Trombone Vibrato

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TROMBONE VIBRATO: A STUDY OF THE APPROPRIATE
STYLISTIC APPLICATION (IN A JAZZ CONTEXT)
A PROJECT REPORT
Presented to the Department of Music
California State University, Long Beach
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Music
By Regan G. Wickman
B.A., 1985, California State University, Long Beach
August 1999
UMI Number: 1397129
Copyright 2000 by
Wickman, Regan G.
All rights reserved.
UMI8
UMI Microform 1397129
Copyright 2000 by Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company.
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unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company

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WE, THE UNDERSIGNED MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE,
HAVE APPROVED THIS PROJECT REPORT
By
Regan G. Wickman
COMMITTEE MEMBERS
/£)
Richard P. Birkemeier, D. •hair)
—-_____ Music
John fi. Fjrince, M.A. Music
Alex lies, M.M. Music
ACCEPTED AND APPROVED ON BEHALF OF THE UNIVERSITY
Kristi S. Jones, M.A.

Associate Dean, College of the Arts
California State University, Long Beach
August 1999
ABSTRACT
By
Regan G. Wickman
August 1999
The use of vibrato should always serve to enhance the performance
of a soloist or ensemble. Often, however, there is no specific indication in the
music regarding the use of vibrato, leaving the performer in a potentially awk
ward situation. It is rarely specified by the composer, editor, or publisher of a
piece of music, but rather is implied based on the style of music being per
formed and the era in which it was written.
Used correctly, vibrato adds an expressive warmth to the sound. In
correctly applied, it easily detracts from the performance. The purpose of this
study was to define better the appropriate stylistic application of trombone vi
brato in a jazz setting.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express many thanks to Dr. Kristine Forney, Dr. Rich
ard Birkemeier, Alex lies, and John Prince for their generous guidance and
contribution to this project. Thanks also go to the marvelous professional trom
bonists, such as Roy Main and Robert Simmergren, who served as mentors to
me. Their talent, musicianship, and love of music contributed immensely to my
own. Finally, I wish to express my deepest gratitude to my family and to my
wife Christy for their love, support, and patience during this process.
CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOW LEDGM ENTS.................................................................................... iii
ILLU S TR A TIO N S .............................................................................................. v
CHAPTER
1. IN T R O D U C T IO N ................................................................................... 1
2. TECHNICAL EXPLORATION OF TROMBONE VIBRATO ............. 6
Slide Vibrato ................................................................................... 6
Jaw/Lip Vibrato ............................................................................... 12
Air/Diaphragm V ib rato .................................................................... 15
3. M ETHODOLOGY................................................................................... 19
4. THE PRACTICAL USE OF VIBRATO IN J A Z Z .................................. 25
5. C O N C LU S IO N ........................................................................................ 33
A P P E N D IX .......................................................................................................... 35
BIBLIO GRAPHY................................................................................................. 40
D IS C O G R A P H Y ................................................................................................. 45
iv
ILLUSTRATIONS
Example Page
1. Slide vibrato: Variable speed and w id th ........................................... 11
2. Slide vibrato: Pitch indication............................................................. 11
3. Slide vibrato: Slow and wide, diminishing in w id th .......................... 11
4. Jaw vibrato: Variable sp eed............................................................... 14
5. Diaphragm vibrato: Variable speed, width, and

dynamics ........................................................................................ 17
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
“A good vibrato is a pulsation of pitch, usually accompanied by syn
chronous pulsations of loudness and timbre, of such extent and rate as to give
a pleasing flexibility, tenderness, and richness to the tone."1 The ability to cre
ate a beautiful, controlled vibrato is among the trombonist’s most unique musi
cal attributes. And since all instrumental vibrato is an imitation of vocal vibrato,
the trombonist should strive toward that ultimate goal: giving a lyric quality to
the sound. While vibrato is perhaps the most fundamental of all ornamenta
tions, in the case of the trombone, there are no firm guidelines for its applica
tion. Without a standardized set of guidelines for the use of vibrato on the
trombone, the application becomes highly subjective and requires a very so
phisticated and stylistically correct approach. Technical precision and a judi
cious application are an absolute necessity.
Every trombonist brings a unique background of experience to each
performance situation. This background allows the individual to use a tech
nique such as vibrato at his/her own discretion and in a way that reflects
1Carl Emil Seashore, In Search of Beauty in Music: A Scientific Ap

proach to Musical Esthetics (New York: Ronald Press Company, 1947), 55-56.
2
enormously on each musician's own sense of style and interpretation. In fact,
"a jazz musician may be assessed more simply by his vibrato than any other
particular aspect of his style."2 As a soloist in a jazz or commercial setting, one
player may choose a fluid slide vibrato, while another may use a different meth
od, such as jaw vibrato, or perhaps none at all. According to jazz trombonist
Bill Watrous, "It depends on what I feel about the tune at that moment."3 The
decision is not only whether or not to employ the technique of vibrato but also
the method from which to choose. Further complicating the dilemma are many
other considerations: At what point during a sustained note should the vibrato
commence? Should the pulsation be wide or narrow in pitch? What should be
the speed or frequency of oscillation?
These questions underscore the fact that developing a good vibrato
is a highly personal and interpretive process. As a listener, critic, and per
former, each musician's own sense of artistry is inextricably bound with all that
he/she has experienced, past and present, thereby creating a unique musical
perspective. Consequently, with so many factors to consider, no two players
will offer up the same result. While the vibrato should be an integral part of the
2Robin Gregory, The Trombone: The Instrument and Its Music (New
York: Praeger Publishing, 1973), 147.
3Bill Watrous, T ip s for Trombonists from Bill Watrous,” interview by

Harvey Phillips,The Instrumentalist n.v. (September 1994): 20.
performance, the trombonist should always have conscious control over its
use. Above all, it should always serve to give the music direction.
Vibrato, by its very nature, is intended to highlight the performance of
a particular work or genre of music. With the possible exception of modem
Baroque music editions, it is not often specified by the editor or publisher of a
piece of music, but rather is implied based on the style of music being per
formed and the era in which it was written. A big band arrangement from the
late 1930s or early 1940s may well indicate the use of vibrato in certain pas
sages and, more specifically, a slide vibrato. Conversely, the style of a differ
ent era may discourage the use of vibrato, without actually specifying it in the
manuscript. It is far more likely that the music will not offer up any such stylistic
suggestions, leaving the application and the appropriate method of choice to
the performer's own experience and judgment. Ironically, it is not uncommon
to see the words "no vibrato" specified at the beginning of an ensemble or soli
passage in a dance band arrangement from the 1940s. The implication is,
then, were it not for the arranger or composer’s specific request to leave it out,
the vibrato would have been expected to be used as a matter of course. Dur
ing the 1950s the trend was toward a very sparse use of vibrato, if any at all.
At this time, the use of a vibrato was largely frowned upon because it did not fit
into the unique style of the Bebop period. The players were more or less ex
pected to conform to the identifying style tendencies of those bands for their
4
cues, rather than to explicit notation within the music itself. Consequently, as is
the case with any implied musical ornamentation, the potential for misinterpre
tation or incorrect application is always present.
While music is a highly personal and subjective experience for both
the performer and listener, strict performance guidelines are a necessity if the
stylistic integrity of the music being performed is to be maintained. Herein lies
the basis for conflict: with differing interpretations of the correct stylistic appli
cation of vibrato, the result is often one of confusion, especially in an ensemble
situation. This is particularly true in a jazz or dance band setting where deci
sions of stylistic importance descend from the lead trumpet player on down to
each section leader and throughout the entire ensemble. It then becomes the
discretion of the first chair trombone to offer stylistic cues in passages that
involve section or soli playing. In soli passages, it is common for the entire
section to use a slide vibrato that is in synchronous rhythm with the first chair
player, provided that the era in which the music was written so dictates. In
present-day jazz ensemble compositions, these same "rules" do not to apply.
In fact, there is rarely a synchronous use of vibrato throughout the section, but
rather a far more judicious application—and often only in the context of a solo
passage. Simply stated, the artist has far more latitude for giving prominence
to the vibrato in solo parts than he/she has in the ensemble. This rule holds
particularly true for instrumental performances.4
The ambiguity is intensified when factoring in the different means of
vibrato available to the trombonist. Chief among these are the slide vibrato,
jaw/lip vibrato, air/diaphragm vibrato, throat vibrato, and head vibrato. Each
has its own merit from a performance standpoint; but for the purpose of this
discussion (chapter 2), only the three most widely used forms will be consid
ered: slide vibrato, jaw/lip vibrato, and air/diaphragm vibrato.
Education is the key to understanding the proper application of vi
brato within a jazz context. This takes place in many forms, including individual
study as well as actual performance experience. However, audio recordings
provide the most accurate way to document the evolution of styles within the
jazz idiom. Modern technology has allowed for an unprecedented availability
of recordings, dating back nearly one hundred years, for evaluation by the stu
dent and professional alike. They offer clear "road marks" as to the stylistic
practices that are in use at any given time and provide the basis for this discus
sion.
“Seashore, In Search of Beauty in Music, 64.
CHAPTER 2
TECHNICAL EXPLORATION OF TROMBONE VIBRATO
Slide Vibrato
The slide vibrato is one of the most unique methods of producing a
vibrato and is, in fact, available only to the trombonist. This method varies the
pitch quite literally by movement of the slide in a "to-and-fro" manner and is
similar to the technique used by a string player. Consequently, this method
also gives the player a wide range of choices in terms of pitch variation and
speed. Used primarily in a jazz, commercial, or dance band setting, the slide
vibrato adds an expressive warmth to the sound and a lyric quality to the
phrase that is unlike any other method. It is also the method most inconsis
tently employed. Milton Stevens of the National Symphony Orchestra has
said: 'The trombone slide has always been the object of both fascination and
great frustration."1 Although the slide vibrato can do wonders in adding warmth
to the sound, it also requires more attentiveness to pitch. A steady hand and
measured approach are an absolute must; otherwise, the pitch-center of an
ensemble or soli section may be jeopardized. Young or inexperienced
1Milton Stevens, “Neglected Slide Technique,” The Instrumentalist

n.v. (February 1994): 24.
trombonists have at their disposal a formidable force with which to wreak havoc
with the intonation of the trombone section. As this is primarily a pitch-variable
method, the slide vibrato is most often overdone by inexperienced players.
The most common criticisms of the slide vibrato are that it is too wide, too fast,
and too soon. It is the method considered to be the most romantic in sound,
yet at the same time it requires the most judicious of applications.
In order to best learn this method, the player should begin by holding
the slide in the proper fashion and allow the wrist to make a hinge-like motion
up and down the slide, gradually speeding up and slowing down alternately. It
is crucial that the hand and wrist be supple in order to give a relaxed quality to
the sound. Attaining the proper speed and width of vibrato requires time, pa
tience, and drill, although the actual speed of movement should ultimately de
pend on the style or current trend of the music being played.
The width of the pulsation is another matter entirely. How far should
the pitch be bent? Again, this is largely dependent on the style of music being
played. However, as a general rule, the distance traveled by the slide in both
directions, or width of pulsation, should be limited to not more than three-
quarters of an inch to 1 Vi inches in either direction above and below the sus
tained pitch.2 The overall percentage of slide movement above and below the
pitch is a source of debate among players. However, the general consensus is
2Denis Wick, Trombone Technique (London: Oxford University

Press, 1989), 61.
8
that it should likewise be limited to roughly one third above the sustained pitch
and two thirds below. This percentage is intended to maintain the integrity of
the original sustained pitch, as the ear tends to hear the note sharp if the em
phasis is not placed on the lower side of the pitch. For the same reason, many
players prefer to begin the vibrato on the lower side of the sustained note
rather than on top of it. This method, also, is intended to help reinforce the
pitch center of the note that is being embellished. Slide travel that is equidis
tant in either direction, or one that begins on the "top" side of the pitch, tends to
be heard by the listener as sharp. Well-known Los Angeles/Las Vegas trom
bonist Sy Zetneris technique of choice is to play on equal sides of the pitch
with a wide, slow vibrato. Tommy Dorsey’s style also falls into the category of
equal distance above and below the pitch, although his vibrato is much faster
in terms of its frequency. Los Angeles studio trombonists Lloyd Ullyate and
Roy Main share a differing opinion. Both agree that "to go above the note de
stroys the pitch center, especially if starting the vibrato above the note."3
In terms of usability, there are two potential shortcomings of the slide
vibrato. Due to the necessity of moving the slide both above and below the
sustained pitch center, slide vibrato in first position becomes a technical impos
sibility. There are two legitimate ways to circumvent this problem: (1) utilizing
an alternate position to substitute for first position; or (2) playing the instrument
3Roy Main, professional trombonist, interview by author, 5 May 1997,

Long Beach, California.
9
using "extended positions," or playing each position approximately a half inch
longer than normal to compensate for the main tuning slide being pushed ail or
nearly all the way in. This method allows for the use of a slide vibrato in all po
sitions. In 'Tommy Dorsey: The Sentimental Gentleman of Swing," Bob Laber
indicates that according to former Dorsey orchestra trombonist Buddy Morrow,
Dorsey used a slide vibrato but preferred to stay out of first position entirely so
that he could get a vibrato on every note.4
The other challenging aspect of developing a good slide vibrato is
endurance, or strength of the facial muscles. While the slide would seem the
most obvious method for producing a vibrato on trombone, it is, in fact, the
most taxing. Controlling the sound requires a high level of expertise and
breath control. In order to maintain this control, the burden is largely placed on
the facial muscles that make up the embouchure. As these muscles focus on
sustaining the note, the slide is being "wiggled," causing a significant variance
in the pitch frequency and placing an abnormal amount of pressure on the em
bouchure. This action manifests itself as fatigue of those facial muscles, and
the result is a corresponding deterioration of tone. To compensate for this loss
in sound integrity, the airstream must be increased. As a result, the dynamic
level actually increases while the sound is supported. An experienced trom
bonist will automatically increase the airstream when employing any form of
4Bob Laber, Tom m y Dorsey: The Sentimental Gentleman of Swing,"

The Instrumentalist n.v., (February 1992): 88.
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
10
vibrato. A relaxed wrist is also a necessity in developing the speed that is
essential in making this method a viable option. For these reasons, younger
players will find it difficult to develop a good slide vibrato until sufficient control
has been attained.
The speed or frequency of the pulse is yet another variable that is
largely determined by two very important factors: musical context and personal
taste. In the context of a romantic solo ballad, most current trombone stylists,
such as Bill Watrous or Ian McDougal for example, prefer to sustain the note
for a moment before starting a vibrato. Beginning slow and wide, the vibrato
quickly narrows in width and increases in frequency for the duration of the
pitch. Another technique is to add the vibrato at or near the end of the pitch in
an attempt to "spin off' the note, or give it momentum into the next note or
phrase (examples 1 and 2).
The late 1930s inspired a style of slide vibrato that included the entire
trombone section of the jazz orchestra. This is generally a narrow, fast slide
vibrato that is synchronized with the lead chair trombonist and commences at
the very front of the note being sustained. This is a difficult technique requiring
each player to be attentive to the style cues of the lead trombonist. Fre
quency, width of pulse, and timing are critical to the success of the slide vi
brato, or the result can be a less-than-pleasing "dogfight" (example 3).
11
Normal Wide Slower
Example 1. Slide vibrato: Variable speed and width. Copyright ©

1994 by Accura Music, Inc. Reprinted by permission.
- . . A A A ' f k . . Jr~L
Example 2. Slide vibrato: Pitch indication. Copyright© 1994 by Accura

Music, Inc. Reprinted by permission.
Example 3. Slide vibrato: Slow and wide, di

minishing in width. Copyright © 1994 by Ac
cura Music, Inc. Reprinted by permission.
12
Jaw/Lip Vibrato
The jaw or lip vibrato is used by trombonists as frequently as slide
vibrato and is by far the most universally accepted technique among low brass
players.5 It is considered appropriate in any playing situation, either classical
or jazz, where vibrato would be used unless otherwise specified. Since it pri
marily involves movement of the jaw, it is most commonly referred to as a jaw
vibrato. This method is produced by movement in the embouchure: either by
a variation of the lip or jaw, or both.
While the jaw moves in and out (or in the case of some players, up
and down), the lip tenses and relaxes while sustaining the pitch, creating a
fluctuating "wu-wu-wu-wu" effect. These pulsations produce an interesting var
iance in the tone color or timbre of the sound, much like a vocal vibrato. This
color change is unique to the jaw vibrato because, unlike the slide method of
vibrato, it is not primarily a pitch variation but rather an undulation of the sound,
or a wave-like motion, produced by movement of the facial muscles. The re
sulting sound has been likened to a "bent" tone. This movement is responsible
for creating changes in the timbral structure of the note, thereby altering the
harmonic overtones that are present in the sound. Because the tonal quality
produced by brass instruments is so laden with these overtones, the variation
in timbre can be quite significant. However, care must be taken not to open the
5John R. Griffiths, The Low Brass Guide (Hackensack, NJ: Jerona

Music Corporation, 1980), 23.
13
jaw too wide, as this action causes the sound to lose its focus. Conversely, the
narrower the jaw, the more the sound becomes thin and pinched. For these
reasons, a more moderate approach is necessary in terms of width in order to
maintain the integrity of sound. The young or inexperienced trombonist will
find this method to be an excellent tone-centering device, as it forces the player
to be aware of the pitch center before deviating from it.
The speed and intensity of the jaw vibrato operate in direct correlation
with the technical capabilities of the player. It is possible to develop a very fast
jaw vibrato which has, in fact, become a characteristic of French virtuoso style.
Well-known low-brass professor and author Stuart Dempster stated that "this
vibrato is the best one on the trombone for the purpose of moving the sound
through the performing space."6
This is a very important concept, particularly for the solo performer
whose constant goal is to fill the room with sound. Among the proponents of
the jaw vibrato are jazz and commercial trombonists such as J. J. Johnson,
Carl Fontana, Joe Alessi, and the late Frank Rosolino. This method of vibrato
is the universal choice among classical orchestral players as well as jazz and
commercial players, as it affords the most control over tone color and pitch var
iation (example 4).
6Stuart Dempster, The Modem Trombone: A Definition of Its Idioms

(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974), 31.
Example 4. Jaw vibrato: Variable speed and width. Copy
right © 1994 by Accura Music, Inc. Reprinted by permission.
15
Air/Diaphraam Vibrato
The air/diaphragm method of vibrato is possibly the best way to imi
tate vocal technique and, if carefully applied, imparts a singing quality to solo
passages.7 This method contains elements of both air stream fluctuation and
movement of the diaphragmatic/abdominal muscle; however, like the jaw/lip
technique, this method is known by the most common means of production:
the "diaphragm vibrato." It is produced simply by pulsations of the air column
caused by "a diaphragmatic push" of the abdominal muscles.8 It is not a
method commonly employed by brass players in general; however, it does
offer some practical benefit. As it is primarily a dynamic-level variation, the em
bouchure is able to remain constant on the mouthpiece with no significant
movement, thereby manipulating the sound solely by a pulsation of air. While
both the slide and jaw methods are far more taxing on the facial muscles, the
diaphragm vibrato can be more easily sustained. It offers, however, far less
manipulative capability in terms of pitch or tone color variation since it primarily
involves pulsating the air stream. While this method has some degree of merit,
particularly from a physical standpoint, it is of most benefit when used in con
junction with the jaw vibrato. The combination of these two techniques affords
the player greater control in terms of width of pulsation. Not only is the
7Wick, 61.
Griffiths, 23.
16
frequency and harmonic nature of the pitch altered, but with the addition of a
pulsating airstream, so, too, is the dynamic of the sustained note. As a result,
the listener not only hears the vibrato but also feels it more intensely than if it
were singularly produced. This combination of methods makes for a very prac
tical technique, particularly in a jazz or commercial setting. It is pleasing to the
ear and less taxing on the embouchure than either of the two previous meth
ods. It is also possible to combine both the slide and jaw vibratos, and many
players find that to be a useful alternative. In doing so, the speed and width of
the slide pulsation remains constant while the lip vibrato is slower, thus cre
ating a more interesting effect (example 5).
The following are a few additional methods of vibrato available to the
trombonist, although proponents of these are relatively few and each offers
little, if any, additional benefit beyond those techniques already discussed:
1. Throat vibrato: An outdated "nanny-goat” effect made by inter
rupting the flow of air at the glottis. This was a very popular method thirty or
more years ago.
2. Head vibrato: A vertical shaking of the head which produces the
same effect as a jaw vibrato, but in a much more cumbersome way.
3. Tongue vibrato: A sound requiring a change in vowels by the use
of the tongue. While not considered one of the primary vibratos, it is easy to do
and is similar in nature to a flutter tongue.
ru rr
' Loud Soft
n Un LJn
JU T T L Normal Wider
Fast & Louder
Example 5. Diaphragm vibrato: Variable speed, width, and dynamics. Copyright ©

1994 by Accura Music, Inc. Reprinted by permission.
18
These additional methods of producing a vibrato offer far less in
terms of practical application than those already discussed and should be re
garded merely as options.
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Information on the various methods of trombone vibrato is readily
available through any number of educational sources. Textbooks that discuss
the basic technical aspects have been published for just such a purpose.
However, as is the case with any highly stylized ornamentation, these sources
tend to be somewhat subjective in their treatment of the topic. In addition,
there is a reluctance (if not an outright avoidance) by most authors to delve into
specific stylistic applications for each of the three basic methods of trombone
vibrato. Suggestions are put forth as to which method is best suited to each
style of music, but no actual standard of application is specified. Is it safe to
make the assumption that this is, in fact, due to the highly subjective nature of
ornamentation in general, or simply the case with vibrato?
A number of texts are regarded as standard sources for trombone
technique. Among these are The Modem Trombone: A Definition of Its Idioms
by Stuart Dempster, Denis Wick's Trombone Technique, The Trombonist’s
Handbook by Reginald Fink,1the first two of which were previously cited in this
1Reginald Fink, The Trombonist’s Handbook (Athens, OH: Accura

Music, 1970).
19
20
study. Each of these provides informative, in-depth discussions of technique
and mechanics, but little in the way of any stylistic perspective—in part, due to
the fact that "style" is a somewhat relative concept. Past stylistic tendencies
are easy to define, but their current counterparts are much more difficult to pin
point as they are still developing. Consequently, these resources generally
serve to offer a historical perspective only.
Periodicals are a more valuable resource for up-to-date articles on
stylistic trends of the day. Downbeat, The Instrumentalist, and Journal of the
International Trombone Association are excellent source material for gleaning
information, opinions, and perspectives from professional musicians. These
are generally excellent references on modem trends, as their main objective is
to provide current information on a monthly basis. "How to" articles by today's
most prominent trombonists give pointers on everything from building an upper
register to jazz phrasing. They provide the most current information on style
and phrasing trends as they are, in large part, the force behind creating them.
Several of these have been cited here, and others are included in the bibliog
raphy.
The master class is also a highly effective educational forum for the
dissemination of information regarding instrumental technique and style trends.
Participants are encouraged to join in a solo or ensemble situation in order to
demonstrate the technical subject matter being discussed. This subject matter
21
is helpful on at least two distinct fronts: it provides a means for practical appli
cation, and it gives perspective on matters of style and phrasing. Often, a con
sensus is necessary in order to determine the best approach to a phrase or
question of stylistic importance. In this way, each musician operates on the
principle of shared information. As the background of each musician is com
prised of a unique and often diverse set of experiences, so, too, are the dif
ferent viewpoints.
Another extremely valuable source of current styles and technique is
the professional trombonist as mentor. The role of a mentor is extremely im
portant in the growth and development of every musician, especially when
learning the appropriate application of vibrato. Discussions with instructors
and colleagues, as well as actual on-the-job experience, are the most tangible
of all sources from which to gain information and perspective on the correct
stylistic application of the technique of vibrato. Private instructors are another
resource; they possess a broad range of experience and knowledge that is
vital to the success of any budding musician. A hands-on approach is essen
tial in order to impart properly and thoughtfully the necessary technical skills
required to master the trombone, as well as any form of ornamentation. Not
only can a mentor offer ideas, advice, and experience, but much more perti
nent is an actual demonstration of style and technique. This is where
22
musicianship is learned. Proper guidance and attention are essential to funda
mental sound production, as well as matters of style.
The greatest benefit to the growth and development of any musician
is direct hands-on experience. No other type of training can replace a live
performance situation as a learning environment. Playing with well-established
professional musicians can be a humbling, awe-inspiring experience—one that
cannot be replicated in a library, practice room, or rehearsal hall. While this
type of on-the-job training leaves the lesser-experienced musician with a pain
ful awareness of shortcomings in technical abilities or musicianship, it is here
that knowledge of style and phrasing are communicated among players. As
previously stated, listening is key. Subtle nuances of articulation, dynamics,
and rhythmic "feel" or awareness are all examples of nonverbal communication
among players, especially within the same section. Stylistic cues to use orna
mentation such as vibrato, must be made clear by the section leader. And in
an ensemble setting, the section leader sets the style (i.e., phrasing, articula
tion, and ornamentation), and others in the section follow these cues. This
procedure is true regardless of whether it involves a string section of an or
chestra or the trombone section of a jazz ensemble; all adhere to the same
standard. There is a definite hierarchical structure when it comes to matters of
stylistic importance: phrasing, articulation, and ornamentation are communi
cated from top to bottom.
23
As simple as this principle is, it easily becomes ambiguous and com
plicated in practice. A basic understanding of various musical styles is neces
sary, as is an awareness of specific style traits. Examples include playing
straight eighth notes in a polka from the late 1930s instead of swinging them or
synchronizing a slide vibrato throughout the trombone section during a 1940s
era ballad. These stylistic nuances are not instinctively known among all
young musicians but are learned through a variety of experiences, including
practicing, participating, and listening. Books and periodicals offer ideas or
suggestions, but experience provides the practical basis upon which these
techniques are subsequently applied.
For these reasons, the most beneficial educational body of resource
material available is composed of audio recordings. The audio recording me
dium gives the student and professional trombonist an actual demonstration of
the techniques and applications previously discussed. One of the best ways
any musician can learn sound, phrasing, and style is through listening. With
the re-issue of many old recordings, access to music of different eras has
never been greater. Consequently, the recordings of Tommy Dorsey, Jack
Teagarden, Glenn Miller, and Kai Winding, among others, appeal to a wider
audience of young trombonists as the direct result of their widespread availabil
ity. They offer the most accurate way to document the evolution of styles
within the jazz idiom, offering clear "road marks" as to the stylistic practices that
24
are or were in use at any given time. These high-quality recordings provide a
vast array of information on which to base an overall perspective on style,
phrasing, and technique, both past and present; they form the basis for discus
sion in the next chapter.
CHAPTER 4
THE PRACTICAL USE OF VIBRATO IN JAZZ
Tum-of-the-century trombone virtuoso Arthur Pryor was the first so
loist to be widely recognized for his unique style and amazing technical abili
ties. His early recordings with the Sousa Band of “Blue Bells of Scotland” and
“Love Thoughts Waltz” in 1911 reveal a narrow, fast, French style of jaw vi
brato that is extremely precise. However, it was Tommy Dorsey who became
one of the most influential trombone stylists of the century. His upper register
facility, coupled with a fluid, seamless slide vibrato, redefined the instrument as
well as the use of vibrato. Dorsey’s preferred style was to begin his slide vi
brato at the beginning of the note, sustaining both the speed and width of pul
sation, giving it a shimmering quality. His classic recording of “I’m Gettin’ Sen
timental Over You” is the epitome of the Dorsey style: smooth, precise, and
consistent.1 This technique, along with his strong upper register, made Dor
sey’s style a benchmark. Present-day trombonist Bill Pearce was also known
for his clear tone and smooth slide vibrato. Like Dorsey, his technique
1Tommy Dorsey, Sentimental Memories, Pair 1035,1988, compact

disc. (See discography for all references to compact discs.)
25
26
maintained a constant frequency, but he waited to begin his vibrato until estab
lishing the note for a beat or two.
Current jazz great William “Bill” Watrous’s use of slide vibrato is
thought to be the standard for many of today’s trombonists. Watrous prefers to
delay until the last third of the note before adding a relaxed, fluid, slide vibrato.
However, in the middle or lower register, he often uses a jaw vibrato, or a com
bination of slide and jaw, depending on the music.2 One of the best examples
of Watrous’s amazing technique and musical prowess comes from the album
Bone-ified.3 His recording of “How Deep Is The Ocean" from this album pro
vides an excellent example of his effortless upper-register slide vibrato.
Joe Alessi, principal trombonist with the New York Philharmonic and
top recording artist, also utilizes an interesting combination of both the slide
and jaw method. In his jazzy rendition of “Tribute to J. J. Johnson" from his al
bum New York Legends,4 Alessi utilizes this combination of jaw/slide vibrato
very effectively by allowing both the speed and width of pulsation to vary, giving
it a warm sound as well as a lyric vocal quality. Ironically, J. J. Johnson’s own
style is somewhat unique in that he never uses a slide vibrato at all. Preferring
Watrous, “Tips for Trombonists,” 20.
3William Watrous, Bone-fied, Crescendo G N P D -2211,1992, compact

disc.
“Joseph Alessi, New York Legends, Cala Records C A C D 0508,1996,

compact disc.
27
a straight-tone approach, his use of vibrato is rare; however, “on those few
situations where I used it, it was a jaw vibrato.”5
Another proponent of the use of jaw vibrato is Carl Fontana, one of
the most influential bebop trombonists ever. His unique style is well docu
mented. His version of “Polka Dots and Moonbeams” from the album The
Great Fontana reveals a slow, relaxed jaw vibrato that fits his lyric style per
fectly.6 In Fontana’s case, the use of a jaw vibrato seems to be less intrusive to
his style of Bebop than using a slide vibrato, thereby facilitating his improvisa
tions even more.
Other influential trombonists were Murray McEachem and, to a lesser
extent, Bill Harris, both of whom used the lip method of vibrato almost exclu
sively and in a manner that could express warmth, jollity, and even meanness.
Additionally, no discussion regarding the use of trombone vibrato would be
complete without mentioning Urbie Green. According to Bill Watrous,
Urbie changed the way everybody thinks about trombone playing. [He]
took Tommy Dorsey’s style and changed the vibrato, making it something
personal instead of being so close to the vest. Tommy’s vibrato was tight
and measured, but Urbie’s is warm and loose, like butter. His tone is vel
vet.7
5J. J. Johnson, professional trombonist, interview by author, 20 July

1998, Long Beach, California.
6Carl Fontana, The Great Fontana, Uptown U P C D 27.28,1987, com

pact disc.
7Watrous, “Tips for Trombonists,” 19.
28
The big band era, which stretched from the mid-1930s through the
late 1940s, was of major stylistic importance in the way the trombone— and
vibrato— were used, both in an ensemble and as a solo instrument. The instru
mental configurations of current-day dance bands and jazz ensembles origi
nated during this period and were very influential in establishing the trombone
as a lyrical, romantic instrument.
Arrangers for the Dorsey Orchestra, including Sy Oliver, Bill Finne
gan, and Axel Stordahl, were quick to capitalize on Dorsey's sense of style,
reinforcing the trombone as a solo instrument. Largely as a result, the slide
vibrato became the choice method for soloists of this period as well as for
usage within the trombone section, due to its smooth, fluid nature. The ability
to synchronize the slide vibrato during soli passages in the trombone section
was far easier than any other method available for two main reasons: it pro
vided each player with a visual reference, and the sound produced was a more
definable pitch variation as opposed to change in tone color. Thus, a unique
style evolved which continues to require observance when playing music of the
dance band era.
With the advent of the Bebop era in the late 1940s, musical style
changed dramatically. Gone were the warm, lush-sounding big bands, as well
as most use of vibrato. The writing and instrumentation of the period did not
call for that kind of sound. Vibrato, especially slide vibrato, nearly disappeared.
When Stan Kenton formed the Innovations Orchestra in the late 1940s, the use
29
of vibrato was largely abandoned, as was the trend. The musical philosophy of
Kenton during this period was one of a “corrupted classical sound,” according
to bass trombonist Bob Olson, who played with the orchestra in the early fif
ties.8 Kenton’s unique writing style reflected this in many ways, including his
innovative use of harmonic structure and open voicings that often gave the en
semble a harsh, unwieldy sound. In general, Kenton did not like the use of
trombone vibrato, preferring instead a straight sound. This preference was in
sharp contrast to the bands of Tommy Dorsey, Benny Goodman, and Glenn
Miller of a decade earlier, when the use of a synchronized vibrato was stan
dard.
With the Kenton Orchestra, the emphasis was on innovative voicings,
with new sounds created in part by reconfiguring the sections within the band
and a different set of stylistic guidelines. An entirely new “orchestral tone color”
was conceived which helped to create the symphonic sound he was after.9
One signature of the band's progressive sound, as was to be the case with all
jazz of this era, was the near absence of vibrato, particularly in the brass sec
tion and especially in the trombones. It was never used synchronously
throughout the section as had earlier been the style, and only sparingly in the
lead chair with a classical-esque jaw vibrato. The late Frank Rosolino’s vibrato
8Bob Olson, professional trombonist, interview by author, 30 July

1998, Gardena, California.
9lbid.
30
was “the paradigm of the Kenton sound, done by the lip— very slow, mystical,
sometimes pleading.”10 This new and innovative style was not the characteris
tic warm, lush sound of the previous big band era, but rather one of clashing
harmonies and the cold, dead-tone approach. Consequently, when performing
the music of this genre, it is expected as a matter of course that most vibrato
will not be used in an attempt to remain stylistically accurate.
While orchestral style with regard to vibrato has changed little over
the past few decades, jazz vibrato styles continued to evolve stylistically
through the sixties and seventies with the bands of Woody Herman, Buddy
Rich, Maynard Ferguson, and Quincy Jones. These bands set the standard for
present-day performance practices, with all matters of stylistic importance de
termined by the “lead” or first-chair players in each of the three horn sections of
the band: trumpets, trombones, and saxophones. Of these three players, it is
the overall authority of the first trumpet to “set the style" that the others will fol
low. This procedure applies to phrasing, articulation and, to a lesser extent,
dynamics. Within the context of this hierarchy, the lead trombonist is likewise
expected to set style and phrasing during featured soli or ensemble playing.
“When the lead player doesn't use vibrato, or [when] playing unison passages,
10Dick Nash, “Self-Expression in Ballad Playing," Journal of the Inter

national Trombone Association 8, no. 4 (October 1985): 39.
31
no one should use vibrato. A soloist has the option to use whatever vibrato he
chooses.”11
The use of a synchronous slide vibrato throughout the trombone sec
tion was no longer the desired sound. Instead, deferring its usage almost ex
clusively to the lead player was favored. This method offered a cleaner, crisper
sound, particularly in conjunction with the more open voicings that many of the
arrangers favored. Often, the lead trombonist (or soloist) will add a slide or lip
vibrato to the last third of a note in an effort to “spin o ff into the next note or
phrase. Highlighting the top note of a line before descending has the effect of
giving movement to the phrase. It is a technique that is practiced with regular
ity among professional commercial trombonists but is rarely (if ever) specified
in the music; it is stylistically implied. Well-known and respected studio trom
bonists such as Urbie Green, Chauncy Welch, Dick Nash, and Lloyd Ullyate
were largely influential in standardizing this approach. However, tempo, style,
and the era in which the music was written are the chief factors in determining
how and which method of vibrato will be applied. According to John R. Grif
fiths, author of The Low Brass Guide, “generally speaking, you would only use
a diaphragmatic or jaw vibrato in classical music, and . . . the slide vibrato for
jazz and turn-of-the century compositions.”12
"Watrous, “Tips for Trombonists,” 20.
12Griffiths, 24.
32
The underlying principle of any ornamentation is to improve some
thing that is already good. And the chief intention of vibrato— whether pro
duced by the slide, jaw, or diaphragm— is to add a pleasing expression as well
as warmth to the sound. In order to maintain the integrity of this principle and
of the music being performed, the application of vibrato must be well thought
out. It should only be used if a thorough, technical knowledge and musical un
derstanding have been arrived at by each musician. Consequently, guidelines
must be established which allow a standard of application to be followed.
There is a genuine consensus among players that vibrato is to be used spar
ingly in ensemble passages and more frequently in solo passages.13 In fact,
the solo trombonist will invariably use a wider, slower, more romantic style of vi
brato with greater dynamic range than would be used in the context of an en
semble. Conversely, a straight tone is used in unison or in octave passages, or
when “N.V." (no vibrato) is specified in the manuscript. Vibrato should only be
used in harmony passages; however, in tutti passages, the lead trumpet is the
only player to have the option to use vibrato on long tones, in soli passages,
the lead player of each section has the option to use vibrato.14 In addition, a
slower tempo mandates the use of a wider vibrato, while a faster tempo re
quires a narrower vibrato.
13J. Kuzmich, Complete Guide to Instrumental Jazz Instruction (West

Nyack, NY: Parker Publishing, 1984), 144.
^Ibid-
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
Based upon personal experience and research, it is this author’s
conclusion that education and experience are key to the correct stylistic imple
mentation of trombone vibrato. There are definite things to do and things not to
do when utilizing this stylistic ornament. Three main determining factors must
be given consideration in order to apply a stylistically correct vibrato:
1. Era. Musical era is a crucial factor in determining the appropriate
method and style of vibrato to be used. Big band music of the 1940s will re
quire a synchronous slide vibrato throughout the section, while the Bebop era
of the 1950s would dictate a jaw vibrato, if any at all. A thorough historical
knowledge of the jazz idiom, including the evolution of various styles and
phrasing, is the best preparation.
2. Style. Whether the style of music is bebop, swing, polka, or dance
band, the freelance trombonist must be competent in all matters of style and
phrasing in order to consistently apply an appropriate method of vibrato.
3. Context. Ensemble playing requires a much different approach
than that of a soloist. The solo player has more freedom of expression and will
33
34
invoke the vibrato on a more frequent and sustained basis than the ensemble
player. The method of choice is also given more latitude when determining an
approach favorable to the music.
While consideration of these factors offers a contextual perspective
by which each individual musician makes the decisions necessary to maintain
the stylistic integrity of the music, all share a fundamental requirement: listen
ing. It is the basis by which each of the determining criteria operates. Educa
tion, utilizing the methodology discussed here, is key.
A fourth determining factor should be included that comes as a result
of experience with the previous three: musicianship. This is the final critical el
ement in the determination of how and when the vibrato is to be used. Musi
cianship is the final benchmark by which the artist will be measured. As such,
the use of vibrato must always be judiciously applied and in such a way as to
be aesthetically enhancing to the performance.
The program for the author’s graduate recital, held on 9 December
1998 in the Gerald R. Daniel Recital Hall at California State University, Long
Beach, is contained in the appendix.
APPENDIX
35
C a C ifo tn ia S t< tfe U n iv e r s it y ,
lO K Q B a a e d ,
GoMeqe of Ule Arts,

Department o f M usic
present tde Graduate recital! o/~~
R e g a n W ic fy n a n
TromOone
D e te m fic f 9 ,1 9 9 2
2:00pm
QetaCd ft. Daniel! ReeitaC Hate
36
37
P X O fX A M
G&aqy fo r M ip p y 11................................................ L Bern$t$i$i

Ittamfic* * and [coO
Sonata fo r Iron&ona
and Piano. ...................................... .A . Gwaien
R om ance ......................................................................... a. Da6n$$y
jm e R M J S s jo A /
Vocaiise NnmSer 3 . . . . . . . . * ,Q. Cohcom

(tauucompamiad)
SoMdoquy fo r Jromfione
and Piano................................. .B.M cStini
Nearness o f y o n .......................... H . CarmicAaei

Utamdam qtdtdat and rdyidm ttdiak) AmHWI4mhm
38
P e r fo r m e rs -
CAizuAo A sada. . . Piano Accompanist
RicA &Cf<ia6ey .................... Jromfiona

PAM Keen............................... Itom &OM
M arA V iv a s ...........................Jromfiona
lan WicAs...................... B a ss Jromfiona
CAris B a rro n .................................................... . Piano
Stafano Vafido...............................Bass
Drew ttam m a ii..........................Drums
7tig fu ita i fs ptasaniad lu
parilai fuifHimant oftAa
AAagtois of AAkgle OiffM
InJiomfioM Patfotmanca
Kcga* WU^man Is cunontiy a student

of M ax lia s , and Aas studlad witA
Roy M ain, Ko6art Slmmofgfan
and Jamas GArmln
BIBLIOGRAPHY
40
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alessi, Joseph. “Of Slides, Sinatra, and Trombone Technique.” The Instru
mentalist n.v. (February 1993): 2-16.
Baines, Anthony C. Brass Instruments: Their History and Development. New

York: Dover Publications, 1993.
_________. Trombone.” In The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musi

cians, 6th ed., ed. Stanley Sadie, vol. 19,163-70. London: Macmillan,
1980.
_________, ed. “Trombone.” In The New Oxford Companion to Music, 1851-

55. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983.
Baker, David. Contemporary Techniques for the Trombone. New York:

Charles Colin, 1974.
_________. Jazz Styles and Analysis: Trombone. Chicago: Music Workshop

Publications, 1973.
Brown, Steven Franklin. “Determination of Location of Pitch within a Musical

Vibrato.” Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education 108
(Spring 1991): 15-20.
Dempster, Stuart. The Modem Trombone: A Definition of Its Idioms. Berke

ley: University of California Press, 1974.
Driscoll, Anne. “The Art of Trombone Playing: A Conversation with Raymond

Premru and Ralph Sauer.” The Instrumentalist n.v. (May 1986): 18-24.
Everett, Tom. “A Conversation with Christian Lindberg." Journal of the

International Trombone Association 17, no. 1 (Winter 1989): 22-29.
_________. “A Handlist of Trombone-Related Theses and Dissertations Pub

lished Between 1983 and 1986.” Journal of the International Trombone
Association 16, no. 1 (Winter 1988): 16-17.
41
42
Fink, Reginald. The Trombonist’s Handbook. Athens, OH: Accura Music,

1970.
Friedman, Jay. “Trombone: Beyond Legato, Vibrato, and Slide Technique.”

The Instrumentalist n.v. (August 1995): 148-51.
Gregory, Robin. The Trombone: The Instrument and its Music. New York:
Praeger Publishing, 1973.
Giuffre, Jimmy. Jazz Phrasing and Interpretation: Aspects of Performance for

the Player. New York: Associated Music Publishers, 1969.
Griffiths, John R. The Low Brass Guide. Hackensack, NJ: Jerona Music Cor
poration, 1980.
Guion, David M. The Trombone: Its History and Music, 1697-1811. New York:
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Himes, Addison Choate, Jr. “Artistic Trombone Performance Practices: Vi

brato." Journal of the International Trombone Association 13, no. 4 (Fall
1985): 30-32.
________ . “A Comparison of the Acoustical Properties in Solo and Ensemble

Performance of the Trombone (Vibrato, Intensity, Spectral)." Ph.D.
diss., University of North Texas, 1984.
Huber, Heinrich. “The Trombone: Changing Times, Changing Slide Posi

tions." Brass Bulletin n.v. (June 1981): 52-63.
Hunsberger, Donald. “Memories of Emory Remington.” The Instrumentalist

n.v. (March 1992): 15-22.
Johnson, J. J., professional trombonist. Interview by author, 20 July 1998.

Long Beach, California.
Kleinhammer, Edward. The Art of Trombone Playing. Evanston, IL: Summy-

Brichard Company, 1963.
Kuzmich, J. Complete Guide to Instrumental Jazz Instruction. West Nyack,

NY: Parker Publishing Company, 1984.
Laber, Bob. “Tommy Dorsey: The Sentimental Gentleman of Swing.” The In
strumentalist n.v. (February 1992): 27-32.
43
Levy, Danny. “Tone, Touch, Vibrato, Melody and Taste.” Canadian Musician
10, no. 5 (October 1988): 10-15.
Lupica, Benedict. The Magnificent Bone. New York: Vantage Press, 1974.
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1991): 56-58.
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Beach, California.
Maxted, George. Talking About the Trombone. London: John Baker, 1970.
Meyer, Juergen. “Klangliche strukturen beim instrumental vibrato.” Instrumen-

tenbau-Zeitschrift-Musik International 45 (September 1991): 53-56.
Nash, Dick. “Self-Expression in Ballad Playing.” Journal of the International

Trombone Association 8, no. 4 (October 1985): 38-39.
Olson, Bob, professional trombonist. Interview by author, 30 July 1998. Gar

dena, California.
Ostrander, Allen. “A Discussion on Slide Technique." Journal of the Interna

tional Trombone Association 12, no. 3 (Summer 1984): 25-27.
Seashore, Carl Emil. In Search of Beauty in Music: A Scientific Approach to

Musical Esthetics. New York: Ronald Press Company, 1947.
________ . Psychology of Music. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,

1938.
________ . Psychology of the Vibrato in Voice and Instrument. Iowa City, IA:
University Press, 1936.
________ . The Vibrato. Iowa City, IA: University Press, 1932.
Shukman, Henry. Travels with My Trombone. London: Harper Collins, 1992.
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Trombone Association 6 (January 1978): 22-25.
Stevens, Milton. “Neglected Slide Technique.” The Instrumentalist n.v. (Feb

ruary 1994): 24-27.
44
Streeter, Thomas. “The Trombone Section.” Jazz Educators Journal 24, no. 2
(Winter 1992): 60-63.
Trosper, Orville Wendell. “The Principles and Practice of Producing Vibrato in

Brass Instrument Performance." Ph.D. diss., Columbia University,
1962.
Watrous, Bill. “Tips for Trombonists from Bill Watrous.” Interview by Harvey
Phillips. The Instrumentalist n.v. (September 1994): 19-22.
Wick, Denis. Trombone Technique. London: Oxford University Press, 1989.
Wilson, Phil. “The Great Jazz Trombone Stylists.” The Instrumentalist n.v.
(February 1974); 34-37.
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1987): 47-48.
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21 .
DISCOGRAPHY
45
DISCOGRAPHY
Alessi, Joseph. New York Legends. Cala Records CACD0508,1996. Com

pact disc.
Anderson, Miles. Miles Anderson Plays His Slide Trombone Again. Crystal
S 3 8 5 ,1979. LP record.
Camarata, Tutti. Tutti’s Trombones. Bainbridge Records BCD2049,1970.

Compact disc.
Dorsey, Tommy. Sentimental Memories. Pair 1035,1988. Compact disc.
Dorsey, Tommy, and Frank Sinatra. I'll Be Seeing You. RCA 66427-2,1994.
Compact disc.
Fontana, Carl. The Great Fontana. Uptown U PCD 27.28,1987. Compact

disc.
Fuller, Curtis. Blusette. Performed by the Curtis Fuller Quintet. Savoy COCY-
9006, 1959. Compact disc.
Johnson, J.J. Quintery. Antilles 422-848214-2,1991. Compact disc.
________ . Standards. Antilles 314-510059-2,1991. Compact disc.
Miller, Glen. The Unforgettable Glen Miller. RCA PCD1-5459,1985. Compact

disc.
Pearce, Bill. Bill Pearce, Trombone. New Dawn ZLP-187,1981. LP record.
Pryor, Arthur. Arthur Pryor, Trombone Soloist with the Sousa Band. Crystal
C D 4 5 1 ,1911. Compactdisc.
Rosolino, Frank. Frankly Speaking. Performed by the Frank Rosolino Quintet.

C apitolT-6509,1962. Compactdisc.
46
47
Rutherford, Charles. Grooviri Hard. Performed by the Jazz Pacific Orchestra.

Sea B reezeCDSB-2050,1994. Compactdisc.
Watrous, William. Bone-fied. CrescendoGNPD-2211,1992. Compactdisc.
________ . A Time for Love. Crescendo G N D D -2222,1993. Compactdisc.

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