3.

2 Cryogenic Convection Heat Transfer

„ Involves process of heat transfer between q

solid material and adjacent cryogenic fluid
T f = Tmean
„ Classic heat transfer problem (Newton’s law)
m& f
q(kW/m2) = h (Ts – Tf)
„ Configurations of interest
Internal forced flow (single phase, T f = Tmean)
„
q
„ Free convection (single phase, T f = T∞ )
„ Internal two phase flow
„ Pool boiling (two phase)
„ Understanding is primarily empirical leading to
correlations based on dimensionless numbers
„ Issue is relevant to the design of: Liquid
„ Heat exchangers Tf
Ts
„ Cryogenic fluid storage
„ Superconducting magnets
„ Low temperature instrumentation

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 1

 Single phase internal flow heat transfer

Forced & Tf
m,
Convection
Ts D

Classical fluid correlations

Q
„ The heat transfer coefficient in a classical fluid system is generally
correlated in the form where the Nusselt number,
where, Nu D ≡ hD k and D is the characteristic length
f
„ For laminar flow, NuD = constant ~ 4 (depending on b.c.)
„ For turbulent flow (ReD > 2000)
μ f Cp
Nu D = f (Re D , Pr) = C Re Pr n
D
m
and Pr ≡ (Prandtl number)
kf
„ Dittus-Boelter Correlation for classical fluids (+/- 15%)
4 2
Nu D = 0.023 Re Pr 5 5

Note that fluid properties should be Ts + T f

computed at Tf (the “film temperature”): Tf ≡
2
USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 2
 Johannes Correlation (1972)

„ Improved correlation
specifically for helium
(+/- 8.3%)
−0.716
⎛ Ts ⎞
Nu D = 0.0259 Re Pr ⎜ ⎟
4 2
5 5
⎜T D ⎟
⎝ f ⎠
„ Last factor takes care of
temperature dependent
properties
„ Note that one often does
not know Tf, so iteration
may be necessary.

Example
USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 3
 Application: Cryogenic heat exchangers

„ Common types of heat exchangers used

in cryogenic systems P1, T1

P2, T2
„ Forced flow single phase fluid-fluid
„ E.g. counterflow heat exchanger in
refrigerator/liquefier

„ Forced single phase flow - boiling liquid

(Tube in shell HX)
„ E.g. LN2 precooler in a cooling circuit
m

„ Static boiling liquid-liquid

„ E.g. Liquid subcooler in a magnet system

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 4

 Simple 1-D heat exchanger

Ts D & Tf
m,

„ Differential equation describing the temperature of the fluid in

the tube:

+ hP (T f − TS ) = 0
dT f
m& C
dx
„ For constant Ts, the solution of this equation is an exponential

⎛ hP ⎞ Ts - Tf .
Ts − T f = (Ts − T f ) 0 exp⎜ − x⎟ Increasing m
⎝ m& C ⎠

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 5

 He (Ti = 300 K) He (Tf = 80 K)
Liquid nitrogen precooler

Ts D & Tf
m,

„ Assumptions & givens

„ Ts is a constant @ 77 K (NBP of LN2) LN2 (Ts = 77 K)
„ Helium gas (Cp = 5.2 kJ/kg K; μ = 15 x 10-6 Pa s; ρ = 0.3 kg/m3, k = 0.1
W/m K)
„ Allowed pressure drop, Δp = 10 kPa Properties are average values
„ Helium mass flow rate = 1 g/s between 300 K and 80 K
„ Find the length and diameter of the HX (copper tubing)
„ Total heat transfer:
( )
Q = m& C p Tin − Tout = 1 g/s x 5.2 J/g K x 220 K
= 1144 W
Log mean ΔT:
ΔT f (x = 0 ) − ΔT f (x = L )
„

ΔTlm = (300-77) –(80-77) K

⎛ ΔT ( x = 0 ) ⎞ =
ln⎜ f ⎟
⎝ ΔT f ( x = L )⎠
ln [(300-77)/(80-77)]

= 51 K
USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 6
 Liquid nitrogen precooler (continued)
UA = hπDL = Q = 1144 W/51 K = 22.4 W/K
ΔTlm
„ The heat transfer coefficient is a function of ReD and Pr = 0.67
„ Assuming the flow is turbulent and fully developed, use the Dittus Boelter
correlation
hD 4m&
Nu D = = 0.023 Re 0D.8 Pr 0.3 and Re D =
kf πDμ
Substituting the ReD and solving for h
0 .8
k f ⎛ 4 m& ⎞ 0.0247 x 0.1 W/m K x (10-3 kg/s)0.8
h = 0.023 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ Pr 0 .3
=
D ⎝ πD μ ⎠ (15 x 10-6 Pa s)0.8 x D1.8
= 0.07/D(m)1.8

hπDL = 0.224 x (L/D0.8) = 22.4 W/K

or L/D0.8 = 100 m0.2 1 equation for two unknowns

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 7

 Liquid nitrogen precooler (continued)
„ Pressure drop equation provides the other equation for L & D
2
L ⎛⎜ m& ⎞⎟
Δp = f ; Aflow = πD2/4 and f ~ 0.02 (guess)
2 ρD ⎜⎝ A flow ⎟⎠
4m&
Re D =
πDμ
4 x 0.001 kg/s
Substituting for ReD and f π x 0.0062 m x 15 x 10-6 Pa s

m& 2 L ~ 13,700
Δp ≈ 0.016 0.016 x ⎛ L ⎞
(10-3 kg/s)2
= ⎜ 5⎟
ρ D5 0.3 kg/m3 ⎝D ⎠
⎛ L ⎞ 2nd equation for
Δp= 5.33 x 10 ⎜ 5 ⎟
-8
two unknowns
Substitute: ⎝D ⎠
Eq. 1: L = 100 D0.8 Δp= 5.33 x 10-6/D4.2 with Δp = 10,000 Pa
D = [5.33 x 10-6/Δp]1/4.2 = 6.2 mm and L = 100 x (0.0062 m)0.8 = 1.7 m

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 8

 Single phase free convection heat transfer
g
g
Q L or Q Q

„ Compressible fluid effect: Heat transfer warms the fluid near the
heated surface, reducing density and generating convective flow.
„ Free convection heat transfer is correlated in terms of the
Rayleigh number,
gβΔTL3
Nu L = f (Gr , Pr ) ~ CRa Ln where RaL ≡ Gr Pr =
Dthν
where g is the acceleration of gravity, β is the bulk expansivity, ν is
the kinematic viscosity (μ/ρ) and Dth is the thermal diffusivity (k/ρC).
L (or D) are the scale length of the problem (in the direction of g)
USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 9
 Free convection correlations
Free convection correlation for low
„ For very low Rayleigh temperature helium
number, Nu = 1
corresponding to pure
conduction heat transfer
„ For Ra < 109, the
boundary layer flow is
laminar (conv. fluids)

Nu L ≈ 0.59 RaL0.25
„ For Ra > 109, the
boundary layer is
turbulent

Nu L ≈ 0.1RaL0.33
Example

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 10

 Pool Boiling Heat Transfer (e.g. Helium)

Factors affecting heat

transfer curve
„ Surface condition
(roughness, insulators,
oxidation)
„ Orientation
„ Channels (circulation)
„ Time to develop steady
state (transient heating)
Liquid

Heated
Surface
Note: Other cryogenic fluids have basically
the same behavior, although the numerical
Q values of q and ΔT are different.
USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 11
 Nucleate Boiling Heat Transfer
„ Nucleate boiling is the principal heat transfer mechanism for
static liquids below the peak heat flux (q* ~ 10 kW/m2 for helium)
„ Requirements for nucleate boiling
„ Must have a thermal boundary layer of superheated liquid near the
surface
k f ΔT
δ th = ~ 1 to 10 μm for helium
q
„ Must have surface imperfections that act as nucleation sites for
formation of vapor bubbles.

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 12

 Critical Radius of Vapor Bubble

Pv
r
PL 2σ
Pv = PL + σ is the surface tension
r

„ Critical radius: For a given T, p, the bubble radius that determines

whether the bubble grows of collapses
„ r > rc and the bubble will grow
„ r < rc and the bubble will collapse
„ Estimate the critical radius of a bubble using thermodynamics
„ Clausius Clapeyron relation defines the slope of the vapor pressure line
in terms of fundamental properties

dp ⎞ Δs h fg h fg p
⎟ = = ≈ If the gas can be approximated as ideal
dT ⎠ sat Δv T (vv − vL ) RT 2 and vv >> vL

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 13

 Critical radius calculation

„ Integrating the Clausius Clapeyron relation between

ps and ps + 2σ/r

rc =
ps
(
2σ h fg ΔT
e
RT 2
−1) −1
≈
2σRTs2
h fg ps ΔT

„ Example: helium at 4.2 K (NBP)

„ Empirical evidence indicates that ΔT ~ 0.3 K
„ This corresponds to rc ~ 17 nm
„ Number of helium molecules in bubble ~ 10,000
„ Bubble has sufficient number of molecules to be treated as
a thermodynamic system
„ Actual nucleate boiling heat transfer involves
heterogeneous nucleation of bubbles on a surface. This is
more efficient than homogeneous nucleation and occurs
for smaller ΔT.

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 14

 Nucleate Boiling Heat Transfer He I

Note that hnb is not constant because Q ~ ΔT2.5

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 15

 Nucleate Boiling Heat Transfer Correlations

„ The mechanism for bubble formation and detachment is very complex

and difficult to model
„ Engineering correlations are used for analysis

„ Kutateladse correlation
0 .6 0 .125
h ⎛ σ ⎞
1/ 2
⎡ qC pl ρ l ⎛ σ ⎞
1/ 2
⎤ ⎡ ⎛ρ ⎞
2
⎛ σ ⎞
3/ 2
⎤ ⎛ p ⎞
0 .7

⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ −4
= 3 .25 × 10 ⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ × ⎢ g ⎜⎜ l ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ ⎜ ⎟
ρ ⎢⎣ h fg ρ v k l ρ ⎢⎣ ⎝ μ l ⎜ (σg ρ )1 / 2 ⎟
kl ⎝ l⎠
g ⎝ l⎠
g ⎥⎦ ⎠ ⎝ gρ l ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ l ⎠

„ Rearranging into a somewhat simpler form,

0.3125
⎡ ⎛ρ ⎞
2
⎤ ⎛ pχ ⎞
1.75 1.5
⎛ ρl ⎞ ⎛ C p ⎞
1.5

q = 1.90 ×10 ⎢ g ⎜⎜ l ⎟⎟ χ ⎥ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ × ⎜ ⎛ kl ⎞
⎟⎟(Ts − Tb )
−9
⎜ ⎟ ⎟
3
⎜⎜
2.5

⎢⎣ ⎝ μl ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ σ ⎠ ρ
⎝ v ⎠ ⎝ h fg ⎟⎠
⎜ ⎝χ ⎠
1/ 2
⎛ σ ⎞
where χ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ q (W / cm 2 ) = 5.8ΔT 2.5 For helium at 4.2 K
⎝ gρ l ⎠
USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 16
 Peak Heat Flux (theory)
„ Understanding the peak nucleate boiling heat flux is based on
empirical arguments due to instability in the vapor/liquid flow

Instability in the vapor-liquid boundary

vv vv
vL vL vv vL

vv vL

c
λ
„ Instability due to balance between surface energy and kinetic energy

2πσ ρ L ρv
c2 = − (v − v )2

λ (ρ L + ρ v ) (ρ L + ρ v )2
v L

Transition to unstable condition when c2 = 0

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 17

 Peak Heat Flux Correlations

„ Zuber correlation:

⎡σ ( ρl − ρv )g ⎤ ⎡ ρl ⎤
1 1
4 2
q ≈ Khfg ρv ⎢
*
⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ρ 2
v ρ
⎦ ⎣ l + ρ v⎦

„ Empirical based on Zuber Correlation

q ≈ 0.16h fg ρv 2 [σg ( ρl − ρv )]
1 1
* 4

~ 8.5 kW/m2 for He I at 4.2 K

„ Limits:
„ T Tc; q* 0 since hfg 0 and σ 0
„ T 0; q* ~ ρv1/2 (decreases)
„ q*max near 3.6 K for LHe

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 18

 Film Boiling

„ Film boiling is the stable condition when the surface is blanketed

by a layer of vapor
„ Film boiling heat transfer coefficient is generally much less that that
in nucleate boiling
„ Minimum film boiling heat flux, qmfb is related to the stability of the
less dense vapor film under the more dense liquid

liquid

vapor ~ 10 μm

“Taylor Instability” governs the collapse of the vapor layer

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 19

 Film Boiling Heat Transfer Correlations
„ Factors affecting the process
„ Fluid properties: Cp, hfg, σ, ρl, ρv
„ Fluid state: saturated or pressurized (subcooled)
„ Heater geometry (flat plate, cylinder, etc.)
„ Breen-Westwater correlation

⎛ μv (Ts − Tb ) ⎞
1/ 8 1/ 4
⎛ σ ⎞ ⎛ σ ⎞
1/ 2
⎜
h fb ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ = 0.37 + 0.28⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ g (ρ l − ρ v ) ⎠ ⎝ kv ρ v (ρl − ρ v )gλ ' ⎠ ⎝ gD (ρ l − ρ v ) ⎠
2

Where,
λ' =
[h fg + 0.34C pv (Ts − Tb )] 2

h fg
„ Simplified form for large diameter

⎛ g (ρ l − ρ v ) ⎞ ⎛ k ρ v (ρ l − ρ v )gλ ' ⎞
1/ 8 1/ 4
3
h fb = 0.37⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ q ≈ (Ts − T f )
v 3

⎝ μ v (Ts − Tb ) ⎠
4
⎝ σ ⎠

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 20

 Minimum film boiling heat flux
LHe @ 4.2 K
„ Minimum film boiling heat Q/S, W/cm2

Transition boiling
Nucleate boiling
flux is less than the peak

Film boiling
heat flux
≈ 0.9
„ Recovery to nucleate
boiling state is associated
with Taylor Instability.
≈ 0.3
1
⎡ gσ ( ρ l − ρ v ) ⎤ 4 qmfb
qmfb = 0.16h fg ρ v ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣ (ρl + ρ v ) ⎦
„ Dimensionless ratio:
≈1 ≈4 (Ts-Tb), K
1
qmfb ⎡ ρv ⎤ 2
~ 0.36 for LHe @ 4.2 K
=⎢ ⎥ ~ 0.1 @ 2.2 K
q* ρ
⎣ l + ρ v⎦
~ 1 @ Tc = 5.2 K
~ 0.09 for LN2 @ 80 K where q* ~ 200 kW/m2

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 21

 Prediction of Nucleate/Film Boiling for Helium

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 22

 Experimental Heat Transfer (Helium)

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 23

 Prediction of Nucleate/Film Boiling for Nitrogen

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 24

 Experimental Heat Transfer (Nitrogen)

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 25

 Internal two phase flow

„ Heat transfer depends on

various factors Ts D m& 2φ ,T f

„ Mass flow rate

„ Orientation w/r/t gravity
Q
m& ,T
„ Flow regime 2φ f

„ Quality (χ) g
„ Void fraction (α)
„ Total heat transfer rate
D
QT = Q fc + Qb
Ts
where: Qfc is convective and Qb is
gravity enhanced boiling. Q

Depending on factors above, either

contribution may dominate

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 26

 Horizontal flow two phase heat transfer

Ts D m& 2φ ,T f

Q
„ Consider the case where gravitational effects are negligible
„ Horizontal flow at moderate Re so that inertial forces dominate
„ Correlation based on enhanced Nusselt number
0.1 0.5
Nu 2φ ⎛ μL ⎞ ⎛ ρv ⎞
where χ tt = ⎛⎜ 1 − x ⎞⎟
0.9

= f (χ tt ) ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Nu L ⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ μv ⎠ ⎝ ρL ⎠
m& (1 − x )
and Nu L = 0.023 Re 0.8 0.4
Pr ; Re L =
L L μ L A flow
Typical correlation (de la Harpe):

Nu 2φ
≈ Aχ tt− m 1 for χtt large
Nu L
with m ~ 0.385 and A ~ 5.4

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 27

 Vertical channel heat transfer
m& 2φ ,T f

„ Main difference between

this problem and pool boiling
is that the fluid is confined
within channel
g D
„ At low mass flow rate and
self driven flows (natural Ts
circulation) the heat Q
transfer is governed by
buoyancy effects
„ Process is correlated against
classical boiling heat
transfer models
„ In the limit of large D the
correlation is similar to pool
boiling heat transfer
(vertical surface)
USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 28
 Vertical channel maximum heat flux

Critical flow in an evaporator

Empirical observations ⎡ gχ c ⎛ ln[1 + χ c (β − 1)] ⎞⎤
1
w h fg ρ v ρl
2
q =
*
⎢ ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟⎥ β=
q* ~ w for small w χ c (β − 1) ⎠⎦
⎣ β −1 ⎝ ρv
„
z 2
„ q* ~ z-1/2 for w/z < 0.1
χ c = mv m& ⎞⎟
„ q* ~ constant for w/z and
& “Critical quality”
>> 1 ⎠ max ~ 0.3 for helium

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 29

 Example: Cryogenic Stability of Composite
Superconductors (LTS in LHe @ 4.2 K)

„ Used in large magnets where flux jumping and other small disturbances
are possible and must be arrested
„ General idea: in steady state ensure that cooling rate exceeds heat
generation rate (Q > G)
„ Achieved by manufacturing conductor with large copper (or aluminum)
fraction and cooling surface
„ Lower overall current density G/S
„ Potentially high AC loss (eddy currents) I2R/S

Current Fully
Sharing normal
Composite Conductor
Tb (K) Tcs (K) Tc (K) T (K)
Copper/Aluminum stabilizer
Insulating spacer (G-10)
NbTi/Nb3Sn Icu
Isc

V=IcuRcu

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 30

 Cryogenic Stability (LHe @ 4.2 K)

Case 1: Unconditional stability, recovery to fully superconducting state

occurs uniformly over length of normal zone
Case 2: Cold End recovery (Equal area criterion): Excess cooling capacity
(area A) > Excess heat generation (area B)

Q/S is the LHe boiling heat

Q/S transfer curve for bath cooling
or A normalized per surface area
G/S 2
B
1 G/S is the two part heat generation
Curve for a composite superconductor
Tcs is the temperature at which Top = Tc

Tb (K) Tcs (K) Tc (K) Tx (K)

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 31

 Transient Heat Transfer
„ Heat transfer processes that occur on time scale short compared to
boundary layer thermal diffusion. Why is this important in cryogenics?
(Dth (copper) ~ 10-4 m2/s @ 300 K; ~ 1 m2/s @ 4 K)
„ Normal liquid helium has a low thermal conductivity and large heat
capacity
kf
Df= ~ 3 x 10-8 m2/s (LHe @ 4.2 K)
q
ρC
π
T(x)
δ th = (D t )
f
1
2 ~ 3 x 10-4 t1/2 [m] for LHe @ 4.2 K
2 ~ 1.5 t1/2 [m] for copper @ 4.2 K
δth
hL
„ Lumped capacitance condition: Bi = << 1 ~ 10L [m]
k
„ Note that this subject is particularly relevant to cooling
superconducting magnets, with associated transient thermal processes
„ Important parameters to determine
„ ΔE = q Δt* (critical energy)
T – surface temperature during heat transfer
USPAS Shorts Course
„
Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 32
 Transient Heat Transfer to LHe @ 4.2 K

Time evolution of the temperature difference following a step heat input:

Steady state is reached after ~ 0.1 s

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 33

 Critical Energy for Transition to Film Boiling

Hypothesis: The “critical energy” is determined by the amount of

energy that must be applied to vaporize a layer of liquid adjacent
to the heated surface.
Energy required
„
ΔE = ρ l h fg δ th
q*
LHe
„ Layer thickness determined by diffusion
π
δ th = (D t )
f
1
2
δth
2
„ Critical flux based on heat diffusion:
1
π ⎛ kl ⎞ 2
q = ρ l h fg ⎜⎜
*
⎟
*⎟
2 ⎝ ρ l CΔt ⎠
~ 0.09 Δt-1/2 [W/cm2] @ 4.2 K

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 34

 Surface Temperature (Transient HT)
„ During transient heat transfer, the surface temperature will be higher
than the surrounding fluid due to two contributions:
„ Fluid layer diffusion: transient conduction in the fluid layer will result in a
finite temperature difference
„ Kapitza conductance: At low temperatures, there can be a significant
temperature difference, ΔTk, due to thermal impedance mismatch (more on
this subject later). This process is dominant at very low temperatures, but
is small above ~ 4 K, so is normally only important for helium systems.
„ Fluid layer diffusion equation:
∂ 2 ΔT f 1 ∂ΔT f k
= ; Df =
∂x 2 D f ∂t ρC p
„ Boundary conditions:
„ ΔTf (x,0) = 0; initial condition Solution is a standard second order
„ ΔTf (infinity, t) = 0; isothermal bath differential equation with two
„ q = -kf dΔTf/dt)x=0 ; heat flux condition spatial and one time boundary
condition.
„ Solid is isothermal (Bi = hL/k << 1)

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 35

 Transient diffusion solution
Δ Tf
„ Integrating the diffusion equation:

q ⎡ ⎛ Df t ⎞ ⎞⎤
12
⎛ x2 ⎞ ⎛ x
q
ΔT f = ⎢2⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ exp⎜ − ⎟ − xerfc ⎜ ⎟⎥
kf ⎢ ⎝ π ⎠ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 2(D t ) ⎟⎥
1 2
⎣ ⎝ 4D f t ⎠ ⎝ f ⎠⎦

„ Evaluating at x = 0 (surface of heater) x

12
2q ⎛⎜ t ⎞
ΔT f ( x = 0 ) = ⎟
π ⎜⎝ ρC p k f ⎟
⎠
„ The transient heat transfer coefficient can then be defined

π ⎛ ρC p k f ⎞
12
q
h= = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
ΔT f 2 ⎝ t ⎠
0.1
h≈ ; kW/m2K for helium near 4 K
t

At t = 10 μs; h ~ 30 kW/m2 K and for q = 10 kW/m2; ΔTf ~ 0.3 K

Note: this value of h >> hnb (nucleate boiling HT coefficient)
USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 36
 Summary Cryogenic Heat Transfer

„ Single phase heat transfer correlations for classical fluids are

generally suitable for cryogenic fluids
„ Free convection
„ Forced convection
„ Two phase heat transfer also based on classical correlations
„ Nucleate boiling
„ Peak heat flux
„ Film boiling
„ Transient heat transfer is governed by diffusive process for ΔT
and onset of film boiling

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 37