you will have to
start over. This is not just theory or hypothetical speculation.
It has happened to me enough times that I have learned my
lesson. Perhaps I can help you to learn the easy rather than
the hard way.
The way to prevent lifting foils is to tie the wire down to the
board a short distance from where it is soldered to a foil.
Look at figure 16. Note the semicircles that cross the wires
near where they are soldered. This is my shorthand for
another wire that goes across the wire and is soldered to
foils that are otherwise unused. I call them "hold downs."
The "hold down" wires are in tension which is pulling the
foil more firmly against the board instead of away from it.
A problem arises when the heat of soldering causes the

insulation on the wires to melt and a short occurs between
the hold down and the connecting wire. In the case of the 12
volt wiring this will disable the project. In the case of the
120 volt primary wiring a dangerous shock hazard is
created. Both are undesirable but the latter is more so.
Installing the Off Board Wires and Hold Downs.

1. Cut a length of black hookup wire that is long enough
to reach from the left end of the circuit board to the
fuse holder. Allow a little extra for stripping
insulation.
2. Strip about 1/2 inch of insulation from one end and
use needle nose pliers to bend the bare end at right
angles to the rest of the wire where the insulation
ends.
3. Slip a 1/2 inch length of sleeving over the other end
of the wire and position it against the bent end.
4. Hold the barrel of your soldering iron very near but
not quite touching the sleeving to shrink it.
5. Cut a short length, approximately 1-1/2 inches, of
black wire and remove all but 0.15 inch of insulation.
6. Cut an equal length of sleeving and slip it over the
insulation on the wire.
7. Bend the bear wire ends at right angles to the
insulated portion.
8. Shrink the sleeving as above.

9. Form the insulated portion into a slight arc to bring
the spacing of the bare wires to 0.1 inch.
10. Pass the bare end of the long wire through hole E5.
11. route the wire so it passes between holes D4 and E4.
12. Pass the ends of the short wire through holes D4 and
E4 so it will hold the long wire to the board.
13. On the foil side of the board use needle nose pliers to
pull on the wires coming from holes D4 and E4. Pull
the wire as tight as you can to force the long wire
firmly against the board. Pull the wires outward so
they will stay in tension after being released.
14. Make sure the long wire is flat against the board
where it passes under the hold down and to the hole
where it connects namely E5.
15. Solder the wire to the board at hole E5.
16. As you solder the wires at holes D4 and E4 you may
find it necessary to pull on the wire with needle nose
pliers while soldering. Just don't overdo it.
In a similar manner install a length of white wire that is long

enough to reach from the left end of the board to the power
switch. Install the end of this wire in hole F5 with its hold
down in holes F4 and G4.
The violet, black, and red, wires installed below should be

long enough to reach from the power supply board to the
Arduino board. The two gray wires should be long enough
to reach to the lamp socket.
Similarly install a violet wire in hole J20 with hold downs in

holes Y17 and Y19. Do not add sleeving to the hold down.
Similarly install a gray wire in hole J23 with hold downs in

Similarly install another gray wire in hole J24 with hold

downs in holes Y22 and Y23. Do not add sleeving to the
hold down.
Similarly install a black wire in hole J25 with hold downs in

Similarly install a red wire in hole J26 with hold downs in

Note: If you use an L E D instead of an incandescent lamp

you will need to change the color of one of the gray wires
because polarity of an L E D matters.
Refer to figures 16 and 20 and mount the two transformers

as shown.
Mount the two 1000 uf 25 volt filter capacitors as shown.
One in holes F20 and E20 with the positive lead in E20.
The other in holes F28 and E28 with the positive lead in
E28.
I know it is not considered good practice to mount one

component on top of another but I needed the space. I
moved the primary connections of the transformers in to be
sure that they would not come into contact with the board
mounting hardware and make the metal case of the
instrument hot creating a very dangerous situation.
Figure 20 Circuit Board Showing Transformers and Filter Capacitors.
This completes the wiring of the power supply.

Power Supply 2.0.
Figure 21 Schematic Diagram of Power Supply 2.0.
For a verbal description click here
Figure 22 Circuit Board Layout For Power Supply 2.0.
There are no photographs of the completed power supply

2.0 because it was not built. You are on your own for this
one. You shouldn't have any trouble. After all, you wouldn't
be reading this page if you weren't a clever individual.
The Chassis and Enclosure.

Here we see the power supply mounted in the enclosure
along with, left to right, the power switch, power indicator,
and input connector. The range switches have also been
mounted to the panel just below the meter cutout.
Figure 23 Power Supply and Other Parts Mounted in Enclosure.
Next the Arduino chassis is temporarily mounted between

the range switches and meter cutout. The two screws that
hold the chassis to the panel will eventually be two of the
meter mounting screws. At this point most of the wiring has
been completed.
Figure 24 Arduino Chassis Mounted in Enclosure.
Initial Tests and Calibration.

After mounting and connecting the meter movement and
before mounting the power supply shield, plug the meter in
and turn on the power switch. The power indicator should
light. If it does not, find out why and fix it.
Set your function generator to 4.00 volts RMS sine wave

and a frequency of 1000 Hz. Set the power range switch to 1
watt and the load resistance switch to 16 ohms. Connect the
output of your FG to the input connector of the power
meter. The meter should read up scale. Adjust the trimming
pot for a reading of 1 on the 0 to 1 scale. Continue with final
assembly.
Final Assembly.
In figure 24 the mounting holes for the power supply shield
can clearly be seen. But how am I going to put the nuts on
the screws after the shield is in place? The close up below
answers that question. It was shot from the inside of the
shield. The two lumps of silicon rubber hold the nuts in

place. In fact you can even see one of the nuts which is
visible through the silicon rubber.
Figure 25 Inside of Power Supply Shield Showing Mounting Nuts Held in Place by
Silicon Rubber.
In figure 26 we see that the power supply shield and meter

movement have both been mounted.
Figure 26 The Power Supply Shield and Meter Movement Have Both Been
Mounted.
Now in figure 27 for the first time you see the back cover,
the wood outer case, and the reason why the wood cover is
necessary. As I said in comments above the enclosure is
recycled from an older now abandoned project. If it looks to
you as if the bottom piece on the wood case is out of place
you are correct. The top and sides are mitered together and
this is one of the weakest joints in woodworking. The
bottom piece is there to prevent breakage resulting from
handling. The power cord had to be passed through a hole in
the rear cover and that cover became captive as soon as the
power cord was soldered to the switch.
Figure 27 Showing Main Chassis, Back Cover, and Wood Outer Case.
Figure 28 Showing the Meter Completely Assembled.
Figure 29 The Meter Takes Its Place On My Equipment Shelf.
Well, I think that's about it. Only one more minor detail to
take care of.
Arduino Code.
// AUDIO POWER METER.
const int outputPin = 3;

const int analogPin = 0;
const int byteSize = 255;
const int spkrImp = 16;
void setup()
{
pinMode(outputPin, OUTPUT);
}
void loop()
{
int reading = analogRead(analogPin);
float volts = reading / 204.6; // Make range 0 to 5
float combCnst = byteSize / spkrImp;
float power = combCnst * volts * volts;
// keep output byte from wrapping.
if (power > byteSize)
{
power = byteSize;
}
int pwmValue = power;
analogWrite(outputPin, pwmValue);
}
Bear vs Bare.
On this page I have confused the spelling of bear and bare.
In fact I tried to alternate the spellings to see if I could stir
up anyone. The usage is "bare wire" or "bear wire". With
only a little help from Roget I find that the adjective bare
means naked as expected. It's pretty clear what a naked wire
is. But what about a bear wire? Roget gives only noun and
verb forms for bear but it is possible to use a noun as an
adjective. Chicken is certainly a noun but we have all heard
of chicken wire. My favorite synonym for bear is beast. So
what is beastly wire?
My point in all of this is that the grammar checker built into

MS word 2013 and updated doesn't know the difference
between bare and bear. So I'm going to leave this page as is
until I get an update that corrects this oversite. We all like to
complain about Microsoft but it isn't often that we get a real
chance to pull their chain. So I'm going to make the most of
it. So how are you doing Microsoft? Know any good bear
stories? How about any good bare stories?
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06/07/2019 Audio power meter.

Audio Power Meter.

Where P is the power output of the amplifier, V is the

There are other ways.

Special meter scales.

Someone on the Fun With Tubes email list posted a sample

meter scales and I still might do that. My search on the web

Having grown up with analog electronics and having used

But that was then, this is now.

What we have now is a little wonder called Arduino. I have

Figure 1 Arduino Based Power Meter.

Meter Movement Selection.

As I see it there are two possible sources of analog meter

The HP meter has a full scale current of 1 mA and has the

If you want to use the 1 3 10 scale but you don't have an HP

Figure 2 Scan of Modified HP Meter Face.

What's so special about this meter face.

The relative placement of the values on the two scales

The 1,3,10, scale.

1. Right click on the image and download it to your

The 1.5, 5, 15, scale.

Figure 3 Photo of RCA VoltOhmyst Meter.

range switch have only R# designations. The power ranges

When a 1, 3, 10, meter is used the lowest range is 1 watt.

The meter used by HP has a full scale current of 1 mA while

A Problem with Some Meter Movements.

Table 1, Range and Gain Resistor Values and Power Ra

Type R1 R2 R3 R4 R13 PR1 PR2 P

Table 2, Calibration Pot and Resistor, R17 & R18.

Full Scale Meter Current R17 R18

Figure 4 Two Photos of Breadboarded Power Meter.

The switch mounted on the left is the power range switch

FULL 16 OHM LOAD 8 OHM LO

Figure 5 Spreadsheet That Calculated Resistor Values.

When spreadsheets first came on the scene I viewed them as

Making precision Resistors.

satisfaction in measuring a voltage, current, or resistance

Let's take as an example the 6,505 ohm resistor which is R3

1. Start with a 6,800 ohm resistor. Don't waste your time

Solder the two resistors in parallel and make the remaining

1. Arduino Board. I bought my first Arduino as part of

Shield Board Wiring.

I bought my blank circuit boards off eBay so wherever you

Figure 6 Blank Shield Board.

In the paragraph below you will do the first soldering on the

constructing this board it is not recommended. Use solder

Mistakes will happen.

Colors In the Diagrams.

Wires On the Back of the Board.

Figure 7 Wiring Diagram of Board Shown From Back.

In the following steps you will be instructed to pass bear

Prepare a 3 inch length of bare wire. In the photo below the

Figure 8 First Steps in Wiring the Board.

Remember that the wire in column 16 was cut short of hole

Figure 9 Wiring the Back of the Board.

Prepare a 4 inch length of bare wire. Form a bend in the

Prepare a 3 inch length of bear wire. Make a bend in the

Prepare a 3 inch length of bare wire. Bend this wire in the

Prepare another 3 inch length of bear wire. Bend the wire in

The remaining point to point wiring on the back of the

Wires On the Front Side Of the

Figure 10 Wiring on the Front of the Board.

Figure 11 Wiring the Front of the Board.

Cut a 1-3/4 inch length of yellow hookup wire. Strip 1/2