SPA6311 Physical Cosmology 2015

Lectures 9.3(ish), 10.1, 10.2 and 10.3

Problems of the Hot Big Bang Model

The hot big bang model, as described so far:

• Now: Matter and dark energy
• At earlier times: Radiation domination
Indications for rad dom period epoch: CMB (Blackbody radiation with T0 = 2.73K)

1
Hot: because T ∝ a

Horizon Problem

Recall that light (and information) has a finite speed and hence can travel only a fi-
nite distance at a given time. We also had the (rough) definition of horizon as the
maximum distance that light can travel since t = 0.

Therefore also the observable part of the universe is finite. We observe the CMB radia-
tion as being very close to isotropic with the same temperature, T0 , in all directions.

However, regions in opposite directions didn’t have enough time to interact yet, so
how can they have the same temperature? Actually, the photons free-streamed without
interacting with the decoupling, hence regions would have to be in equilibrium and in
causal contact before decoupling.

We can estimate the size (on the sky), of regions that could have been in causal contact
before decoupling.

Note: in the following just rough estimates. In our simplified treatment, the distance
that has travelled since the Big Bang is roughly given H −1 . Using c ≈ 3 × 10−7 M pcyr−1
and H0−1 ≈ 10−10 Y r we get l0 ∼ cH0−1 ≈ 3000M pc the distance light can have travelled
by today. Between the Big Bang and decoupling light travelled
1013
   
−1 −1 tdec
ldec ∼ cHdec ∼ cH0 ∼ 3000M pc ∼ 0.08M pc
t0 4 × 1017
Hence 0.08 M pc is the maximum size of a region that could have been in causal contact
(and hence thermal equilibrium with same T throughout before decoupling.)

The size of the region is stretched by the expansion of the universe to a size today.
 2
a0 t0 3
Rdec = ldec = ldec ≈ 90M pc
adec tdec

1
The region subtends an angle θdec on the sky. Triangle angle θdec , l0 hypotenuse, Rdec
opposite.
Rdec 90
θdec ∼ ≈ ∼ 0.03rad ∼ 2o
l0 3000
Hence regions separated by more than 2o on the sky were not in thermal contact before
CMB photons started their journey at decoupling.

Without fine tuning (putting things in by hand) it is therefore difficult to explain the
isotropy of the CMB. Actually, not only does the the CMB have the same tempera-
ture, it also has the same temperature fluctuations(∼ 10−5 ) everywhere. How come that
causally disconnected regions of the universe seem to know about each other?

More problems

The Flatness Problem

Recall the Friedmann equation

|k|
Ωtot − 1 =
(aH)2
where Ωtot = Ωm + Ωr + ΩΛ . If k = 0

Ωtot = 1

But what happens of k << 1 but k 6= 0? During radiation dom:

(aH)−2 ∝ t

During matter dom:

2
(aH)−2 ∝ t 3

In both cases: Ω − 1 does not tend to 0. Observations give

Ωm,0 + ΩΛ,0 = 1.002

or

|Ωm,0 + ΩΛ,0 − 1| < O(10−2 )

Recall: radiation redshifts a−4 , matter a−3 , k a−2 . We expect to have at least a period
of curvature domination. (Dark energy might help, but not solve problem). Ways out:

• k = 0 exactly, however there is no reason why this should be the case

2
 • Ωtot = 1 exactly, but why?

Note: these explanations or escape route are examples of fine tuning.

The Monopole Problem

The standard model of particle physics is not complete, leaving many open questions.
Grand Unified Theories (GUTs) attempt to answer some of these questions. They were
popular in the 1970s and 80s. However, these GUTs predicted various massive particles,
for example magnetic monopoles, with masses 1016 GeV. These would dominate the uni-
verse today (ρmon ∝ a−3 ) contradicting observations, namely that there are no magnetic
monopoles.

Inflation

A period of accelerated expansion in the early universe introduced in the 1980s to solve
the problem of the hot big bang model (A.Starobinsky, A.Guth). Most General Defini-
tion:

ä > 0

How can we get ä > 0? Recall the Acceleration equation

 
ä 4πG P
=− ρ+3 2
a 3 c
2
Need P < − c3 ρ, i.e negative pressure. Simplest case: H, and ρ are constant, then from

ȧ
=C
a
a ∝ e#t

We had this behaviour already: The cosmological constant Λ has

PΛ ∝ −ρΛ

However to end inflation, need non-constant Λ (see later, scalar fields behave like this)

Solving the Hot Big Bang Problems

i) Flatness

Recall
|k|
Ωtot − 1 =
(aH)2

3
The condition for inflation ä > 0, can be rewritten as
d d
ȧ = (aH) > 0
dt dt

(aH) grows, (aH)−1 decays with time

Similarly, using a ∝ e#t we have (aH)−2 ∝ e#t . (aH)−2 goes to zero rapidly, and
irrespective of the value of k we get Ωtot = 1. Note, inflation drives the universe to
k = 0, but then requires in later epochs (today) the introduction of a cosmological
constant:

Ωm,0 + ΩΛ,0 = 1

ii) Monopoles

Inflation leads to an extreme increase in size and therefore volume of the universe: hence
the monopoles get diluted away. This holds for any unwanted relics from before inflation.

iii) Horizon problem

A small region initially in thermal equilibrium can expand enough to be larger that
the visible universe today. Hence the CMB has the properties everywhere today (be-
cause indeed been thermalised at early times).

How much inflation do we need?

We can estimate the amount of inflation needing to solve the flatness problem: in-
troducing the number of e-foldings
 
af
N = ln
ai

Where ai is the scale factor initially, and af is the scale factor at the end of inflation.
Note
af
eN =
ai

Assume now that inflation ends at tf ≈ 10−34 s. During inflation

a ∝ eHt

Also note

|Ωm + ΩΛ − 1| ∝ (aH)−2

4
Hence, relating today to equality (matter epoch)
 2
t0 3
|Ωm + ΩΛ − 1|eq = |Ωm,0 + ΩΛ,0 − 1|
teq
2
Because during matter (aH)−2 ∝ t 3 . Equality to the end of inflation (radiation epoch)
 
teq
|Ωm + ΩΛ − 1|f = |Ωm + ΩΛ − 1|eq
tf

During inflation: H ∼ const

 2
af Hf
|Ωm + ΩΛ − 1|i = |Ωm + ΩΛ − 1|f
ai Hi
 2
af
≈ |Ωm + ΩΛ − 1|f
ai
Combing all of the epochs we get
 2   2
ai teq t0 3
|Ωm + ΩΛ − 1|0 = |Ωm + ΩΛ − 1|i
af tf teq

Using teq ≈ 1012 s, tf ≈ 10−34 s, and t0 ≈ 4 × 1017 s

 2
ai
∼ 1050
af

Hence to get |Ωm,0 + ΩΛ,0 − 1| < 10−2 (to agree with observations) we require
af
> 1026
ai
or
 
af
N = ln > 60
ai

Inflation is extremely rapid. e.g. If H −1 ∼ 10−36 s then between t ∼ 10−36 s and

t ∼ 10−34 s the universe expands by
af
≈ e(H (tf −ti ))
ai
0.99×10−34
 
≈ e 10−46

≈ e99

Many models of inflation produce even larger numbers of N .

5
What drives inflation?

We need something with negative pressure to get ä > 0. Besides Λ, a classic exam-
ple are scalar fields, like for example the Higgs field (however the Higgs field itself is not
responsible for inflation).

A scalar field has pressure and energy density (c = 1) as follows:

1 2
Pφ = φ̇ − V (φ)
2
1 2
ρφ = φ̇ + V (φ)
2

If the field is slowly moving

φ̇2 << V (φ)

and get

Pφ = −ρφ

Typical, simple, scalar field potentials:

1
V (φ) = m2 φ2
2
or

V (φ) = λφ4

Chaotic inflation models. Energy conservation:

ρ̇ + 3H (ρ + P ) = 0

This becomes (with ρ̇ = φ̈φ̇ + V,φ φ̇)

φ̈ + 3H φ̇ + V,φ = 0

Example V (φ) = 12 m2 φ2

φ̈ + 3H φ̇ +m2 φ = 0
| {z }
Damping Term

Damping term: due to the expansion of the universe.

 
2 8πG 1 2
H = φ̇ + V (φ)
3 2

6
Field rolls down potential very slowly, hence φ̇2 << V . Also φ̇ is changing slowly, hence
φ̈ is small

φ̈
+
3H φ̇ + V,φ = 0

2 8πG 1 2
H = φ̇ + V (φ)

3 2


Only need to solve

3H φ̇ + V,φ = 0
8πG
H2 = V (φ)
3
And as advertised Pφ = −ρφ . Eventually the scalar field conveniently decays into
standard matter. Quantum fluctuations in the Scalar field source later on the CMB
anisotropies and the distribution of galaxies. What exactly the origin of the field is, is
an area of very active research.