7/29/2019

Perception

Session 3-5

When Peter talks about Paul,

we learn more about Peter than about Paul.
Spinoza

He who knows others is clever.

He who knows himself is enlightened.
Lao-Tze

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What Is Perception, and Why Is It Important? The perception process

• People’s behavior is
based on their
perception of what
reality is, not on
reality itself.
• The world as it is
perceived is the world
that is behaviorally
important.

The Attribution Process

Attribution - the process through which individuals attempt to determine

the causes behind others’ behavior
• Perception - the process through which people
Correspondent Inferences - judgments about people’s dispositions,
select, organize, and interpret information traits, and characteristics that correspond to what we have
– active processing of sensory inputs observed of their actions
Challenges in judging others accurately
• Social Perception - the process of combining, - many possible causes of behavior
integrating, and interpreting information about - people sometimes disguise their true characteristics

others to gain an accurate understanding of Making accurate inferences about others

- focus on behavior in situations with low demand for social
them acceptability
- various aspects, including the attribution process - focus on behavior for which there is only one logical
explanation

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Correspondent Inferences: Judging Dispositions The Attribution Process (cont.)

Based on Behavior
Causal Attribution of Responsibility
Internal causes of behavior - explanations based on actions for
which the individual is responsible
External causes of behavior - explanations based on situations
Description over which the individual has no control

Act Disposition Kelly’s theory of causal attribution - internal and external

(what someone does) Correspondent Inference (what someone is like) attributions based on:
Consensus - extent to which other people behave in the
same manner as the person who we’re judging
Example
Consistency - extent to which the person who we’re
Observe someone judging acts the same way at other times
Clumsy
fall off a ladder Assume that person is... Distinctiveness - extent to which a person behaves in the
same manner in other contexts

Figure 2.3
Kelly’s Theory of Causal Attribution: Errors and Biases in Attributions
A Summary

You observe an individual complaining about the food, service,

You conclude that...
and decor in a restaurant. To answer “Why?” you note that...

This person always This person also S/he complained

No one else complains complains in this complains in because s/he is difficult
(consensus is low) restaurant other settings to please
(consistency is high) (distinctiveness is low) (internal attribution)

Several others also This person always This person does S/he complained
complains in this not complain in because the restaurant
complain restaurant other settings is terrible
(consensus is high) (consistency is high) (distinctiveness is high) (external attribution)

Errors and Biases in Attributions The Imperfect Nature of Social

Perception
• Biases in Perception
• First Impression Error (Primacy effect)
• Recency Effect
• Similar to me effect
• Selective Perception
• Pygmalion Effect

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First-Impression Error: A Summary

Initial Performance Initial Impression

Poor Excellent Poor Excellent

Quality of Actual Work Performed Evaluation of Work Performed

Current impression
matches initial
impression
TIME TIME
Current Impression
does not match
current performance

Current Performance Current Impression

Poor Excellent Poor Excellent

Quality of Actual Work Performed Evaluation of Work Performed

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others The Halo Effect: A Demonstration of Positive Halo

Characteristic 1
low high
Characteristic 2
low high
Characteristic 3
low high
Characteristic 4
low high

The more favorably someone is

perceived on some characteristics, the
more likely that s/he will be perceived
favorably on another characteristic, too.

Characteristic N
low high

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Pygmalion Effect Perception & Learnimg

• Self-fulfilling prophecy:
– Expectation of what should happen
– You only act in this way
– Becomes reinforced
– Thus it reinforces stereotype

• “I am going to fail the test”

TURN
–
–
You study less
Try less
OFF THE
–
–
Fail
Confirm that you were going to fail
THE ENGINE

Perception & Learnimg • Aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at an

Elingsh uinervtisy,
> it deosn't mttaer in
> waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod
• M- A- C- T- A- V- S- H are, the olny
> iprmoetnt tihng is taht
• M- A- C- D- O- N- A- L- D > frist and lsat ltteer is at the rghit
• M- A- C- B- E- T- H pclae. The
> rset can be a toatl
• M- A- C- I- N- T- O- S- H > mses and you can sitll raed it
• M- A- C- H- I- N- E- R- Y wouthit porbelm. Tihs
> is bcuseae we do
> not raed ervey lteter by itslef but
the wrod as a
> wlohe.

Perceiving Others: Organizational Perceiving Others: Organizational Applications

Corporate Image Applications
Performance Appraisal -
An inherently biased process - process is far from objective
Factors contributing to corporate image - ratings depend on extent to which performance is
consistent with rater’s initial expectations
- amount of information contained in - ratings reflect similar-to-me bias
recruitment ads - ratings qualified by the nature of attributions made about
performance
- longer ads typically associated with more
positive images Cultural differences in performance evaluations - evaluations
- annual report - official statement for of other’s work influenced by the nations from which
they come
stockholders