Factors Affecting the Entry and Growth of

Microorganism in Food
and control

by Prudence Bramwell
Associate Professor in
Food Microbiology and Food safety
Lecture 1-3

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© RMIT University,
2 2015
 Reference:
Adams, MR., and Moss, MO. 2008 and 2016. Food
Microbiology 3rd Ed or 4th ed . RSC Publishing.
UK.
(3rd Ed is online) – so I approve the use of this
ICMSF. 1980. Microbial Ecology of Foods. Vol 1:
Factors affecting the life and death of
microorganisms, Academic Press, New York.

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CHIEF FACTORS OF A FOOD THAT
INFLUENCE MICROBIAL ACTIVITY
1 -MICROBIAL ENTRY IN FOOD

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 CHIEF FACTORS OF A FOOD THAT
INFLUENCE MICROBIAL ACTIVITY
1 -MICROBIAL ENTRY IN FOOD

Sources Of Microbial Entry Into Food

• Air
• Handlers
• Water
• Soil
• Plants
• Animal skins
• Animal feed
• Equipment

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Where are the

microorganisms coming
from that contaminate
the food in this image?

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Where are the
microorganisms
coming from that
contaminate the
food in these
images?

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Where are the microorganisms

coming from that contaminate
the food in these images?

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Where are the microorganisms coming from that contaminate the food in these
images?
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GENERAL FOOD HYGIENE METHODS TO
CONTROL THE ENTRY OF
MICROORGANISMS INTO FOOD

• Handling and packaging

• Sanitation and hygiene

• Education

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HANDLING AND PACKAGING
 Ensure good quality raw product
 Protect end product from environmental
contamination
 Store at correct temperature
 Be aware of shelf-life. Rotate goods
 (First – in – first – out )

SANITATION AND HYGIENE

 Raw / cooked food separation
 Kitchen / Plant hygiene
 Personal hygiene

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Food safety and Hygiene

• Food safety and Hygiene - Cleaning

• Video Clickview
http://rmit.online.clickview.com.au.ezproxy.lib.rmit.edu.au/suplibrary/videos/dbbdf52a-15ad-aa03-71fd-7548fca61535

• Food safety and Hygiene – cross contamination

• Video Clickview
http://rmit.online.clickview.com.au.ezproxy.lib.rmit.edu.au/suplibrary/videos/4bf8867b-ab7f-56f5-f186-3b5c920dec1c

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 Reference to Food Hygiene, Handling and
Packaging, and Sanitation Regulations in
Australia. (Info for Quiz 2)
• For study refer to:
– 1. Food Standards Australia and New Zealand (FZANZ)'s Food
Safety Practices and General Requirements section of the national
Food Standards Code:-
http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/code/Pages/default.aspx

– and click on to "Standard 3.2.2 - Food Safety Practices and

General Requirements". Current standard Oct 2014

– 2. Food Standards Australia and New Zealand (FZANZ)'s

Food Premises and Equipment section of the national Food
Standards Code
– http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/code/Pages/default.aspx
– and click on to "Standard 3.2.3 - Food Premises and Equipment".
Current standard Oct 2012
This will take you to the Comm Law site and the current standard. Click on that to open and
read the standard.
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CHIEF FACTORS OF A FOOD THAT
INFLUENCE MICROBIAL ACTIVITY
2- IMPLICIT factors of microbes
in the food

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 CHIEF FACTORS OF A FOOD THAT
INFLUENCE MICROBIAL ACTIVITY
2- IMPLICIT factors of microbes in the food
How fast a food spoils depends on the properties of the spoilage organism itself
such as:

• The initial load of the spoilage organism

• Phase of growth
– ie whether in stationary, exponential or death phase of grow

• Its competitive ability

– Specific growth rate

• Its genes for resistance eg shock proteins

– Pre-adaptation due to pre-exposure (making the microbial cell more resistant to eg
temperature – heat shock proteins / pH extremes), associated with the RpoS general
stress response regulator gene.

• Cell to cell communication eg mutualism or antagonism

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 HOW FAST DOES SPOILAGE OCCUR?

DEPENDS ON A NUMBER OF FACTORS,

NAMELY:
INITIAL LOAD – N0

CALCULATIONS –
(2) COMPARE No IF 102 with 105

(I) BUT FIRST GOOD TO KNOW THE

NUMBER OF GENERATIONS……
SO HOW MANY GENERATIONS PER LOG?

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 Logarithmic growth
HOW ONE CELL BECOMES A MILLION
(for an organism doubling every ½ h)
Time (hrs) Number of cells
0 1
Q?=how long
would it take to 0.5 2
get to Log210 ie 1 4
100 cells:
1.5 8
Answer: 2 16
•<1?
2.5 32
•<2?
•<3? 3 64
•<6?
6 4,096
•<10? hours
10 1,048,576
Year2Micro 17
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 Phase of growth - Whether in stationary,
exponential or death phase of grow
LAG PHASE
Cells are adapting to a changed environment
Genes switched on / off
No nett increase in cell numbers

LOG or EXPONENTIAL PHASE

The cells are growing and dividing regularly

Maximum growth rate occurs and is measured here
This is the phase which can most easily be analysed

STATIONARY PHASE
Nutrient runs out / wastes accumulate so that
Cells dividing = Cells dying ⇒ dynamic equilibrium

DEATH or DECLINE PHASE

Cells dividing < cells dying ⇒ decrease in numbers
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 Affinity for a growth limiting substrate
The logical extension of the logarithmic growth
shown previously would be the complete
overgrowth of the Earth to several metres deep by
the progeny of one bacterium!

WHAT STOPS BUGS GROWING?

 Running out of a critical nutrient
Ability to compete for nutrients with other bacteria
 Accumulating too much of some wastes, which are
inhibitory to growth

Year2Micro 19
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How fast does spoilage occur?….

Table 1 GENERATION TIME (H) ON BEEF SLICES

– AEROBIC VS ANAEROBIC

2ºC 5ºC
A AN A AN
PSEUDOMONAS SP. 7.6 - 5.1 -
LACTOBACILLUS - 8.4 - 6.5

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FACTORS AFFECTING SPOILAGE RATE INCLUDE TEMPERATURE
(ºC)….Generation time (doubling time) at different temperatures

Examples:

Table 2 GENERATION TIME (H) ON BEEF SLICES

– AEROBIC (A) Versus ANAEROBIC (AN) growth

10ºC 15ºC

A AN A
PSEUDOMONAS 2.8 hours - 2
SP.
hours
LACTOBACILLUS - 4.6 -
hours

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 How fast does spoilage occur?

CELL CONDITION SUCH AS….

(A) DAMAGED microbial cells (eg through
heating/drying food) VS HEALTHY cells
(B) SPORE VS VEGETATIVE CELL

(Prescott et al 2002)

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Diagrammatic production of
endospore

http://www.med.sc.edu:85/fox/sporeform.jpg

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Sporeforming bacteria (revision)
and importance in food :
• A spore is a dormant non-reproductive body formed by
certain bacteria in response to adverse environmental
conditions.
• Spores are able to withstand heat, freezing, chemical
and other adverse conditions in the environments that
can occur during the processing and packaging of
various foods.
• Even if the vegetative cell dies, the spores are able to
survive.
• Spores are of great importance in food processing
because the bacteria can persist in spore form to then
germinate in optimal and improved conditions for growth,
thus allowing growth and potentially causing food
spoilage and foodborne disease.
• Important sporeforming bacteria in food = Bacillus spp.
and Clostridium spp. Why?

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Endospores of Bacillus and
Clostridium

• There are two main genus of spore forming

bacteria present in food:
– the first being Bacillus, which grow in aerobic to
anaerobic conditions (facultative anaerobe).
– The other species is Clostridium.
• These are mainly strict anaerobes.
• They both have a temperature range of
mesophilic to thermophilic.
• The spores formed by these bacteria are
found in soil, water and gut of animals and
humans. (Driks 1999)
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How fast does spoilage occur? ….
ARE THE CONDITIONS OPTIMUM FOR GROWTH OF THE
LIKELY SPOILER?
CONDITIONS ARE:
• NUTRIENT CONTENT
• pH
• WATER ACTIVITY
• REDOX POTENTIAL
• TEMPERATURE
• ATMOSPHERE
• ANTIMICROBIALS
• PACKAGING MATERIAL

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CHIEF FACTORS OF A FOOD THAT
INFLUENCE MICROBIAL ACTIVITY-
3-INTRINSIC factors affecting
microbial growth in food

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 CHIEF FACTORS OF A FOOD THAT
INFLUENCE MICROBIAL ACTIVITY-
3-INTRINSIC factors affecting microbial
growth in food

• Nutrients for energy, growth, vitamins

• pH - hydrogen ion concentration
• Moisture requirement - water activity (aw)
• Oxidation - reduction potential (REDOX = Eh)
• Inhibitory substances (chemicals) and
biological structure (antimicrobial barriers)

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TYPE OF FOOD – NUTRIENTS in food

Nutrients / Energy include:

 Carbohydrate Foods eg?

 Protein Foods eg?


 Fatty foods eg?

 Vitamins / Minerals

 (Salt / Sugar / Fat are very important determining the water

activity available for microbes to grow)

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Carbohydrates
fermentative
• lactic acid bacteria, yeast

CARBOHYDRATE FOODS + CARBOHYDRATE -

FERMENTING MICROORGANISMS
ACIDS + ALCOHOLS + H2≠ + CO2≠

FERMENTATION

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 Carbohydrates - organisms need to release enzymes to break
complex COH to use for their growth. So that simple COH can
be used as a source of energy. This metabolism then results in
release of by-products from the enzyme breakdown eg CO2.

• CARBOHYDRATES

E
1
BY-PRODUCTS
2 3 FOR EXAMPLE:
4 ACIDS
ALCOHOLS
H2≠
CO2≠
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Carbohydrates
• BY-PRODUCTS OF CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

BY-PRODUCT ACCEPTABLE = SPOILT

IN IN
GAS SWISS CHEESE FRUIT JUICES
BREAD DRIED TOMATOES
ACID VINEGAR MILK

ALCOHOLs WINE, BEER VINEGAR

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Carbohydrate fermentation showing gas production

as an end-product – spoilage of juice by yeast

Spoilage of orange juice – BTEB image collection RMIT

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Yeast from the orange juice on OGYE agar – BTEB image collection RMIT
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Carbohydrate fermentation – by
lactic acid bacteria (LAB) – good

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Proteins

proteolytic
• Eg Bacillus, Clostridium, Pseudomonas,
Proteus, some , yeasts & moulds

PROTEIN FOODS + PROTEOLYTIC

MICROORGANISMS
AMINO ACIDS + AMINES + NH3 + H2S≠

PUTREFACTION / proteolysis

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 Proteins – microbes differ in their ability to use various nitrogenous
compounds as a N2 source for growth. Peptide, amino acids, urea,
ammonia, nitrites and nitrates may be available to some microorganisms
but not to all . Some microbes must have them supplied.

• PROTEINS PP DI PEPTIDE

E
1 BY-PRODUCTS
2 3 FOR EXAMPLE:
AMINO ACIDS
4 AMINES
NH3
H2S≠
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Proteins

• BY-PRODUCTS OF PROTEINS METABOLISM

BY-PRODUCT ACCEPTABLE = SPOILT
IN IN
Amides / strong Mature cheese Most other
odour products
H2S from sulphur ? Bad eggs
containing a.a.’s
NH3 from ? Fish
breakdown of
many amino
acid’s
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Fats

• Eg Pseudomonas, Alkaligines, Staphylococcus,

yeasts & moulds

FATTY FOODS + LIPOLYTIC MICROORGANISMS

FATTY ACIDS + GLYCEROL.

RANCIDITY

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Fats – the microbes must be able to produce enzymes that breaks the
triglyceride and will split off the glycerol backbone. Will get the f.a’s The
organisms can now break down the f. a’s with resultant by-products eg esters
to give fruity flavours. The organism can also oxidise the fats to give
hydrolytic rancidity

• LIPIDS (TRIGLYCERIDES)

E
1
3
2

4 BY-PRODUCTS

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 pH
pickling and acidity

Factors that influence enzymatic activity

• pH (optimum pH=maximum enzyme activity)
• Proteins 3-D structure changes when H+ concentration in the medium is
changed drastically (e.g. by addition of acids or bases).

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 pH

 The pH growth range for different microorganisms varies:

 Every microorganism has a minimal, maximal and optimal pH for growth
 pH of different foods varies
 <3 to >7 but most are neutral or slightly acidic
 Alkaline foods often taste unpleasant (egg white

 Most bacteria prefer ~ pH 7 ie neutral

 General growth range for microorganisms in food
• bacteria pH 6 - 8
• Yeast pH 4.5-6
• Mould pH 3.5 - 4
– NOTE yeast and mould are more acid tolerant than bacteria
– Foods with pH<4.5 generally more susceptible to spoilage by yeast and mould

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Bacteria generally like to grow

around neutral pH

In inherently (biologically) acidic food such as

fruit, vinegar, wine, soft drink the pH is below the
point where bacteria can grow so are spoiled by
microbes such as yeasts and lactic acid bacteria
Adams and Moss 2008 products, that can grow in high acid foods.
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Biological Acidity – Fermentation

• Many popular foods eaten around the world are produced by using
microorganisms to ferment the food. Eg using yeast or lactic acid
bacteria or mould
– Cocao pods(beans) to chocolate
– Milk to cheese (Lactococcus)
– Milk to yoghurt (Lactobacillus and Streptococcus)
– Cabbage to sauerkraut / kimchi
– Mince meat to salami
– Grapes to wine (yeast)
– Soy beans to soy sauce

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Biological Acidity – Fermentation

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 Examples of fermented products

Cocao Pods (beans)

to chocolate

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WATER ACTIVITY (aw)

• Microorganisms require H2O to grow

• less likely to grow in foods with a low water activity.
• The water is involved in reactions within the cell.
• It is required around the cell to bring nutrients up to, and
waste products away from it - and to prevent the cell from
drying out.
• This H2O requirement is expressed in terms of available
water or water activity (aw), i.e. the vapour pressure of the
solution (of solutes in water in most foods) divided by the
vapour pressure of the solvent (usually water). Therefore aw
of pure water = 1.00.

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WATER ACTIVITY (aw)

 Decreasing aw increases keep quality

 Important to protect from moisture

 Growth is stopped - sublethal damage

 (not necessarily killed)

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WATER ACTIVITY (aw)
Water activity is decreased by:
 Drying
main spoilage microbes will be xerophilic moulds
 Freezing – make water unavailable for microbes
(Polyol - antifreeze in some bacteria)
 High salt
main spoilage micobes will be halophilic bacteria
such as some species of Pseudomonas, Moraxella,
Acinetobacter, Flavobacterium, Vibrio, lactic acid
bacteria
 High sugar
 main spoilage micobes will be osmophilic yeast
 High fat

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WATER ACTIVITY (aw)

When water in food is chemically bound in strong

salt or sugar solutions, it is unavailable for use
by microorganisms so a solution will have an
aw<1.00 if solutes are present.

As the concentration of dissolving material, such

as salt and sugar, increases, the water activity
decreases.

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 Brock. 2012. Biology of
microorganisms
Water activity (Osmotic Pressure)

51 Figure 6.4 - Overview

Adams
and
Moss
2008

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Three major categories of food

• Perishable
• Semiperishable
• Stable or nonperishable
• (Brock table 36.1)

Mainly based on:

1. water content (related to water activity (aw) – the amount of available water
for use in metabolic activities)
2. Available nutrient for the microbes present in the food

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Intermediate
moisture foods

Adams
and
Moss
2008

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WATER ACTIVITY

Intermediate Moisture Foods

• Foods with aw in the range 0.85 - 0.6
• Examples of these, in order of decreasing aw are:
– flour cakes cereals,
– jams and pickles
– rolled oats,
– dried fruits,
– dehydrated foods

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WATER ACTIVITY

 If water is removed from a food so that the aw is <0.6, few

microorganisms can grow / multiply

 HOWEVER many organisms can survive

 and if the aw rises due to damp storage conditions or rehydration of the

food, the organisms will begin to grow again - moulds first, then
yeasts and finally bacteria.

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Interactions of aw and pH on toxin
production in mashed potatoes inoculated
with Clostridium botulinum – the hurdle
effect
aw pH Time (days) to toxin production

0.964 4.95 >35

0.960 5.46 >35
0.959 5.74 35
0.969 4.96 >35
0.973 5.50 14
0.972 6.04 7
0.977 4.83 35
0.981 5.45 7
0.980 6.10 7

Alejandro Castillo
Texas A&M University

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REDOX POTENTIAL
 Different foods have different Redox Potential (Eh) values
 When electrons are transferred from one compound to another a
potential difference is created between the two compounds

 Electron transfer between substrates

 This can be measured as a potential differences measured

between two electrodes

 Aerobic organisms requires positive Eh values - oyygen available

 Anaerobic organisms requires negative Eh values - oxygen excluded

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59
Adams
and
Moss
2008

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ANTIMICROBIAL BARRIERS and
INHIBITORY SUBSTANCES produced
naturally by food

 Integument – eg skin of fruit, shell of egg

 Chemical produced in response to microbial invasion or

injury (mustard oils)

 Plant tissue constituents

 Egg – Albumen, lysozyme

 Milk – lactoperoxidase

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CHIEF FACTORS OF A FOOD
THAT INFLUENCE MICROBIAL
ACTIVITY
4-EXTRINSIC factors affecting
the microbial growth in food

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 CHIEF FACTORS OF A FOOD THAT
INFLUENCE MICROBIAL ACTIVITY
4-EXTRINSIC factors affecting the
microbial growth in food

• Temperature
• Relative humidity
• Gaseous atmosphere (MAP)
• Control by addition of chemicals

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TEMPERATURE……
 Food spoilage and food poisoning
organisms grow over wide range.

 Affects growth

 Also dependent on:

- aw
- pH
- nutrients

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 THE EFFECT OF STORAGE
• Groups of microbes likely to grow in food

ORGANISM MIN OPTIMUM MAX

PSYCHROPHILES -5 - 5oC 12 - 15oC 15 - 20oC
(obligate)
PYSCHROTROPHS -5 - 5oC 20 - 30oC 30 - 35oC
(facultative
psychrophiles)
MESOPHILES 5 - 15oC 30 - 40oC 40- 47oC
THERMOPHILES 40 - 45oC 55 - 75oC 60 - 90oC

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 TEMPERATURE - INTERPRETATION

1) WHAT DOES THE WORD ‘OPTIMUM MEAN (IN

THIS CASE)?

ANS =

2) WHAT DOES THE WORD ‘MINIMUM’ MEAN (IN

THIS CASE)?

ANS =

. 65
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 TEMPERATURE - INTERPRETATION

ANS=
3) WHAT DOES THE WORD ‘MAXIMUM’ MEAN (IN THIS
CASE)?

4) IF THE TEMPERATURE IS MAXIMUM + 2º IS THE

ORGANISM KILLED?

. ANS =

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 TEMPERATURE PROFILE

OPTIMUM

BACTERIAL
GROWTH
RATE

MIN TEMPERATURE
MAX
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Fig. 6.1. Typical growth rates of different types of M/O in response to temp.
Brock. 2012. Biology of
68 microorganisms Figure 6.1
Relationship Between Rate Of Growth And
Temperature

slower growth at low temperatures

• spoilage temperature-dependent

maximum growth temperature (Tmax)

• determined by heat sensitivity of enzymes

above Tmax
• irreversible denaturation of protein
• breakdown of cell membrane
• death of bacterial cell

asymmetrical curve
• not like a normal chemical reaction
• reflects regulatory pathways of bacteria
• See fig 3.13 Adams and Moss 2000 Food Microbiology
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Implications of Variations in Preferred
Temperature for the growth of microbes in
food
• psychrotrophs & psychrophiles grow at refrigerator
temperatures
• psychrotrophs important in food spoilage
(tolerate greater temperature range)
• mesophiles are often of human origin
(important food-borne pathogens)
• thermophiles and spore formers must be considered
when preserving food by heat
• thermodurics found in heat-treated foods
• thermoduric psychrophiles found in heat-treated
foods that is refrigerated e.g. milk

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HEATING
 Damages DNA = lethal event / changes protein
 Toxins survival varies
 Spore survival varies
 Pasteurisation – no growth of key pathogens
 Appertization – no growth of microorganisms
(spore inactivation is the principle concern)
 Ultraheat treatment – UHT
 Microbial sensitivity to heat is affected by sugar,
fat, aw
 Cooking - check interior hot
 Reheat >720C
 Keep hot. >600C

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Adams and
Moss 2008

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Adams and Moss 2008

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• Cooking video
• RMIT Clickview
• Food Safety and Hygiene video:
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COOLING/CHILLING / FREEZING

COOLING
 it is essential to cool the food quickly after it is
heated, to minimise the time within optimum
growth temperature for surviving spores or
vegetative cells.

 This is called the temperature danger zone (and is

between 50C and 600C)

 Cooked food - cool quickly (eg blast chiller)

 6 hour rule: no more than 2 hours TO 210C
then no more than 4 hours to 40C (to minimize
time in the temperature danger zone (FSANZ)

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www.health.vic.gov.au/foodsafety/home/athome.htm

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COOLING/CHILLING / FREEZING
CHILLING - 0-50C
 Most bacteria cannot multiply at this temperature
 It is thought that as the plasma membrane of the
bacteria becomes solid at lower temperatures the
access of metabolites into and out of the cell is
reduced therefore stopping the growth of the
organism
 Generally not bactericidal
 minimal destruction to bacteria so growth can continue
when temp increases
 Toxins and spores persist
 Spoilage will be slower than at room temperature
due to psychrotrophs doubling time slower than
mesophiles)
 Raw foods should be kept cold
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COOLING/CHILLING / FREEZING

FREEZING -15 to -200C

• Microbial growth does not occur in foods much below -10ºC
so that foods held at recommended frozen storage
temperatures (~ -18ºC) are microbiologically stable.

• During freezing, the water in food is formed into ice crystals

and therefore the water activity of the food is decreased.

• Microorganisms cannot grow in frozen food - (-200C).

• However, vegetative cells, toxins, and spores may persist.

So if present they can still cause disease when the food is
thawed.

• Frozen foods should be thawed in the fridge.

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• Chilling video
• RMIT Clickview
• Food Safety and Hygiene video:
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Adaptation Of Microorganisms To Temperature -
allowing growth
Change in membrane lipids of microbes
• cold adaptation
– increase in the proportion of unsaturated fatty
acids in membrane lipids – allows fluid membrane
at low temperature

• adaptation to growth at high temperatures

– decrease in the proportion of unsaturated fatty
acids in membrane lipids

Polysaccharides
• cold adaptation
– Increased expression of extracellular
polysaccharides

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Adaptation Of Microorganisms To
Temperature

Ribosomes, enzymes
• Capacity to adapt to high or low temperatures

Pigment expression
• cold adaptation
• Increased pigment production

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 Rules for Time/ temperature – must know
for Quiz 2
• Minimize time food is left in the temperature danger zone
(between 40C and 600C i.e. optimum temperature for
pathogens to grow):
• raw food - keep cold (<50C)
• hot food - keep hot (>600C)
• Freezer food should be below -150C (-15 to -200C)
• cooked food - cool quickly (2 hr to 210C , then 4 hrs to 40C=
2hr/4hr rule)
• reheat cooked food safely (recommended to 750C)
• thaw food in fridge
• Throw out high-risk food that has been left in the
Temperature Danger Zone for more than 4 hours.
• Consume high-risk food that has been left in the
Temperature Danger Zone for more than 2 hours––don’t
keep it for later.
(for further information see
www.health.vic.gov.au/foodsafety/home/athome.htm
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RELATIVE HUMIDITY…
 May cause local increase in aw (eg
condensation or a drop) causing bacteria
to grow
 Bacteria that were inhibited could now grow,
respire and produce more water, allowing more
bacteria to grow. Food is no longer stable and
may now spoil.

 Affected by temperature and water

activity.

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 Control
4
of packaging -MODIFICATION OF
ATMOSPHERE use of CO2 , O2 and N2…..

PRODUCT ATMOSHERIC PACKAGING CONDITIONS?

CHOICES ARE:
(i) AEROBIC,
(ii) MICROAEROPHILIC,
(iii) VACUUM / N2
(iv) Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) – mixture
of CO2 / N2 / O2

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MODIFICATION OF
ATMOSPHERE - Oxygen

• An increase in oxygen around the food will increase the

Redox Potential (Eh) and alter the microflora that can grow.
• The types of microorganisms and their growth rates will be
greatly influenced by the presence or absence of oxygen.
• High levels of oxygen eg. 80% will also inhibit the growth of
many microbes.
• If oxygen is removed by producing a vacuum around the food
eg vacuum packaging the growth of aerobes e.g.
pseudomonads and moulds will be restricted. Therefore this is
often done with positive Eh food (ie spoilage will take longer
as the typical aerobic spoilage bacteria are inhibited).

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MODIFICATION OF
ATMOSPHERE - Nitrogen

• Flushing the pack with nitrogen will affect the growth of

microorganisms in a similar way to vacuum packaging as this is an
inert gas.
• Again, aerobes such as Pseudomonas spp., which are the main
psychrotrophic spoilage organism of meats, will be inhibited.

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MODIFICATION OF
ATMOSPHERE – Carbon Dioxide

• 30% carbon dioxide will inhibit the growth of Gram

negative organisms and moulds more than Gram
positive organisms.
• Many aerobes are inhibited by CO2. Carbon dioxide may
inhibit growth by affecting the permeability of cell
membrane.
• Different microorganisms have different sensitivities to
CO2.
• Note: Some pathogens have little inhibitory effect.

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MODIFICATION OF ATMOSPHERE
use of combinations of CO2 , O2 and N2
+ REFRIGERATION

 Restrict spoilage obligate aerobes such as Pseudomonas eg CO2 and N2)

 Vacuum packaging (will not stop anaerobes growing)!!

THE EFFECT THAT IS DESIRED BY USING MAP:

PRODUCT SHELF- LIFE EXTENDED BY CHANGING THE ATMOSPHERE. why?

However research has shown that this may / or may not inhibit foodborne
pathogens, depending on the pathogen and gases used.

Therefore MAP is used in combination with REFRIGERATION

usually (for safety) TO EXTEND THE SHELF-LIFE OF FOOD

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89

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P ackaging (and relationship
to the atm osphere)

PACKAGING MATERIALS FACTORS ARE:

(a) SEALABILITY
(b) THICKNESS
(c) PERMEABILITY (to air)

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91

Packaging images
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 CONTROL BY ADDITION OF CHEMICALS
(for preservation of food)…

 Acidification
 Curing salts
 Sulphur dioxide
 Chlorine
 Natural preservatives

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 CONTROL BY ADDITION OF CHEMICALS
(for preservation of food)…

 Acidification either:
– naturally by fermentations, (as referred to above in pH),
– or by the direct addition of acid to the product eg vinegar,
(e.g. pickles and sauces)

• Acidification acts as a preservative by the low

pH inhibiting microbial growth.

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 CONTROL BY ADDITION OF CHEMICALS
(for preservation of food)

 Curing salts
- Curing salts change the water activity and pH of the food,
(used in meats to make e.g. ham) (sodium chloride +
sodium nitrite solution).

Nitrite
- (added in the curing salt) inhibits the growth of many
spore formers and Gram negatives, although Salmonella
spp. and Lactobacillus spp. are not affected.

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 CONTROL BY ADDITION OF CHEMICALS
(for preservation of food)

Sulphur dioxide
- often added to food as a preservative. However it is
not recommended in sausages as it destroys
thiamine, an essential dietary vitamin

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 CONTROL BY ADDITION OF CHEMICALS
(for preservation of food)

 Potable Water (Chlorinated)

- widely used to inhibit the growth of microorganisms, (e.g. its
addition to water is well documented)
- very important to use a safe and treated water supply when
producing food).

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 CONTROL BY ADDITION OF CHEMICALS
(for preservation of food)

 Addition of “natural preservatives”

e.g.organic acids
- Such as sorbic, benzoic or proprionic acid and their salts
- Organic acid sprays, washes and dips for meat, poultry,
fruits and vegetable surfaces
- e.g.lactic acid dips and combinations of organic acids
such as peroxyacetic acid, octanoic acid with hydrogen
peroxide

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CONTROL BY ADDITION OF CHEMICALS
(for preservation of food)

 Addition of “natural preservatives” from microbes

 Bacteriocins
– Some bacteria produce chemicals that can inhibit or kill closely
related species. These chemicals are collectively referred to as
bacteriocins.
– One such bacteriocin is Nisin produced by Lactococcus lactis.
– Bacteriocins may be used in conjunction with other methods of
microbial control, such as processing of cans.
– The extent of heating may be reduced as the bacteriocin will help to
kill spores such as Clostridium botulinum spores and mould spores.
– With less heating the canned product would more closely resemble
the natural product.
– It would then presumably be more appealing to the consumer.
 Natamycin
- An antifungal agent extracted and purified from a bacteria called I
Streptomyces natalensis
 Bacteriophage ( a virus , specific for certain bacteria)
- E.g. Listeria phage P100 used as a processing adif for Listerioicudal
treatment of meat fish fruit and vegetables
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CONTROL BY ADDITION OF CHEMICALS
(for preservation of food)

Addition of “natural preservatives” from animals

e.g.
Lysozyme (from egg albumin)
Lactoferrin (from milk)Lactoperoxidase

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CONTROL BY ADDITION OF CHEMICALS
(for preservation of food)

Addition of “natural preservatives” from plants

e.g.
essential oils from various herbs and spices
leaf bark
flower and fruit extracts

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CONTROL BY ADDITION OF CHEMICALS
(for preservation of food)

Addition of “natural preservatives” - incorporation of

antimicrobials into edible films and coatings (EFC’s)
e.g.incorporating chitosan, nisin, organic acid or lysozyme into
EFC’s to slow down oxidation of fats, minimise aerobic spoilage and
form a barrier to spoilage organisms and pathogens.

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 SUMMARY
CHIEF FACTORS OF A FOOD THAT INFLUENCE
MICROBIAL ACTIVITY
AND CONTROL OF MICROBIAL ENTRY AND
GROWTH USING A COMBINATION OF IMPLICIT,
INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC FACTORS

So based on the knowledge of how microorganisms

can enter a food and which microorganisms can
grow in a particular food due to its implicit,
intrinsic and extrinsic factors, we can design a
preservation method that will kill, inhibit or slow
the growth of
food microorganisms to
IMPROVE THE SAFETY OF THE FOOD AND
EXTENT THE SHELF-LIFE.

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 SUMMARY
Preservation methods used for control of
microbial growth in food
In general the actual spoilage or pathogenic microorganism in food
that has an advantage depends on a number of combining factors of
the food characteristics that can be controlled by:

• Acidification and Fermentation (modification of the pH) (studied

in fermentation lecture in more detail)
• Decreasing the water activity by drying, freezing, or adding
solutes
• Adding chemicals (natural preservatives/antimicrobials) or
barriers
• Temperature control (heating, cooling chilling, freezing)
• Modification of the atmosphere (MAP, Relative Humidity)
• Packaging technologies
• Time control

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Other modern methods of processing to control
microbial growth in food (not covered in this course)

• High Pressure Processing Or • Membrane Processing

High Hydrostatic Pressure e.g.Microfiltration
• Irradiation • Ozone
• Microwaves • Disinfect Wash Solutions For
• Ultrasonics Minimally Processed
• Pulsed Electric Field / Vegetables
Reversed Pulse Electric Field and Carcasses
• UV Light • Asceptic Packaging
• Pulsed High Intensity Light • Centrifugation
• Surface Treatments And Edible
Coatings
• Cool Plasma

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