CHAPTER
DotoboseNormolizqtion
5.1 KEY'-
A key is that data item that exclusively identifies a
record. For example, Account-number,Product-code,
Employee_numberand Customer-numberare used as
key fields becausethey specifically identify a record
stored in a database.
5.1.1SuperKey
A. Super Key for hn entity is a set of one or more
attributes whose combined value uniquely identi-
fies the entity in the entity set. For example, for an
entity set Employees, the set of attributes
lemp-name, address) can be considered to be a
super kep if we assume that there are no fwo
employees with the same emp-name as well as the
sameaddress.
5.1.2 Primory
Key
Theprimary key uhiquely identifies eachrecordin a
tablg and must never be the same for two records.
For example,emp_codecan be primary key for the
entity set Employees.
The primary key should be chosensuch that its
attributes are never or very rarely changed. For
mstance,the addressfield of a personshould not be
part of the primary key, sinceit is likely to change.
Emp_code,on the other hand, is not changed,till he
is working in the organization.
@ Theprimary kty of a relationcan be said to be a
minimalsuperkey.
5.1.3 CondidoteKey
A CandidateKey is an attribute o4 set of attributes
that uniquely identifies a record. These attributes or
combinations of attributes are called candidate keys.
ln such a case, one of the candidate key is chosen to
be a primary key.The remaining candidate keys are
called Alternate keas.
W Thereis only oneprimarylceyin a table.But there
keys.
canbemultiplecandidate
5.1.4 CompositeKey
In many cases,aE we design a database,we will
have tablesthat will use more than one column as
part of the primary key. Theseare called Composite
Keysor (concatenatedkeys).In other words, when a
record cannot be uniquely identified by a single
field, in such casesa compositekey is used.A com-
posite key is a group of fields that are combined
togetherto uniquely identify a record.
5.1.5 SecondoryKey
A Secondary Key is an attribute or combination of
attributesthat may not be a candidatekey but clas-
sifiesthe entity set on a particular characteristic.For
example, the entity set EIvIPLOYEEhaving the
attribute Department,which identifies by its value
which means all instances of EMPLOYEE who
belongto a given department.
More than one employeemay belong to a depart-
ment, so the Departmentattribute is not a candidate
key for the entity set EMPLOYEE,since it cannot
uniquely identify an individual employee. How-
ever, the Departmentattribute does identify all
employeesbelonging to a given department. Hence,
it canbe consideredas a secondarykey.
5.1.6 Forgign Key
In a relation, thg column whose data values corre-
spond to the values of a key column in anotherrela-
tion is called a ForeignKey.The supp_codekey is a
ForeignKey as seenin Figure 5.1.
@ ly1a relational database,theforeign key of a relation
may bethe primary key of anotherrelation.
50
Productl
Supplier:)
Figure 5.1 Conceptsof foreign key
.
5.2 RELATIONSHIPS
Entities may have several relationships among
themselves. Whenever an attribute of one entity
refers to another entity, there exists a relationship
between the two entities' Relationships was dis-
cussedin detail in Section3'2.3 of.Chapter 3'
5.3 WHATISNORMALIZATION?
Normalizatioreis the name given to the process of
simplifying the relationship among data elements in
a reiord. Normalization replacesa collection of data
in a.recordstructure by another record design which
is simpler, more predictable and therefore more
manageable.
The goal of a relational database design is to
generate a set of relation schemes that allow us to
Jtore information without any redundant (repeated)
data. It also allow us to retrieve information easily
and more efficientlY.
The first step towards Normalization is to convert
E-R model intoTablesot Relations'The next step is to
examine the tables for redundancy and if necessary,
change them to non-redundant forms. This non-
redundant model is then converted to a database
definition, which achieves the objective of the
databaseDesignPhase.
5.3.1 Needfor Normolizotion
Normalization reduces redundancy. Redundancy is
the unnecessary repetition of. a field. It can cause
problems with storage, retrieval and updation of
data. Redundancy can lead to:
(a) Inconsistencies-errors are more likely to occur
when facts are repeated.
(b) Update anomalies-inserting, modifying and
deleting data may cause inconsistencies. Incon-
sistency occurs when we perform updation or
Introductionto Dotobose Monogement System!
deletion of data irr.-one relation, while forgetting
to make corresponding changes in other rela-
tions.
@ pvvillg the processof normalization,we can identify
dependencies, which do causeproblemswhen delet-
ing or updating'Normalizationhelpsin simplifythe
structureof the tables.
A fully normalized record consists of:
(a) A primary key that identifies that entity'
(b) A set of attributes that describe that entity'
In the Processof normalization, data are grouped
in the simplest possible way so that changescan be
made later with minimum impact on the data struc-
ture. Various steps in normalization Process are
described later in this chaPter'
FORM(l NF)
NORMAT
5.4. FIRST
A table is in the First NormalFormwhen it contains
no repeating grouPs. The repeating columns or
fields presentin an unnormalizedtableare removed
from the table and put into separatetable or tables'
Thesetablesare dependenton the parent table from
which it is derived.The key to thesetablesmust also
be a part of the parent table,so that the parent table
and the derived tablescanbe relatedto eachother'
Isolate repeating groups from an entity because
they are easierto processseparately,from rest of the
entity. Figure 5.2 shows an unnormalized table
structure.
groups,it is saidto be
@ tlJYsna tablehasno repeating
(1
infirst normalform NF). Thatis,for eachcellin a
table(onerow and onecolumn),therecanbeonly
oneaalue.Thisaalueshouldbeatomicin thesense
thatit cannotbe decomposedintosmallerpieces'
As seenin Figure 5.2,the first four attributes(Em-
ployee number, Employeename, Storebranch and
Department)are virtually constant.The remaining
threeattributes(Item number, Item description,and
Sale price) contain data that change and are
repeatedwith different salesPersons.Therefore,the
repeatinggroup should be separatedfrom the eltity
"salesperson."
The normalized file is shown in Figure 5.3.It con-
sistsof two files:
!ll*Jbose Normolizotion Aa

Employee Item
name number
2l 130680Anand K Downtown Hardware TRIO Router
sAl Saw
PT6 Drill
A B 1 6 Lawnmover
30142101 Zadoo S Dadeland Home TTI Humidfier
appliances
D S I O Dishwasher
41984620 Balwant Cutter point Auto parts MCl6 Snow tire
AC146 Alternator
BBIOO Battery
6t2w12l Bhagwan Fashionspot Men's HSl0 Suit
clothing

Figure 5.2 Unnormalized file for sales

(b) The salespersonitem file with employee nurT',trer

.* = Key
and item number as new attributes. These tlrycr
ar/ Employee Employee attributes are added to relate the records in tliis
numEr nm€ Store brmch Departm€nt
file to the salesperson data file. The two attrib-
2l r 30680 Anmd K Downtown Hudwre
utes are used together for accessingdatar.Thr'lr,-
30t42t01 Zadoo S Dadelurd Home appliances
fore, two keys are used iogether and such a Kr:y
41984624 Balwmt Cutter point Auto ptrts
is called a concatenatedkey.
61204721 Bhagwm Fashion spot Men's clothing

SalesD€rson
Data File
5.5 FUNCTIONAT
DEPENDENCIES
Functional dependencies play an important role in
differentiating good dar:abase design from not to
2l l 30680 TRIO Router
good database design. Frunctional dependencies ere
21130680 SAI Saw
the consequence of the interrelationships amonl]
2l 130680 Pr6 Drill
21130680
attributes of an entity rcpre$ented by a relation.
AB16 Lawnmover | 245.@
30142r01 Trl Humidfier I I14.00
Alternatively, it may be due to the relationsl"rip
3014210r DSI$ between entities that are also represented by a rela-
4l tr84{i2!i I r!
!v1,.-: tion. Given a relation R, atrl..ibuteY of R is function-
+1e84620 4.C146 ally dependent on attribute X of R if and only if each
4t984620 Bg loc X-value in R is associatecl with it precisely one
6t2o.l"72l HSl0 Y-value in R.

n€ 4 functional dependenr:1 is denotedby X - + Y ,

betuteen
two setsof attributesX andY.
Figure5.3 Firstnr:rmatizeri
lils-lor s;,!es
The salesp'ersiltl
Cftt$fil.e wi:h enrFloy*e rt r il€r To understand functional d.ependenciesin a better
as the primarl' Ley. way, let us see the database containing inforrnation
concerning suppliers(S)and parts(P).The suppliers r€ f{6fg that in relation S, ute haae both S.SNo ->
and parts are uniquely identified by Supplier num-
bers(SNo)and Partno (PNo). Name and Name -+ S.SNo becauseName is an
alternatekeyfor relationS.
SNo Name Status City

S+ 51 Shyam 20 Bombay Similarly, in the Student (Name, Address, Subject,

32 Ram 10 Calcutta Grade) relation, following functional dependencies
S3 Amit 30 Calcutta should hold.
g Chirag 20 Delhi
NaIn€ -) Address
S5 Ramesh 30 Calcutti
Name Subject -+ Grade
The underlying semantics of these two functional
PNo Name Colour Weight City dependencies are that the address of a Student is
P+ P1 Nut Red t2 Bombay unique and in each subject a student gets a unique
P2 Bolt Green l/ Calcutta grade.
P3 Screw Blue 77 Goa Consider an Employee database as Employee
P4 Screw Red l4 Bombay (Emp-Code, Emp-Name, Dept, Grade, Salary, Age,
P5 Handle BIue 12 Bombay
Address) relation.
P6 Wire Red T9 Delhi
The following functional dependencieshold:
In the Supplier and parts databases,attributes
fL: Erqp_Code-+ Etll-Narn€t
Name, Statusand City of relation S are each func-
tionally dependenton attribute SNo, becausegiven (each employee has a unique Emp-Code)
a particularvalue for SNo, there existspreciselyone f2: Etg2-Code -+ DeDtt
correspondingvalue for eachof Name, Statusand (an ennployeecan work in one department only)
City. Symbolicallywe canwrite: f 3: Emp-Code Grade Age -) Salary;
S.SNo +s.Na'me (empl.oyee'ssalary depends on his age and grade)
S.SNo -tS.Status
f4: Er{)-Cod€ --> Aget
S.SNo +S.CitY
(eachr:mployee his a unique age)
The statement"S.SNo+ S.City" is read as "attribute f5: Erql-Code -+ Address;
S.Cityis functionallydependenton attributeS'SNo".
(eachemployee has unique address)
The statement"S.SNo-r S. (Name, Status,City)"
can be similarly interpret,ed if we consider the In this relation Emp-Code is not functionally
combination(Name, Statu,';,City) as compositekey dependent on Salary or Age, becausemore than one
of relations.Functionaldependencycan be shown employee can have the same salary and can be of the
diagrammatically as in Figure5,4. sanle age.

Figure 5.4 Functionaldependenciesin relationS and P


lotobose Normolizotion
5.5.1 FullFunctionolDePendencY
\ -+ Y is a full functional dependency, because
:emoval of any attribute A from X would result into
Jre cancellation of dependency. In other words, for
:n-v attribute A e X, it does not functionally deter-
nine Y. For example, in the relation S, the attribute
CITY is functionally dependent on the composite
:ttribute (SNo, Status)' However CITY is not fully
:unctionally dependent on this composite attribute
becauseit is also functionally dependent on SNo. (If
\ is functionally dependent on X but not fully so,
'jren X must be composite).
B Whenall non-keyattrihutesare dependent on the
keyattribute,it is calledfull functionaldependency
(SeeFigure(5.5)
RNo Name Addr Age Course
Figure5.5 Concept of full dependency
functional
tn the above example non key attributes (Name,
-{ddr, Age and Course) are dependent on key
attribute RNo. Here RNo stands for Roll Number.
5.5.2 PortiolDePendenc'Y
-{,functional dependencyX '-+ Y is a parnal depen-
ddncyif someattributes.Ae X can be removedfrom
\ and the dependency still holds' Partial sitive
dependencyin a record type occurs when some
r,or,-k"y atiribute dependson the key atttibute, and
the remaining non-key attr:ibutesdepend on key
attribute and on one or more non-key attributes' In
other words, all the non-key attributes are not
dependenton the key attriloute.There is a partial
dependencyof non-key attr:ibuteseither on the key
atlributeoron the non-keyattribute.(SeeFigure5'6) college.
Figure 5.6 Conceptof partial dependency
53
In Figure 5.6, non-key attributbs Narye,Addr and
Aseari dependenton RNo, and Dateof Comp(Date
oi Comptetion) i.e. non-key attribute depends on
RNo (key attribute) as well as on Course(non-key
attribute).
5.5.3 TronsiliveDependency
A functional dependencyX -+ Y in a relationscheme
R, is a transitive dependency if there is a set of
attributes Z thratis neither a candidate key nor a
subsetkey of R and both X -> Z andZ + Y hold'
A generalcaseof transitive dependencies is as
follows:
A,B,C are threecolumnsin a table
If C is relatedto B
If B is relatedto A
Then C is indirectlY relatedto A.
This is the casewhen transitive dependencyin a
table exists.We can remove transitive dependency
by splitting each relation into two separatetables,
which are to be linked using a foreign key'
When one non-key attribute depends on other
non-kev attribute, it is called a transitive dep*n-
dency(SeeFigure5.7(a)and Figure5.7(b)).
To calc'ulateDistancein Figure 5.7@),which is a
non-key attribute, we must know origin and Desti'
nation wlhich are also non-key attributes, i.e., one
non-key attribute is dependenton one or more than
one non-key attributes.Here, distancehas the tran-
dependencY.
As seen in Figure 5.7(b), transitive dependency
occurs becauseone non-key attribute is dependent
on other non-key attribute i.e' if student is in I" year
then he has been assignedHostel Gnndhi,.if he is in
II"d year, Hostel assignedis lawahar;III'. year the
hostbl assignedis lndrl. Thus, Hostel assignedto a
student is dependent rcn the year of study in the
I
54 lntroductionto Dotcbose MonogemeniSystems

dependents. Also note that the employee, projects

SNo OriEin Destination Distance and dependents are not directly related to one
another.
To keep the tuples in the relation consistent, we
must keep a tuple to represent every combination of '
Figure 5.7(a) Conceptof transitivedependency an employee's dependent and an employee's proj-
ect. This constraint is specified as a multivalued
RNo Name Dept Year Hostel dependency on the EMP relation. Informally,
whenever two independent 1:N relationships A:B
and A:C are mixed in the same relatiorr, then multi-
valued dependenciesmay arise.
Figure 5.7(b) Conceptof transitivedependency
Consider the Course (Course#, Teacher, Student,
Time, Room) relation as given in Figure 5.8. Con-
5.5.4 MultivoluedDependency sider an instance of multivalued dependencies
mL : Course# -+-+ Tirne, Room
Functionaldependenciesrule out certain tuples from m2 : Course# -+-+ Sfudent
being in a relation. If A -+ B, then we cannot have Course# Teacher Student Time Room
two tuples with the same A value but different B
BSO3 Jain,S Beena M33
values. Multiaalued dependencies, on the other
BSO3 Jain,S Aman M33
hand, do not rule out the existence of certain tuples, PC02 Singh,S. Bipin M52
which have multiple dependencies. Instead, they PC02 Singh,S. , Aman M52
require that other tuples of a certain form be present PC02 Singh,S. Kamal M52
in the relation. BSO3 Bose,V. Vivek Th7 1
BSO3 Bose,V. Eeena Th7 1
BS03 Bose,V. Kamal Th7 1
Multivalued dependencies are a consequence of
PC02 Arora,K. Bipin F7 1
first normal form. First normal form does not allow PC02 Arora,K. Aman F7 1
an attribute in a tuple to have more than one value. PC02 Arora.K Kamal F7 1
If we have two or more multivalued indelpendent
Figure 5.8 An instanr:eof the multivalued dependen-
attributes in the same relation schema, then we
cies in relertionCourse (Course#,Teacher,
would get into a problem of having tro rep,eatevery
Student, T'ime,Room)
value of one of the attributes with everv value of the
The meaning of these two multivalued dependen-
other attribute to keep the relation irrsiances consis-
cies are that the same te,acheris teaching a particular
tent. This constraint is specified by a multiaalued
course irrespective of time or room in which the
deryendency.
course is held. Moreover, students registered for a
W Functionaldependencies are also referredto as course are not deterrnined by the time or room
equality genercting depe.nilencies, where the course is held.
and multiaa-
Iued dependenciesare also referredto as tuple
generuting dependencies. 5.5.5 Join Dependency

For example,considerthe following relation EMP: Join dependencyis a constraint, similar to a Func-
tional Dependencyor a Multivalued Dependency. It
ENAME PNAME DNAME is satisfiedif and oruv if f irc relation concernedis the
Rajan X Ganesh join of certain nurnber i:f projectiuns.And therefore,
Ramesh Y Dinesh sucha constraintis caliecta join dependency.
Ram X Babu We now considera specialclassof join Cependen-
Arjun Y Baskar
cieswhich help to capru]redata dependencieslpres-
A tuple in this EMP r,elation repreqentsthe fact ent in a hierarchicaldata structure.Fr:r exarnplie, in
that an employer whose name is ENAME works on the N{.JRS*HOMEdal"abrse shorr.n in t'..ig*re$.9"
the project whose name is PNAME and has a data has an inherertt hiErarchis:ai ,rr:galtizaei.rrr,
it
dependentwhose narne is DNAME. An employee implies that informatiron regartiing lvardru;and
may work on severalprojectsand may have several patients currently admitlcd tn "r rvarti depenclil.iiy
l,crtoboseNormolizotion 55

The second normalization makes sure that each

non-key attribute dependson a key attributeor on a
compositekey. Non-key attributesthat do not meet
this condition are split into simpler entities. Lr
Figure 5.10, each attribute in the salespersondata
file dependson the primary key "Employe#." In the
salespersonitem file, the attribute "Sales price"
depends on, a composite key ("Employee#"and
"Item#").Note that the salesprice is firmly relatedto
the salespersonnumber and the item number of the
F-rgure5.9 Hierarchical representationof a NURS-HOME sale. Also, the athibute "Item description"tags to
database "Item#,"which is part of the cornpositekey. "Item#"
:n the Nurs-home but not the facilities present in is not related in any way to the "Employee#"field.
:ut hospital (and vice versa). Since a Nurs-home This causesseveralconcertrs.An employeetransfer
:an have multiple wards, functional dependencies would make it difficult to maintain recordsbecause
r-re not adequate to describe the data dependency the salesinformation would be dropped when the
$nong NURS-HOME and WARDS or FACILITIES. salespersonleavesthe department.This is because
h this case, Multivalued dependencies, salesinformation (Item#, Saleprice) is linked with
\URS-HOME -++ WARD or NURS-HOME +-r "Employee#"in the salespersonitem file.
IACILITIES hold. To solve such a problem, we createnew indepen-
Using, first order hierarchical decomposition dent tablesfor "Item description"and "Salesprice".
FOHD) would enable us to represent data depen- ln one file, we createthe item descriptionattribute
.jencies present in a hierarchical data structure in a with item number keys from the SalespersonItem
::ore natural way. file. The remaining attributes (Employeenumber,
The NURS-HOME database shown in Figure 5.9 Item number, and Salesprice) becomethe second
',;hen decomposed, has the following representa- tableor file. (SeeFigure 5.10)
:ons: The creation of the second table offers several
benefits.Theseare:
NURS_HOME : WARD I FACILITIES
(a) Salesitems can be added without being tagged
NURS-HOME,WARD: PATIENT
NURS-HOME, to a specificsalesperson.
WARD,PATIENT : COMPLAINTSITREAT-
MENT IDOCTOR
o) If the item changeswe need to changeonly the
item file.
Thus we can store NURS-HOME database as the (c) If a salespersonleavesthe department,it would
join of
-ossless have no direct effect on the status of the items
sold.
(NURS-HOME,FACILITY)
\-r-;RS_FACILTTY
\URS-WARD(NURS-HOME,WAR.D,PATIENT,. [€ 4 tableis.in Second.normal form (2NF) if eaery
COMPLAINTS,TREATMENT,DOCTOR) non-keycolumndepends on theentireley (notjust
relations. We can use fh, and fh, to further decom- part of it). This issuearisesonlyfor compositekeys
rose NURS-WARD relation. (withmultiplecolumns).

NORMAIFORM(2NF)
5.6 SECOND
A table is in the SecondNormalForm tf all its non-key
ields are fully dependent on the whole key. This
-xeans that each field in a table, must depend upon
rhe entire key. Those that do not depend upon the
;ombination key, are moved to another table on
rvhosekey they depend on. Structureswhich do not
contain combination keys are automatically in the
-cond normal form.
NORMATFORM(3NF)
5.7 TH|RD
A table is sa-idto be in the Third Normal Form, if all
the non-key fields of the table are independent of all
other non-key fields of the table.
In Figure 5.10 we can observe that there is further
room for improvement. In the salespersondata file,
the attribute "Store branch" is tagged to the primary
key "Employee#" while the attribute "Department"
EC
rn+rndg6tisn
il ilt\ to DotoboseMonogementSyst
J9

16oy""* Employeename Storebranch Department

21130680 Anand K Downtown Hardware

30142101 Zadoo S Dadeland Home appliances

4r984620 Balwant Cutter point Auto parts

61204721 Bhagwan Fashionspot Men's clothing

Data File
Salesperson

/
Employee#
/
Item # Saleprice(Rs.)
r'Item # Item description

21130680 TRIO 35.00 TRIO Router

2l 130680 sAl 19.00 SAl Saw

21130680 PT6 21.00 PT6 Drill

21130680 ABI6 245.00 ABI6 Lawnmover

30t42101 TTI 1r4.00 TTI Humidfier

30r42101 DS10 262.40 DS10 Dishwasher

4t984620 MCl6 85.00 M C 1 6 Snowtire

41984620 AC146 65.00 ACl46 Alternator

41984620 BBIOO 49.50 B B l O O Battery

61204721 HSIO 215.00 HSlO Suit

Item File
Salesperson ltem File

Figure 5.10 Second normalizaiion

which is a non-key attribute is related to "Store
branch," which is another non-key attribute. Mak-
ing "Store branch" a key attribute requires isolating
"Department" along with "Storebranch" and placing
them in a new table as shown in Figure 5.1L.
Note that, after completing the third normaliza-
tion, we can store branch information independent
of the salespersonsin the branch. We can also make
changes in the "Department" without having to
upciate the record of the emPloyee in it. In this
respect, normalization simplifies relationships and
provides logical links between files without losing
information.
One inherent problem with normalization is data
rtdundancy. For store branch, the system goes
tlrrough three steps:
(a) Computes total sales for each salesperson from
the salespersonitem file.
(b) Goes.to the employee data file to look up the
store branch to which the sales person is
assigned.
(c) Accumulates each galesperson'ssalesin a speci-
fied field in the store branch file.
This procedure is repeated for each salespersonin
the file" Figure 5.12 illustrates the processing cycle
for salesperson21L30680.
us 4 rcIationis in thethird normalform if it is in sec-
ond normslform and no non-primeattributeis
functionally dependent on other non-prime
attributes.
5.8 BCNF(BOYCE-CODD
NORMALFORM)
Boyce-CoddNormal Form (BCNF) was proposed as
 57
lc':cose Normolizotion

2l 130680 Downtown Downtown Hardware

Dadeland Dadeland Homeappliances

30142101
41984620 Cutter point Cutterpoint Auto parts

61204721 Fashion spot Fashionspot Men's clothing

Saleprice(Rs.)

2 I 130680 35.00 Router

2l l 30680 19.00 Saw

2l 130680 21.00 Drill

2l l 30680 245.00 Lawnnover

30142101 I14.00 Humidfier

30142101 262.00 Dishwasher

4t984620 85.00 Snowtire

4r984620 6s.00 Altemator

41984620 49.50 Battery

61704721 215.00 Suit

Item File
Salesperson

Figure 5.11 Third normalization

The problem in the relation GRADE is that it had

s s:mpler form of Third Normal Form (3NF),but it is
r-uch more strict than 3NF, meaning that every
:€lation in BCNF is also in 3NF' However, a relation
:, 3NF is not necessarilybe in BCNF'
Consider a relation scheme in third normal form
:it has a number of overlapping composite candi-
:ite keys. In particular consider the relation
" that involve a candidate keYs'
;RADE (Name, Student#, Course, Grade) of
lable 5,1. Here the functional dependencies are
-+
\ame Course -+ Grade, Student# Course Grade'
\ame + Student#, Student# + Name)' Thus, each
:rudent has a unique name and a unique student
:,iunber. The relalion has two candidate keys'
\ame, Course) and (Student#, Course)' Each of
rese keys is a composite key and contains a com-
ron attiibute Courie' The relation scheme satisfies
--recriterion of the third normal form relation' i'e''
-+ A in GRADE'
:or all functional dependencies X
two overlapping candidate keys. In the Boyce Codd
normal foim GCNF), which is stronger than the
third normal form, the intention is to avoid the
above anomalies. This is done by ensuring that for
all non-trivial functional dependencies implied by
the relation, determine the functional dependencies
The relation GRADE of Table 5'L is not in BCNF
-> Name and
because the dependencies Student#
Name + Student# are non-trivial and their determi-
nants are not suPerkeYsof GRADE'
NORMALFORM(4NF)
5.9 FOURTH
In order to avoid undesirable updating problem in
presence of multi-valued dependencies, Fourth
irlormal Form was introduced as an extension of
BoyceCodd normal form.
58 _ _ lntroductionto Dotobose Monogement Systems

Downtown DowntownHardware
Dadeland Dadeland Homeappliances
Cufierpoint Cutterpoint Autoparts
Fashion
spot Fashion
spot Men'sclothing

Salesperson
DataFile

Y
Employee
Y
# Item# Salepdce(Rs,)
rItem# Ihm description
2l 130680 TRIO 35.00-l TRIO Router
I
21130680 s A l re.00
I) sAl Saw
2t130680 P r 6 2r.00
| PT6 Drill
I
21130680 ABI6 245,N
) A B I 6 Lawnmover
30142101 T T I I t4.00 T't I Humidfier
30tarcl DSl0 262.N DSt0 Dishwasher
4t984620 MCl6 85.00 MCl6 Snowtire
41984620 ACl46 65.00 AC146Alternator
41984620 BBIOO 49.50 BBIOOBatlery
6lm472l HSl0 215.N HSl0 Suit
Salesperson
ltemFile ItemFile

Figure 5.12 Processingcycle

Table 5.1 The GRADE relation Fourth Normal Form eliminates casesin which the
Name Student# Course Grade composite key of a record type contains two or more
James 23714539 353 A data items that are independent, multivalued facts
Neelam 427Lrc9A 329 A of an entity.
Iames 237'14539 328 in prog The fields are independent if there are no combi-
l,lohan 38815183 456 C nations that are logically related.
i.tiip 37116259 293 B
i;-eepraf
In the example given in Figure 5.13, skill and lan-
82317293 491 C
f.}eepak 823L7293 353 in prog guages are multivalued (many different skills and
farnes 23714539 491 c many different languages), but there is no logical
ikj 11011978 353 A+ dependency between a language and a skill.
Vikas $9LA827 379 in prog To put it in Fourth Normal Form, the data mustbe
separated by creating two separate tables.
DotoboseNormolizotion
@ n generalizationof theBoyceCoddnorrnalform to a additional types of dependencies and constraints.
relationuthichincludesthe multianlueddependen- The idea behind domain-key Normal Form (DKNF)
ciesis calledFourthNormalForm. is to specify the ultirnate normal form that takes into
5.r 0 FIFTH NORMAT FORM (sNF)
The Fourth Normal Form is by no means the "ulti-
mate" normal form. As we saw earlier, multivalued
dependencies help us understand and tackle some
forms of repetition of information that cannot be
understood in terms of functional dependencies.
There are types of constraints called ioin dependencies
that generalize multivalued dependencies, and lead
to another normal form called project-join normal
.form (PINF). The PJNF is called Fifth Normal Form.
There is a class of even more general constraints,
which leads to a normal form called domain-l<eu nor-
malform.
A practical problem with the use of these general-
ized constraints is that they are not only hard to rea-
son with, but there is also no set of sound and
complete inference rules for reasoning about the
constraints. Hence, PfNF and dornain key normal
form are used verv rarelv.
Emplovee skirl Language
mustbe separatedas
Employee skitl Employee Language
Figure 5.13 Fourth Normal Form
!g Theconceptof Project-join-Normal
form GINF) is
an extensionof the Fourth Normalform definition
whenjoin dependenciesarealsoconsidered.
5"I I DOMAIN-KEY
NORMALFORM
The process of normalization and the process of dis-
covering undesirable dependencies was carried
through Fifth Normal Form (sNF) as a meaningful
design activity. However, it has been possible to
59
define stricter normal forms that take into account
account all possible types of dependencies and con-
straints.
The domain key normai form (DKNF) does not
exhibit insertion and deletion anomalies. However,
unlike the other normal forms, DKNF is not defined
in terms of functional dependencp multivalued
dependency, or join dependency. The central
requirements in DKNF are the basic concepts of
domains, keys and general conshaints. A domain
constraint is a statement that the values of a certain
attribute lie within some prescribed set of values.
Key constrainfsis a statement that a certain attribute
or attribute combination is a candidate key. A
generalconstraint is expressed as a simple statement
or predicate and specifies some special requirement.
Each tuple of a relation must specify this predicate
i.e. general constraint for it to be a valid tr"rple,
us 4 relationscheme is in DKNF,if euerygeneralcon-
straint can be inferred from the knowledge of the
attrihutesinaolaedin thescheme, their underlying
domains,and the setsof attributesthat form the
lcevs.
An insertion anomaly in the caseof DKNF occurs
when a tuple is insertedin a relation and the result-
ing relation violatesone or more generalconstraints.
Similarly, a deletion anomaly occurswhen a tuple
from a relation is deletedand the remainingrelation
violates one or more generalconstraints.We show
these dependenciesand general constraintsin the
followingexample.
Exomple I
Consider the relation schemeTRANSCRIPT(SNo,
Course,Grade).Suppose the attributesSNoand Course
are numeric, 8 and 3 digits long, respectively.The
attribute Gradeis a letter gradeand could be A, B, C,
D, P, F. The generalconstraintis that f.orCourses000
through 90Othe Gradecan only be A,B, C,D, F. The
domain constraintsfor this relation are the follow-
ing:
SNois required to be 8 digits long, Courseis 3 digit
long, and Gradehasto be from the set {A,B,C,D,P,F}.
The key constraintfor the relation is that no two
tuples cin exist with the same values for the key
attributes, which are SNo and Course.Obviously,
60 Introductionto DotoboseMonogementSystems

SNoCourse + Grade. applications. They select such a schemathat has

Finally, the general constraint can be expressedby redundant information that means it is not normal-
the following: ized.
if Grade > 900 then Crade e {P, F} For example, suppose that the name of an account
holder has to be displayed along with the account
else Grade e {A, B, C, D, F}
number and cash balance,every time the account is
accessed.In our normalized schema,this requires a
W The DKNF is consideredto be the highestform of join of accountwith depositor.One alternative is to
normnlization, since all insertion and deletion create a relation containing all the attributes of
anomaliesare eliminatedand all generalconstraints account and depositor.This makes displaying the
canbeaerifiedby using only thedomainconstraints account information faster. Holvever, the balance
and keqconstraints. information for an account is repeated for every
person who owns the account, and all copies must
The problem with this relation is that a tuple such be updated by the application, whenever the
as (1.2345678,991, A), which satisfiesall the domain accountbalance is updated. This processof taking a
constraints and key constraints, can be inserted in normalized schema and making it non-normalized
the relation TRANSCRIPT of Table 5.2. However, is called denormalization.Designers of databaseuse it
since the tuple does not satisfy the general con- to tune performance of systems that require time-
straint, the relation TRANSCRIPT becomes illegal critical operations.
after ihe insertion. A better alternative is to use views. A materialized
Table5.2 TheTRANSCRIPT
relation view is a view whose result is stored in the database,
Course
and reflected in the data when the relations used in
Grade
the view are updated. Like denormalization, using
2371.4539 J3J materialized view does have soace and time over-
42717390 329
heads, but it has the advantage that keeping the
23714539 928 P
38815183 456 r
view up-to-date is the job of databasesystem, not
371.1.6259 B the application programmer.
8231.7293 491 L
82317293 953 F 5.I3 CASESTUDY
I
2371.4539 491 C
1l0rt978 353 A Normalize the following data of CUSTOMER table
83910827 J / > P to 2NF using appropriate relation. Give brief expla-
nation for each level.
Exomple2 XYZLTD.
The TRANSCRIPT relation discussed above can be Cust_no : 001
Cust_name : Dev and Co. LTD.
decomposedinto the following relations:
Addr : DWARKA Sec.7. Pl. no.2
TRANSCRIPT_REGULAR (SNo, Course, Grade) Order_no : 2240
with the domain constraints (SNo being 8 digit, Order-date :5/1.1./02
Coursebeing 3 digit in the range 000 through 900, Deli_date : 1.5/ll/02
and Grade in the set {A, B, C, D, F}). The key as
before is SNo Course. Item*no Desc Rate Qty
TRANSCRIPT_SPECIAL (SNo, Course,Grade)with 001 Floppydisk(3 1/a") t70 5
024 Printer(Inkjet) 5500 2
the domain constraints (SNo being 8 digit, Course UJJ cD 450 5
being 3 digit in the range 000 through 999, and 039 Keyboard 1000 3
Grade in the set {P, F}). The key as before is SNo
Course. Solution
Step1
5.12 DENORMATIZATION Firstly, we have to write down the data in the
In some exceptional cases,database designers use unnormalized form. Without normalization, the
the redundancy to improve performance for specific data appearsas follows:
 61
l':-obose Normolizotion

n-nnormalized Data: In the 2NF the element depending. upon the whole
-;;t-no key and partial key are separated and formed into
new data structure'
l;,:i_name 2
:.: jr
]:.l.er_no *Cust-no *I{em no Ddsc Rate
Qty
]:er-date
le-i_date
-:t::-.-no
2

."i*" *t*,."10*
-<:!

i;:e
2
Step2 *Order-no Order-date Deli-date
.."[*;rder-no
l:.e First Normal Form (1NF) is any data structure
-^,:irout repeating groups. So to achieve First
2
5.I4 CASESTUDY
\:':mal Form, remove all repeating grouPs. In this
:uinple, Item-no, Desc,Rate,Qty etc. repeats with Normalize the following data of personal employees
=:ch customer. table to 3NF using appropriate relations' Note that
*'
lhe primary key from the original structure is to be key fields are denoted bY
:r,-rrght into repeating grouP structure' Also the key Unnormalized Data
::e-l from the new structure (repeating group) is to
PersonalEmPloYeeTable
:e found out. The new structure is named with
* Emp-code EmPloYeecode
::rropriate name.
L Dept-code DePartmentcode
I
Mgr-code Manager code
IL
*Itbm-no Course-code Coursecode
tust-no Desc RateQtY
1 Course-title Coursetitle

= Solution
5l:st-no Cust-nameAddr Order-noOrder-datJDe[-date
Step 1
the first stage of normalization is to remove all
@ Notethat* denotes
keyfieldfor an entity.
repeating groups. So there are two tables;employee
table and training table, with the key field
-:r the first file structure Cust-no is the main key or Emp-code appearing in each.
i^,e primary key and ltem-no is the partial or
First Normal Form (1NF)
=e.-ondarykey.
Step3 Employeetable Trainingtable
* Emp-code *EmP-code
li.e Second Normal Form (2NF) is a data structure *Course-code
Dept-code
-: n'hich all non-key data elements are fully func-
Mgr-code Course-title
:rnally dependent on the primary key' If a relation
*. 1NF then we can go for its 2NF. In the 2NF we Step 2
.ook for Functional Dependence. For exarrtpLe,Desc In Second Normal Form (2NF) we have to remove
:: item is dependent on ltem-no, Rate is dependent partial key dependencies. This is done by examining
:n ltem_no. lhore tecotds possessinga compound key (i.e. a key
Similarly, Cust-name is dependent on Cusf-no, cus- comprising more than one item) and checking to see
:Jmer Addr is dependent on Cust-name and so on' whether each data field in the record relates to the
'-\-e whole key. If the field relates to only part of the key,
group such functionally dependent attributes
:nd achieve 2NF. it is removed with its key to form another table. In
62 introductionto Dqtobose Monogement Systems

the above example Course title relates only to 3. The relation is said to be in when every
Course_code, so it is removed ' with its key to form non-key attribute is fully functionally dependent
another table as Course table. on the primary key.
Second Normal form (2NF) 4. -is stricker than 3NF.
5. Every relation in BCNF is also in -.
Employeetable Training table Coursetable
*Emp-code *Emp-code *Course-code 6. \A/henall non-key attributes are dependent on the
Dept-code *Course-code Course-title kev attribute. it is called dependencv.
Mgr_code
7. A functional dependency is denoted by
between two sets of attributes x and y.
Step 3 8. When one non-key attribute depends on other
non-key attribute, it is called a - depen-
in Third Normal Form (3NF) involves examining
each record to see whether any items are mutually dency.
dependent. In this example, Dept_code and Mgr
Answer
-code are mutually dependent because the manager
of each department will always be the same. Thus 1. Normalization 2. 1NF 3. 2NF
new table department is being created for depart- 4. BCNF 5. 3NF 6. Full
ments, the key being Dept-code. Now data is com- functional
pletely norrnalized. 7. x-+y 8. Transitive
Third Normal Forrn (3NF)
EXERCISE
Employeetable Training table
*Emp-code *Emp-code Note: Answer all questions.
Dept-code *Course-code
1. Define Normalization and why is it done?
2. Explain Third Normal Form (3NF) with an
Department table Course table
*Dept-code *Course-code example.
Mgr-code Course-title 3. With the help of an example, what do you
understand by Boyce Codd Normal Form.
How does it differ from Third Normal Form.
REVIEW
OUESTIONS
WITHANSWERS 4. Write short note on:
(a) Denormalization
Fillintheblonks (b) Fourth Normal Form.
1.-- is the processof grouping the data (c) TransitiveDependency
item elernentsin the tuple representingentities (d) MultivaluedDependencies
and their relationships. 5. Explain Partial Dependency with an example.
2. When a table has no repeating groups, it is said to 6. What is join dependencies? Explain with an
be in example.
)otobase Normqlizotion 63

:
T(FST PAPERJ,B

Inlroduclionto DotaboseMoncgementSyslems

PARTI (OBJECTIVE to be answereain fi Minutes)

QUESTIONS
l. Multiplechoice 1.8 Every Boyce-Coddnormal form (BCNF)is in
a. tr NF c.3NF
1.1 The level of data abstraction which describes d. None of the above
b.2NF
how the data is actually stored is
1.9 Which normal form is most desirable?
a. Physical level c. Storagelevel
a. Domain key normal c."Third normal form
b. Conceptual level d. View level
form (DKNF) (3 NF)
1.2 An associationof several entities in an Entitl' Fourth normal form
b. Bovce-Codd normal d.
Relation model is called
form (BCNF) (4 NF)
a. Tuple c. Relationship
1.10 Complex entities can be constructedusing the
b. Record d. Field
following operation:
1.3 The overall logical structure of a database can c. Aggregation
a. SUM
be expressed graphically by
b. Union d. Collection
a. Data flow chart c. Directed graPh
1.11Which key provide the basic tuple-level
b. Flow chart d. Entity-relationship
addressin mechanismin a relationalsystem?
diagram
a. Candidatekeys c. PrimarYkeYs
L . 4 The overall design of a database is called d. None of these
b. Alternative keys
a. Schemaof the c. Structureof the primary keys of the relatedentity
1.12 The union of
database database of the relation.
setsbecomesa
b. The screenof d. View of the database
a. Superkey c. ForeignkeY
database d. PrimarykeY
b. Candidatekey
1.5 The number of entities to which another entity
1.13 A relation in third normal form is
can be associated via a relationship set is
a. in first normal form c. From transitive
expressedas dependencies
also
a. Entity c. Scheme
b. Secondnormal d. All of the above
b. Cardinality d. Attributes
form also
7.6 One limitation of the entitv-relation model is
1.14 Which one is not true?
that it cannot
a. A relation is in BCNF if it is in 4NF
a. usegeneralization c. usesingleprimary
b. BCNF is stricter than 3NF
key
c. A relation is in BCNF if ever determinant of
b. expressrelationship d. none of the above
the relation is a candidate key.
amongrelation-
ci. All are tr"ue.
ships
1..'15lf every non-key attribute is functionally
1.7 6very weak entity set can be converted to a
ciependent on the primary key, then the rela-
sirong entity set by
ticn will bq:in
a. $i:nply adding e. Using aggre6ation
a" lNF c" 3NF
appropriate
b. ?l,,lF d. .{itF
attribule
' . ' i t n g " l - ' cr r t i ; . y 3-36 A stitrrir keri is ;r s+l cf tln.e *F illtjre ftttributes
b. Usi.iig r
lirart{a.L"etclii*i:tl"rely, aili-:iv L;';
generalization set si",;eralti;.q:s
 !l

a. To identify uniquely an entity in the entity 3.4 Virtual tables d. Primary key
set values
b. To make the key most powerful for faster 3.5 Weak entity set e. User views
retrieval
3.6 Fourth normal form f. Inheritance
c. To increaseeffectivenessof databaseaccess
d. None of the above 3.7 Referential g. Domain calculus
1.17 A table is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and if constraints
a. No column that is not a part of the primary 3.8 QBE h. SUM
key is dependent on only a portion of the 3.9 Update anomaly i. Foreignkey
alternatekey 3.10 Union rule j. First normal form
b. No column that is not a part of the primary k. Secondnormal
key is dependent on only a portion of the form
primary key l. QUEL
c. No column that is not a part of the primary
key is dependent on only a portion of the 4. Fillin the blonksout of the foilowing:
foreign key a. aggregation b. primary key c. Relational
d. None of the above d. attributes e. record f. schema
replication
2. SeleclTRUE or FATSE
in the foflowing g. root h. foreign key i. Normaliza-
slotemenls tion
2,1 A weak entify set has a primary key. j. BCNF k. subschema L data
2,2 Every weak entity set can be converted into a dictionary
4.1 A view of the database that appears to an
strong entity set by adding appropriate attrib-
utes. application program is known as
2.3 A candidate key can be a subset of a super key, 4.2 If relation is in _, it is in 3 NF also.
2.4 Many-to-many relationship between two enti- 4.3 _ represents relationship between the
ties can be representedby two DBTG sets. tables.
2.5 In a relational database, the foreign key of a 4.4 -is the name given to the process
relation would be the primary key of an of simplifying the relationship among data ele-
another relation. ments in a record.
2.6 Boyce-Codd Normal Form is also in Third nor- 4.5 Complex entities can be constructed using the
mal form. operation.
2,7 The subschema must contain all the descrip- 4.5 In a relational data model the columns of a
tion of certain data that are in the scheme. table are called
2.8 Codd gave 12 rules for any RDBMS to be 4.7 In a hierarchical database,modeling of many-
acceptedas a full fledged RDBMS. to:many relations is achieved by --.
2.9 Aggregation operation is used to construct 4.8 h a hierarchical database,a hashing function is
complex entities. used to locate
2.10 An E-R model uses doubly outlined rectangle 4.9 E-R model is used to describe
to represent weak entity set. model.
4.10 .--- containsthe structureof the data-
3. Motchwords/phroses
in the two columns base.
3.1 Specialization a. Functional depen-
dency
3.2 Aggregation function b. Multivalued
PARTil (DESCR|PT|VH QUESTTONS
dependency to be answeredin 2 Hours)
3.3 Entity integrity c. Doubly outlined Q. 1 What do you mean bv integrity and Referential
box Integrity? Explain with example.
Jotcbose Normolizotion
Q. 2 Differentiate between File processingapproach
and Databaseprocessingapproach. L.
Q.3 Define normalization. Why normalization is
carried out?
Q. a Who is DBA? Explain the role of DBA in an c 2.1(F)
organization.
3.
4.
ANSWERSTO (DESCRIPTIVE
QUESTIONS)
Ans.1 Entitylntegrity:
if an attribute of a table is prime attribute (unique identifier), it can not acceptnull values, i.e.,
no component of a primary key values may be null.
Referenliollntegrity:
To ensurethat J valuewhich appearsin onerelationfor a givensetof attributes
appear for certain set of attribuies in another relation. This condition is called as referential
integrity,
Ans.2 File ProcessingApproach
(a) Redundancy in defining and storing data
which results in wastage of storagespace.
(b) Data definition is typically part of the
application programs themselves and
hence file-processing software can access
only specific database files.
(c) The structure of data files is embedded in
the accessprogralns, so any changes to the
structure of a file may require changing all
programs that accessthis file.
(d) Does not support multiple views of same
data.
(e) Data for rnuitiple application may not be
integrated and is maintained in individual
files.
65
KeytoTEST PAPER 5
1.1(a) 1.2(c) 1.3(d) i.a (a) 1.5(b) 1.6(b)
1..7(a\ 1.s(c) 1.e(a) 1.10(c) 1.11(a) 1,.12
(a) 1.13(d) 1.14(d) 1.1s(b) 1.16(a) 1.r7(b)
2.2(r) 2.3(r) 2.4(r) 2.5(r) 2.6(r)
2.10(r)
2.7(F) 2.8(r) 29 (r)
3.r (f) 3.a(e) 3.5(c) 3.6(b)
3.2(h) 3.3(d)
3.7(i) 3.10(a)
3.8(g) 3.e(j)
4.1(k) 4.2(j) 4.3(h) a.a(i) a.5(a) 4.6(d)
a.7@) a.8(g) a.eG) 4.10(l)
will also
Database ProcessingApproach
In the database approach a single reposi-
tory of data is maintained that is defined
once and then can be accessedby many
users.
DBMS software can access diverse data-
basesby extracting the databasedefinition
from the system catalog and then using
this definition.
DBMS access-programs are written inde-
pendent of any specific files. The structure
of data-files is stored in DBMS catalog
separately from the access-program.This
property is known as program data inde-
pendence.
Supports the multiple view of same data.
A multi-user DBMS allows multiple users
to accessthe database at the same time. So
the data for multiple operations is inte-
grated and maintained in a single central
database.
06
Ans.3 Normalization is a Processof simplifying the
relationships between data elements in a
record.
Normalization is carried out for the follow-
ing four reasons:
(a) To structure the data between tables so
that data maintenanceis simplified'
(b) To permit simple retrieval of data in
responsequery and report requests'
(c) To simplify the maintenance of data
through updates, insertion and dele-
tions.
(d) To reduce the need to restructure or re-
organise data when new application
requirements arise'
Ans.4 The person who is responsible for the oPeral
tion and maintenance of DBMS is called
Databaseadministrator.
Introductionto Dotobos
DBA has following role to PlaY:
(a) Administering the primary source, data-
base and the secondary source, of DBMS
is the responsibility of the database
administrator (DBA).
(b) Designs the database security system to
guard against unauthorized use by allo-
cating password to each user.
(c) Co-ordinates working of individuals
making file modifications, policy
changesand improvements to database.
(d) He protects databases from physical
harm by supervising the creation of
backup copies and establishingfall back
procedures.
(e) Acts as a file designer and databasecon-
sultant to other users in the organiza-
tion.
 lt
,4ft'nAPrER
6

Relotioncll
Algebrosnd
RelotionqlCslculus
6.I RELATIONAL
ALGEBRA amount is say more than Rs 7000/- by writing the
ic:::ronal algebrausesa procedural query language foilowing:
n*:-;h is a collection of operations to rrtanipulate oBalar,.e,
7ggg(Deposit)
-:lJrurRS.It consists of a set
of such operations that In general, H'e allow cornparisonsusing relational
:i-q<inc or more relations as input and produce a operators (.=, *, 1, 1, ), ) ) in a selection predicate.
-E1\-:elation as their result.
Futhermore, we can comhine severalpredicatesintcr
a larger predicate by using the logical connectioir
6.2 RELATIONAL ATGEBRAIC OPERATIONSnamely AND (a), OR (v) and NOT (.-) operators.
ic-::ional algebraic operations can be divided into Consider another example. Suppose we r,vant
::";-; set-oriented operatiofis like union, difference, tuples which contain the faculty name "Pooja"who
Lr:=:>ection, cartesian product and relational- teachesRDBMS, from relation (tabie) Teach,then we
:r.=:.ted operatir:ns like join, selection, projection, may write the query as follows:
:-' :sion etc. We shall understand various opera-
-- ..--.of relational algebra o N"me = ,,pooja,,r
Courss= "RpgNag,'(Teach)
one by one.

5.2.1Select(o) [9 6 Gigma)is theselection

operation
symbolandn is
l-r select operation extracts specific tuples from a
-::::or1. We can use ihe lower Iogicaloperator
AND.
Greek letter sigma (o.)
- :enote selection.

ff? )ne canconsider the Selectoperntionto bea filter 5.2.2 Proiect(n)

:)tatkeeps
only thosetuplesthatsatisfila qualfuing
.ondition.
:ippose you want to see tuples which have
i:::ch_nams = "]anak puri" from Deposit table. In
+-,:r case,we can specify this condition with a select
"rtration.
l: -::ch-name = "JanakPr.rri"(Deposit)
lhe conditions are specified as mentioned below:
)eposit (Branch_name,Account_number,
Customer_name,Balance)
^:rgeneralselectoperations is denoted by
I, -,ection_Con61iior.,r(<relation
name>)
-",.'here
the symbol o (sigma) is used to denote the
E-eci operator, and the selection condition is a
:,-.,-'leanexpression specified on the atiributes of
'=--rtion.
-'\'e
can also fir-rd ttrples in which the balance
The project operation is a unary operation which
extracts attributes (columns) from a relation, If we
are interested in only certain specific attriirrrtesof a
relation, we use the project operation to project the
relation over these attributes only. Projection is
denoted by Greek letter pi (n).
M The Selectoperationselectsspecificrous from n
tablewhilediscardingotherraws.TheFrojectoper-
ation,on the otherhand,selectscertaincolunrns
from thetableanddiscards theothercolumns.
Suppose we want to know the Customer names
and their bank balance amounts from Deposit rela-
tion, then we may write the query:
fi custorner_name,Balance(Deposit)
The general forrn of the project operation is:
fi <attribute tirtt (R)
68 Introductionto Dotobose Monogement Systems

where n (pi) is the symbol used to represent the

[9 Nofe that the common memberswill appear only
project operation and <attribute lisD is a list of
attributes of relation. once,when we useunion (v) operation.
Let us take another example. Suppose we want to
print the names and addresses of those faculfy
SetDiflercnce
mernbers who are teaching "RDBMS" course then
we can write the following query: The set-difference operation, denoted by X - Y
allows us to find tuples that are in one relation but
TEName,Address(oCourse =,.RDBMS"$each))
are not in another relation
6.2.3 SelOperotions Exomple 2
There are four other relational algebraic operations. To select all those employeeswho are exclusively
Theseare; working on projectJ1.,we write X - Y, where X and
(a) set-union Y are relationsgiven in Example1 above.The result
(b) set-intersection of differenceis given as follows:
(c) set-difference X-Y:
(d) cartesian (cross) product.
-No _name
Set Unlon 103 Ritu
The result of union operation is denoted by the 104 Setu
106 Leela
symbol u. For example,X v Y (where X and Y are
two compatible relations) which is a relation that
includesall tuples that are either in X or in Y or in
!9 11e1sthat all membersof relationX are written
both X and Y. Duplicate tupleswould be eliminated,
by using set union. exceptthecommonmember.
Exomple I
X and Y are two relations,with X holding the details Sel lntersection
of employeesworking on ProjectJ1.and Y holding The result of Intersection operation denoted by
the details of thosewho are working on ProjectJ2. X n Y is an operation that includes all tuples that are
The two tablesare as under: in both X and Y.
X:
Exomple 3
-No Emp-name
To select those employees who are exclusively
101 Rita
103 Ritu working on both projectsJ1and J2i.e. thosewho are
104 Setu corunon to ]1 and 12,from Example1 we write X n
106 Leela Y. The result of intersectionis hs follows:
107 Neena
To selectall those employeeswho are: XnY:
either in ProjectJ1 or in ]2 or in both projectsJl and
J2,we write X v Y. The result of union operationis Emp-No Emp_name
given below: 101 Rita
XUY: 707 Neena

Emp-No Emp_name
101 Rita IEF lr/efg that there are only two emplayeeswho are
103 Ritu
104 Setu
workingon projectI'1,andalsoonproject12.
105 Isha
106 Leela
'1,07 CrossProduct(Caileslon Product)
Neena
l'1,2 Seema Crossor Cartesianproductis denotedby X x Y and
ks-onol Algebroond RelotionolColculus 6S

rEf-;::LSa relation on tuples whose schema contains Exomple 5

dl[ reids of X (in the same order they appear in X)
Using the relations mentioned below, supposewe
dLlnr.ed by all fields of Y (in the same order as they
want to retrieve the namesof thoseemployeeswho
rArear in Y).
work in department10,then we will usethe follow-
The result of X x Y contains one tuple (r,s) (the
ing query.
snr=.tenation of tuples r and s) for each pair of
Employee: Department:
muqi* rvhere r belongs to s (r e s) and s belongs to s
!=:r. Emp-No Emp-Name Project -No
1 Rita AX10 1 10
frqtple 4 2 Reetu AX10 20
two relationsX and Y are given as follows:
*un"-;ose 3 Seema AX1L 10
4 Leela AX10 4 30
(
Ernp_No Emp_name -rumd Emp,ortt
n (Emptoyu.Emp
o;r_rlepartment)

EquiJoin
Whentwo tablesarejoinedtogetherusingequality
106 Leela of valuesin oneor morecolumns,theymakeanEqui
707 Neena ioin.
lhe operation X x Y gives the resulting combina- B ln equijoin, thecomparisonoperator= is only used.
r.crs as follows: Theresult of an equijoin will alwayshapeoneor
morepairsof attributesthat haaeidenticalaaluesin
eaerytuple.
Emp_No Emp_name Project
101 Rita AXlO
101 Rita AX11 Theto(o).loin
103 Ritu AXlO A generaljoin condition is of the form:
103 Ritu AX11 <Condition>AND <Condition>AND....AND
104 Setu AXlO <Condition>
104 Setu AX11 where eachCondition is of the form A; 0 8,, Here,
106 Leela AXlO A, is an attribute of relation X. B' is an attribute of
106 Leela AX11 relation Y. Here A; and B, have ihe same domain.
107 Neena AXlO The greek letter 0 (theta) is one of the comparison
107 Neena AX11 operators(=, 1, 3, ), 2, *). A join operationwith such
a general join condition is called a Thetaioin. By
theta join, tupXeswhose join attributes are null do
@ Notethat abouecommands will giaeall combina- not appearin the result.
tions of employe,es working on projectAX1.0and
alsoonproject4XL1. Natural Join
Lr the nafural join also, the comparisonoperatoris
always the equality operator =, but only the equi
6,2.4 DifferenlTypesof Joins join contains two identical columns from the rela-
lte join operator (><), allows to combine two rela- tion being joined. It is of coursealways possibleto
::ns to form a single new relation. The tuples from eliminate one of those two columns via the Proiect
:.€ operand relations that participate in the operation(n). ,An equi join with one of the two iden-
;,:eration and contribute to the result are related. tical columns eliminated is called a natural join.
lle join operation allows the processing of relation- Thus, natural join will also give a new table that
;,r-rpsexisting between the operand relations. doesnot have any duplicate columns.
r, r n
QuterJoin
An outer join is a type nf equi join that is used to
show all data from one table, even if corresponding
data is not found in a second table. Outer joins are
n:ost commonly" used with tables having one-to-
many relationships.
6.3 RELATNONALCALCULUS
In reiational calculus, a query is expressed as a
formula consisting r:f a number of variables and an
expression involving these variables. The formula
describesthe properties of the result and relation to
be tlbtained. There is no mechanism to specify how
thc formula should be evaluated. It is up to the
ifBMS to transforrn- such non-procedural queries
into equivalent, efficient procedural queries. Tuple
and domain calculus are collectively referred to as
rthti.annlcnlcuhrs.
W 7n relationnltuple calcultts,the unrinblesrepresent
the tuples from specifiedrelations; in relational
domain calulus, the aariables represent ualues
drawnfrom specifieddomnins.
CALCUTUS
RELATIONAL
6.4 TUPLE
The primary construct of the tuple-oriented rela-
tional calculus (tuple calculus for short) is the tuple
caluilus expression.A tuple calculus expression is
essentiallya non-procedural definition of sorne rela-
tion in terms of some given set of relations. Such an
expressioncan be ciearly used to define the result of
a query/ r"rrthe target of an update, or a view, etc'
The expression of the tuple calculus are con-
structed frorn the following elements:
(a) Tuple v;rriahlcs
fu) Conditions
(c) Well-formed formulas (WFFs)
6.4.1 Tuplevoriobles
The variables in relational calculus are like variables
rn programming languages in that they are
restrictedby their types T, U, V....... Each tuple vari-
eble is constrained to range over some named rela-
tion. If tuple variatrle T represents tuple f (at some
given tirne), then the expression T.A represents the
compollent A of f (at that time), where A is an
attribute of the relation over which T ranges.
to Dotobose Monogemenf Systems
IntrorCuciion
6.4"2 Conditions
* *
Conditions of the form x y, where is any one of
relation operators =, 1), 1, 1=, ), )=, and at least
one of x and y is an expression of the form T'A and
the other is either a similar expression or a constant' i
6"4.3 Well-formedfotmulos (WFFs)
The WFFSs should be those sequences of symbols
that are unambiguous and make sense.This can be
ensured by stating some rules for the construction of
WFFs.
A WFF is constructed from conditions, Boolean
operators (AND, O& NOT), and quantifiers (3,V)
according to rules F1-F5mentioned below:
F1. EverI condition is a WFF.
F2. If.f is a WFF, then so are (fl and NOT (/).
F3, If f and g are WFFs, then so are (/AND g)
and (/ORg).
F4. It f is a WFF in which T occursas a free
variablethen lT (fl and VT (fl areWFFs.
F5. Nothing elseis a WFF.
W Thetuplerelationalcalculusis based a
onspecifiling
numberof tuple aariables.Each tuple unriable
rangesoaera particulardatnbase relation,meaning
thattheaariablemaytake. as itsaalueanyindiaidual
tuplefrom thatrelation.
A simple tuple relation calculus query is of the
form:
{r lcolrD(r) i
where t is a tuple aariablgand como( t ) is a condi-
tionalexpressioninvolving t.
The result of such a query is the set of all tuple t
that specifyCollD(t).
Exomple 6
Consider the following relations:
EMPIJOYEE (Errl>-Code, EnEr-Name, Desig,
Mgr-No' Doj, Salary' Conrn,
oept_Code)
DEPARTMEIII (Dept Code' D€Pt-Nane,
Location)
To find all employees whose salary is above
Rs. 5500, we can write the following construct of the
tuple relational calculus:
(TIEMPLOYEE(t) and t.sA.r.aRY > 5500)
 kctiollol Algebroond RelotionolCclculus
he condition supr,oyEE(t) specifies that the
$nges relation of table variable f is employee. Each
l'*'-:loyee tuple f that specifies the condition
: " -:-tri,ARY
> 5500 will be retrieved.
lhe above query retrieves all attributes values for
*:::r selected EMPLOYEE tuple f. To retrieve only
';ne of the attributes, we write:
{r.Ertl)_Nams, I"SAIJARY I EMPLOYEE(L) and,
T . SAIJARY > 55OO }
- r-LlS construct is equivalent to following SQL
.q.E.ECT T.ErF_rram€,
T. sala4/
rROM EMPIJOYEE T
XEERE T.SAXTARY > 55OO
Erample7
lle tuple relational calculus query to retrieve the
;:e of joining and designation of the employee
-r{rosename is "RAJ" is given by:
ir.Doj, r.Desig I wnlorrE(t) and
t.ErD_Nane E trPlJ'n)
ln fuple relational calculus, we first specify the
:riuested attributes for each selected tupie f. Then
,,.e specify the condition for selecting a tuple fol-
,:if ing the bar ( | ) - namely that t be a tuple of the
:\iPLOYEE relation.
6.4.4 Formuloin TupleRelafionolColculus
i tormula (condition) is made up of one or more
;:--'rrsconnected via logical operators (and,'or and
----:tanddefined recursively as follows:
: Every atom is a formula.
:' If Fr and F, are formulas, then so are (F, and Fr),
(F, or Fr),not (F) andnot (F).
ln addition, two special symbols called quantifiers
::n also appear in formulas; these are the universal
:'.rnatifier(V) and the existential quantifier (3).
Suer'esUsingthe Existentiol
Quqntifier
j rt/e want to retrieve the Emp_Name and
-np_Code of all employees who work for the
S.esenrch"
Department, then the construct:
iE,.ErE)_Name, t.HIq)_Code I EI'IPLOYEE(t) AI{D
-d) DEPARTMENT(d) and Dept_narre = "Research"
a.od d.Dept_Code = t.Dept_Code)
r the above query, t is the only free variable. It is
ren bound successivelyto each tuple that specifies
:he conditions given in the query, and the attributes^
E'p_Narn€ and nnp_Code are retrieved for each
71
such tuple. The conditions Erffrl-oyee(r) and
DeBartment (d) indicate tire range relations for t,
and d. The condition:
d.Dept_Nam€ ='rReEearch"
is a selection condition and corresponds to a
SELECT operation in the relationai aigebra. The
condition:
d.Dept_Code = t.Dept_-Code
is a join condition and serves a similar purpose to
the join operation.
W Theonlyfree tupleuarinbles in n relational
calculus
expression shouldbe thosethat appenrto theleft of
t h e b a(rl ) .
6"4.5 SofeExpressions
Whenever we use universal quantifier (V), existen-
tial quantifier (!) or negation (-) of predicatesin a
calculus expression, we must make sure that the
resulting expressionassuressorneresults"
A safe expression in a relational calculus is one
that is guaranteed to yield a finite number of tuples
as its resulf otherwise the expression is called
unsafe.
For exarnple,the expression:
{t lnot (EMPT.OYEE (t) ) }
is unsafe becauseit yields all tuples in a universe
that are not EMPLOYEE tupies, which are numer-
ous.
We can define safe expressionsmore precisely by
introducing the concept of the domain of a tuple
relational calculus expression.
GF Domain is the set of aII aaluesthat eitherappearas
constantaaluesin the expressionor exist in any
tableof the relationsreferencedin the expression.
The domain of {t lnot (EMPLOYEE(I))}is the set of
all attributes' values appearing in some tuple of ther
EMPLOYEE relation.
An expression is said to be safe if all values in its
result are from the domain of the expression.Notice
that the result of {t lnot (EMPLOYEE (t)i is unsafe,
since it will, in general include tuples from outside
employee relation.
6.4.6 Quontifiersin SQI
The EXISTS function in SQL is similar to the exis-
l-
tential quantifier (3) of the relational calculus.
When we write
SEIJECT... . .
FROM.
WHERE EXTSTS(SET,ECT X IN RETATIONAT
FROMruC
WHEREP(x) ) t
in SQL, it is equivalent to saying that a tuple
variableX ranging over the relation X is existentially
quantified.The nestedquery on which the EXISTS
function is applied would be correlated with the
outer query. That is, the condition P(X) includes
someattributesfrom the outer query relation'
The WHERE condition of the outer query
evaluatesto TRUE if the nested query returns a
non-emptyresult that containsone or more tuples.
ug SQf doesnot includea uniaersalquantifier'The
Query 2 Get the names of those customerswho
uniaersalquantifierin relationalcalculuscan be
implementedusing the NOT EXISTS sql command'
Answer fic_Nevr (CUSTOMER x (7tr.urro**-*o
CALCUTUS
6.5 DOMAINRELATIONAT
The domain relational calculus differs from the
tuple calculus in that its variables range over
domains rather than relations. Expressions of the
domain calculus are constructed from the following
elements.
(a) Domain Variables
(b) Conditions
(c) Well Formed Formulas (WFFs)
6.5.1 Domoinvoriobles
Each domain variable is constrained to range over
some specified domain ("Element variable" would
be a better name, sinie the values are domain ele-
ments,not domains.)
6.5.2 Condilions
Conditionscan take two foims. These arer
(i) Simple comparisons of the form x * y, us for the
tuple calculus, except that x and y are now
domain variables (or constants).
(ii) Membership conditions, of the form X (term,
term, ....).Here X is a relation, and each "term"
is a pair A:V, where A in turn is an attribute of
X and V is either a domain variable or a con-
stant.
6.5.3 WFFs
Well-formed formulas(WFFs),formed in accordance
with rules F1-F5in Section6.2.
6.6 SOMEOUERIES
ALGEBRA
Consider the following tables structure:
S-PERSON(S_NO,S_NAME, COMMISSION)
PRODUCT (P_ID, DESCRIPTION)
SALE(DATE, CUSTOMER-NO, S_NO, P-ID, QTY)
CUSTOMER(CUSTOMER_NO, C-NAME,
C_ADDRESS)
Based on these tables, we shall write queries in
relational algebra to meet the following needs:
Query 1 Get namesof the salesmanwho sold prod-
uct 48.
Answer &_NevE (S-PERSON"< SALE))
(on_,o=n,
bought table lamps (in addition to other
products).
(SALE x (ooooou...ots"R*rloN = 'table lamp'
(PRoDUcr)))))
Query 3 Get namesof thosesalespersonswho sold
all the products.
Answer The sequenceto follow in evaluating this
query is to first grouP a list of all products
from the PRODUCTtable by doing projec-
tion on P-ID and then dividing the SALE
tableby this grouP of P-IDs
SALE +trp rDGRODUCT)
0€ Thediaisionoperatoris usedin thosequeries
thnt inaolaethe phrase"for all obiectshaaing
properties".
all thespecified
Query 4 Get details of customers who bought both
lamps and lamp shades.
Answer We will first have to select those tuples of
table PRODUCT having DESCRIPTION
'lamp'or 'lamp shades'.The result
either as
will then be projected on P-ID' Next, we
divide SALE by the result from the pre-
vious step to get another relation whose
tuples correspond to those customers who
'lamp' and 'lamP shades'.
bought both
CUSTOMER-NO will be projected from
this relation and joined with the
CUSTOMER relation.
 CUSTOMER * ncr.,t o"ER-No (SALE + fip-rp WITHANSWERS
REVIEWOUESTIONS
(QptSCnn'atOW = 'lffip' v DESCRIPTION = 1mP shade')
(PRODUCT))) Fillinthe blonks
Query 5 Find the customer numbers who have
,neverbought product 10.
1. Querylanguagebasedon relationalalgebraare
in nature.
-{nswer Here we will first determinethosecustom-
2. Two operations selection and projection are
ers who have bought product L0. The
operations.
result is then substractedfrom the list of all
3. -- of a relation X, producesa relationY
customers.The resulting relation will con-
suchthat Y containsonly selectedattributesof X.
tain the customers who never bought
4. is the selectionoperationsymbol.
productL0.
5. - is the projectionoperationsymbol'
ficusrousn_No(SAlE) -
l[cusrovrn-No (ot-to='tn(SALE))
Query 6 Get the S-Nos of those salesmenwho sell Answer
at least one of the products sold by sale- 1..procedural 2. unary 3. projection
man 1.56.The result should not include 4. o(sigma) 5. n (pi)
salesman156.
Answer In this query we will have to first obtain a
list of all the productssold by salesman156
EXERC!SE
from the SALE table.The resulting relation Note: Answer all questions.
will then be joined with SALE table. Prpj-
ecting this relation on S-NO gives the list 1. What do you meanby safeexpression?
of S-NOswho ate selling at leastone of the 2. Explain selectionand projectionwith examples
productssold by 156.But the result would 3. Explain different types of joins.
involve saleman155.This should be elimi- 4. Write short note on:
natedusing the MINUS oPerator. (a) Relationalcalculus
(or-"o =,s.(SALE))))- 156
x ttrp-rp
(ns-ruo(SALE (b) Setdifference
74 introductionto DotoboseMonogementSystems

TEST PAPER 6

to DotoboseMonogementSyslems
Introducfion
PARTt (OBJECTIVE to be answeredin 60 Minutes)
QUESTIONS
l. Multiplechoice b. Primary entity d. Secondaryentiby
1.10 Which one of the following is an example of
1.1 If DI, D2,... Dn are domains in a relational
hierarchical database?
model then the relatiein is a table which is a
a. Oracle c. DBII
subsetof
b. Ingress d. SYSTEM2OOO
a. {D1", D2,.....Dn} c. D1 u D2 u Dn
1.1L Which of the following in not a valid unary
b. Dl x D2 x... Dn d. Maximum {D1,D2 .'.
operation in the relational algebra?
Dnl
'1...2 a. Select c. Project
If.E1 and E2 are relational algebra expressions,
b. Min d. Rename
then n'hich of the fr:llowing is NOT a relationai
1.L2 rLelationalAlgebra is
algebraexpression? query
a. Data definition Lan- c. Procedural
a.E1uE2 c. E1-E2
guage language
b. EI/82 d. E1 x E2
b. Meta language d. Non procedural lan-
L.3 Functional deperrdenciesare a generalisation guaSe
of
1.1"3Which one of the following is a binary opera-
a. Key dependencies c. Database dependen-
tion?
cres
a. Project c. Rename
b. Relational depen- d. None of these
b. Select d. None of these
dencies
1.L4 Which clause from the following corresponds
1.4 The operation of a relation X, produces Y, such
to the projection operation of the relational
that Y contains onlv selected attributes of X'
algebra?
Such an operation is
a. From c. Where
a. Projection c. Union
b. Select d. None of these
b. Intersection d. Difference
L.15 Which one of tire clattse is useful in defining
1.5 The table generated on compilation of data
that notion of tuple variables?
stored in language (DDL) are stored in c. From
a. As
a. Data abstraction c. Data file
b. By d. None of these
b. Data Dictionary d. Meta data
1.15 The intersect operation
1.6 The following entities / attributes in a rela-
a. Automatically eliminates duplicates
tional databaseshould not have null values
b. Automatically eliminates duplicates, if we
a. Keys c. Variables
provide all clausewith intersect.
b. Iteiations d. All of these
c. Never eliminates duplicates
1.7 A view of databasettrat appears to an applica-
d. None of the ah.'r-e
tion program is known as
a. Report c. Subschema
2. Select TRUEor FALSEin ihe following
b. Structure d. Scheme
slolements
1.8 The first network databaseis
a. Ingress c. DBTGCodasyl 2.L The universal quantifier in relational caiculus
b. DatabaseI d. SAP can be implemented using the NOT EXISTS
1.9 If entity X is existence-dependenton entity Y constrttctin SQL.
then X is said to be - 2.2 For any two relations q and r
a. Subordinateentify c. Dominant entiW q l l r = q l l ( ql l 4
 ond RelotionolColcu,us

2..3 Any equi-join can be expressed using natural 3.10 Rows j. Storageorganization
join and renaming operators. k. Foreignkeys
2,4 In a relational databasekeys are not allowed to
I. EXIST
have null values. Userviews
2.5 Complex entities can be constructed using
4. Fillin the blonksout of the following:
aggregationrelationshiP.
2.6 If two sets of functional dependenciesF and G a. Projection b. Selection c.3
are equivalent, then either F is a subset of G or d. Cardinality e. Duplicate f. Superkey
G is a subset of F. g. Foreign key h. Subordinatei. Keys
entity
2.7 Projection of relation X, produces a relation Y
j. Attributes k.* l. Meta data
such that Y contains only selectedattributes of
m. Three n. division o. cartesian
X.
product
2.8 The functional dependenciesX -+ Y and YZ -+ p. union q. composite r. integrity
W, imply the functional dependency XZ -s W. constraints
2.9 JOIN createsa new databasefile by joining two s. weak entity t. specializa- u. partitioning
or more databasefiles. set tion
2.10 Only two files can be linked for a single SET v.3 w. from
RELATION command,
4.1 In the relational data model, the columns of a
2.11 Tuple relational calculus is declarative and table are called
procedural oriented language. 4.2 The primary k"y index does not allow
2.L2 Selection, projection, union, difference, inter- data in a field.
section and cartesian product operations for- 4.3 of relation X, produces a relation Y
mulate a complete set of relational algebra. such that Y contains only selectedattributes of
2.13 Domain relational calculus restricted to safe X.
domain expressionsin equivalent in expressive 4.4 In a relational data base -- are not
power to the basic relational algebra. allowed to have null values.
2.14 ER diagram functions performed by a system. 4.5 The primary key of a relation is a minimal
2.15 Relational Calculus employs procedural way
of stating queries. 4.5 In a relational database a referential integrity
2.16 QBE is based on the tuple relational calculus. constraint is specified with the help of
l.17 Multiply is a relational algebra operation.
4.7 ANSI / SPARC report defined - lev-
2.18 Equi-join is a natural join with duplicate col-
umns eliminated. els of architecture in a database.
4.8 The number of entities to which another entity
in two columns
3. Motchwords/phroses can be associated via a relationship set is
expressedas - .
3.1 Key a. Attributes
4.9 If an entity X is existence-dependenton'entitv
3.2 ]oin b. Externalmodel
Y, then X is said to be ---.
3.3 View c. Singularset
4.1.0Data about data is normally termed as
3.4 Foreign key d. NOT EXISTS
3.5 Universal e . Minimal set of attrib- 4.11 - primitive set of operations is
quantifiers utes that uniquely needed to express division operation of rela-
identifies a row tional algebra.
3.6 PhysicalModel f. Natural join 4.12 The operationis suitedto queries
3.7 Network data model bo ' Joins table that include the phase "for all"'
3.8 Null h. Tuples 4.13 The operation allows to combine
3.9 Virtual table i. Referential integrity information from any fwo relations.
I 76 Introductionto Dotobore Monoge.ent Syrt.

4.14 A relation that is not part of logical model but Q.4 \Alhatdo you mean by normalization?What
is made visible to a user as a virtual relation is are its advantagesand disadvantages.
calleda(n) _,
Q.5 Considerthe following relations
4.15 A key consisting of more than one column is
PROJECT(ProjectNo,Project_Name,Chiefl
calleda(n) _.
EMPLOYEE(EmpNo,EmpName)
4;1,6A foreign key creates a(n) -...- rela- ASSIGNED(ProjectNo, EmpNo)
tionship between two associatedentities.
(a) GetEmpNoof employeesworking on proj-
4.17 An entity set that does not have sufficient
ectProj302.
attributes to form a primary key is known as (b) Get details of employeesworking on proj-
ectProj302.
4.18 The processof designing sub grouping within (c) Obtain details of employeesworking on
an entity set is _. the DBMSproject.
4.19 The of a query consists of the a. 5 If X ure two relationsasshownbelow:
tuples, which may assigned to the free vari- ""1I
ablesof the well-formed formula. abc bca
dca cdf
4.20 - primitive set of operations is
bfe bfe
needed to express division operation of rela-
tional algebra. X Y
4.21The clause by itself defines a car- Find:
tesianproduct of the relations in the clause. (a) XUY (c) XnY
(b) x-Y (d)XxY

PARTil (DESCR|PT|VE QUESTTONS KeytoTESf PAPER 6

to be answeredin 2 Hours)
Q. 1 Consider the relations
Teach(Name, Address, Course)
Use some standard query commands to do the
following
(a) Print all the information about teachers
who are teaching the DBMS course.
(b) Print the names and addresses of those
teacherswho teach "DBMS".
(c) Select the teacher with name "Roshan"
teaching the course "MIS".
Q.2 Explain operations of relational algebra along
with their syntaxes.
Q. Explain natural join with an example.
3 4.18(t) a.19(u) a.20(v) a.21(w)
L. 1.1(b) 1.2(b) 1.3(a) 1.4(a) 1.s(b) 1.6(a)
1.7(c) 1.8(c) 1.e(a) 1.10(d) 1.11(b) 1..r2
(c) 1.13(d) 1.14(b) 1.15(d) 1.16(a)
2.1(r) 2.2(r) 2.3(r) 2.4(r) 2.s(r) 2.6(F)
2.7(r) 2.8(r) 2.e(F) 2.10(F) 2.11(F) 2.12
(T) 2.13(F) 2.1,4 (F) 2.15(F) 2.16(T) 2.17(F)
2.18(r)
3. 3.1(e) 3.2(g) 3.3(b) 3.4(i) 3.5(d) 3.60)
3.7(c) 3.8(a) 3.e(m) 3.10(h)
4. 4.1(l a.2@) 4.3(a) 4.4(i) 4.5(0 4.6(e)
4.7@) 4.8(d) 4.e(h) 4.100) 4.11(m) 4.12
( n ) a . 1 3 ( o )a . l a @ ) 4 . 1 5 ( q ) a l . 6 ( r ) a . u g )

ANSWERSTO (DESCR|PT|VE
QUESTTONS)
Ans.1 (a) 0 couise=,'DBMS,,
(Teach)
(b) nr.z(o Course
=,,DBMS,(Teach))
n is the projection operation symbol and the subscripts indicates the positions of
the attributes (columns) of the operand (table).
OT
finame, addres, (O Co,rrr" = "DBMS" $each))
 bro ond RelotionolColculus

(c) o N"-" = "Roshan"n Course= "MIS" (Teach)

A,ns.2 Operation PurPose Syntax

SETECT It selects all tuples that satisfy the o <selectionconditiop (X)

selectioncondition from a relation X.

PROIECT It produces a new relation with only fi <attribute tirtt (X)

some of the attributes of X, by remov-

ing duplicate tuples.
THETA IOIN It produces all combinations of tuples X, * .joi.,.ondition> Xz
form Xr and X, that satisfies the join
condition.
It produces all the combinations of Xt * .loin.ondition>, Xz or
EQUI IOIN
tuples from Xr and X, that satisfies a X, * (.ioir,uttributes1>)r
join condition with onlY equalitY <join attributes2>1' Xz
comparisons.
*
NATURALIOIN It is same as equi-join except that the Xl .,oir, condition>z X2 or
*
join attributes of X, are not included X1 1.1oin attributes 1>),
*
in the resulting relation; if the join <joinattributes2>1,Xzor X, X,
attributes have the same names, they
do not have to be sPecifiedat all.
UNION It produces a relation that includes all XruX,
the tuples in X, or X, or both X, and
x2.
INTERSECTION It produces a relation that includes all X,nX,
the tuples in both Xt and Xr'
DIFFERENCE It produces a relation that includes all Xt-X,
the tuples in X, that are not in Xr'
CARTESIAN It produces a relation that has the XrxX,
PRODUCT attributes of X, and X, and includes as
tuples all possible combinations of
tuples from X, and Xr.
DIVISION It produces a relation X (X) that X1(Z) + X' (Y)
includes all tuples t [X] in Xt (Z) that
appear in X, in combination with
every tuple from Xr (Y), whete Z
=XuY.
attribute
Ans.3 Natural join is denoted as R o< s. It is applicable only when there is at least one
common to R and S.
To compute R P<S, do the following:
(a) Compute R x S
(b) Select those tuples from R x S whose components corresponding to the common
attributes have the same values.
(c) Project out the columns corresponding to the attributes which have been considered
once.
For example,
 Introductlonto Dotobose Monogemenf Systems

ABC BCD
bce ddf
fgh ghk
add ghi
ace cmk

ABCD
R><S fo hk
^f ob hi
ad df
Ans.4 Normalization is the processof reducting the redundancy <lfdata in a relational database
Adaantages
(a) Normalization reduces the unnecessary redundant data.
(b) Data integrity is easily maintained within the database.
(c) Norrnalization makes databaseand application design processesmuch more flex-
ible.
Disadaantages
The disadvantage of normalization is that it produces so many tables with small number of
columns and these columns have to be joined using their primary key or foreign key, rela-
tionships in order to put the information back together so we can use it. For example, a query
may be to retrieve a data from multiple normalized tables. This can result in complicated table
joins.
Ans. 5 (a) = ,pr{o;302,
rs,,pNo(oprojecrNo (ASSIGNED))
(b) EMPLOYEExnE-pNo(oproject#=,pRoJ302,(ASSIGNED))
(c) EMPLOYEE x EE*pN'(ASSIGNEDx (rrproiectNo(oprolect_Name=,DBMS,(PROIECT))))

Ans.6 (a) abc

dca
Xt.rY = bfe
bca
cdf

(b) X-Y = abc

dca

l
Relotionol ebro ond RelqtionolColculus

(c)
XnY = bfe

(d)
abcbca
abccdf
abcbfe
dcabca
XxY = dcacdf
dcabfe
bfebca
bfecdf
bfebfe