CHAPTER 01

INTRODUCTION
1.1: Overview of EHV/ UHV Substation Grounding

The capacity and size of the power stations and substations continue to increase
to meet the increasing power demand. Day by day due to addition of more generating
power sources and more interconnection of lines, power systems network become
more and more complicated. At present highest transmission ac voltage in India is 765
kV AC and 1200 kV AC is under test and going to be installed in near future. It is the
highest ac system voltage in the world which is indigenously designed by joint
venture of Power Grid Corporation of India, Central Power Research Institute of
India, Central Electricity Authority (CEA) and India’s leading industries. The
National Test Station 1200 kV AC phases–I has been charged in 2012 for single
circuit and double circuit at Bina, Madhya Pradesh. In future, 1200 kV UHV lines
will be erected for bulk power transmission across the country. Therefore, efficient,
safe and economic grounding practices are needed to adequately protect the substation
equipments and operating personals.

The objective of high voltage substation grounding is to maintain reliable

operation and provide protection for equipments and operating persons during line to
ground faults. In order to meet safety requirements as per IEEE std 80-2000, the
substation grounding grid has to meet following two criterions.

 Grid resistance should be reduced to such extent that it results minimum

ground potential rise with reference to remote earth to keep transfer and touch
potential within limit.

 To achieve the uniform surface potential distribution throughout the substation

area to keep minimum step voltage.

The touch and step voltages inside the grounding grid or adjacent to it are
mainly a function of topsoil resistivity. In contrast, the grounding grid resistance is
primarily a function of deep soil resistivity. For this, the deep soil resistivity refers to
depths roughly the extent of horizontal grid electrode or for simple electrode like
vertical rod; up to ten times the depth of burial.

1
 The complete analysis of EHV/UHV ac substation grounding that shall consider
the grounding system resistance, ground potential rise, surface potential, touch and
step potential, various factors which affects these parameters, economic and efficient
design of grounding grids, factors governing the resistance of grounding grid,
seasonal influence on performance of substation grounding system, Laboratory test
measurements, analysis of various earthing models installed by using Auto Grid Pro
(AGP) grounding software and field test measurements has been carried out in this
thesis.

1.2: Fundamental Concept of Grounding

Grounding plays a vital role in power systems. Grounding is essential at every

stage of electricity generation, transmission and utilization at consumer’s premises.
Good grounding system is the fundamental insurance towards the safety of the people
and for reliable operation of power system equipments. The objective of any
grounding is to provide a path of low impedance to the flow of fault current as well as
lightening current without affecting continuity of services and at the same time to
ensure safety of the peoples in and around the substation from critical electric shock.
Grounding can be classified into

 System grounding and

 Equipment grounding

System grounding deals with the grounding of system neutral to ensure

security and protection of the system where as equipment grounding is the connection
of noncurrent carrying metallic part of the equipment to the ground electrode for the
protection of equipment and freedom from electric shock voltage to person [1].
Figure 1.1 shows the basic shock situations due to step voltage, touch voltage, mesh
voltage and transferred potential. The grounding system terminology is given in
appendix A.

2
Figure 1.1: Basic shock situations; A. Step voltage B. Touch voltage C. Mesh voltage
D. Transferred potential

1.2.1: Parameters of substation grounding

Substation grounding grid design plays an important role in ac High voltage/

Extra high voltage substations systems.The purpose of good grounding design is to
make the surface potential uniform, to keep ground resistance as low as possible and
touch and step voltages well below the maximum permissible limits set as per guide
lines of IEEE std.80-2000. Thus, the electrical parameters that govern the grounding
grid are surface potential, ground resistance, ground potential rise, touch and step
voltages [1].

1.2.2: Surface potential

 During ground faults in the power systems, fault current flows into grounding
grid and discharge into earth in all directions. The flow of fault current
through earth produces surface potential in the substation which is a function
of x and y coordinates. The potential distribution in grounding area is more or
less uniform. However, at the periphery of ground electrode, potential gradient
exist which decreases when one moves away from perimeter of the grid. Earth
surface potential depends on
 Soil resistivity
 Magnitude of current that flows between grounding grid and surrounding soil

3
  Geometric configuration of grounding grid defined by shape, size, grid
conductor spacings, conductor diameter and depth of burial.

1.2.3: Ground resistance

It is the resistance offered to the flow of grid current between ground electrode
and the remote earth. Ground resistance is the function of

 Area of grounding grid

 Soil resistivity in which grid is buried
 Geometric configuration of grounding grid defined by shape and size
 Layout of ground conductors
 Conductor diameter
 Grid burial depth
 Pattern of current discharged from ground electrode.

Components of ground resistance: The function of ground electrode is to discharge

the fault current into the surrounding earth or collect it from other electrodes. The
grounding resistance has four components:

 Resistance of connecting lead conductor which connect the equipment or

electric system to the ground electrode.
 Resistance of metallic ground electrode itself.
 Contact resistance between connecting lead conductor and ground electrode
and soil in which ground electrode is buried.
 Resistance of general mass of the earth surrounding the ground electrode in
which electrode discharge the fault current.

Resistance of first three parts is known as metallic resistance RL and that of the
fourth part is dissipation resistance RD. Resistivity of metallic conductor is generally
in the order of few µΩ-cm and that of the soil, at the minimum may be few Ω-m. The
difference is of the order of 10 or more. Therefore, resistance of metallic parts is
negligible as compared to dissipation resistance. Thus, usually the grounding
resistance is considered to be equal to the dissipation resistance RD and here after
referred as ground resistance Rg. The grounding resistance Rg of the ground electrode
depends on the soil resistivity ρ as well as the ground electrode geometry [2].

4
1.2.4: Effect of shape of electrode on resistance

In order to achieve low values of Rg, the current density at electrode to earth
interface should be as low as possible i.e. the volume of earth through which the
current flows should be as large as possible. Once the current flows from metal to
earth, it spreads out radially, reducing current density. If the electrode is physically
small, say a point electrode, this effect is very large, but it is very much less for a
plate electrode where spreading is effective only at the edges. Therefore, for the same
surface area; rod, pipe, or wire offers very much lower ground resistance than, a plate
electrode. Note that low current density extends electrode life [3].

1.2.5: Types of Simple Electrodes

Ground resistance: Determination of ground resistance of individual simple

electrode is comparatively easy. Numbers of empirical formulae are available in
published literature. A simple electrode may be considered as isolated if distance
between two similar electrodes is more than three times the length.

Circular plate electrode: The ground resistance of a metallic disc of diameter D’

(m) placed on the surface of a homogeneous earth having soil resistivity ρ (Ω m) as
shown in figure 1.2 is given by Laurent [4]. It can be used to find the foot resistance
of equivalent foot area on the surface of substation grid.

Figure 1.2: Circular plate electrode

= (1.1)
2 ′

Vertical ground electrode or pipe electrode: Rod electrodes can penetrate into deep
soil. It provides low ground resistance as it comes in contact with low resistivity deep
soil. Rods are very useful, when the soil structure having high resistivity at shallow
depth and very low resistivity in deep soil. They discharge large amount of current
into deep low resistivity soil resulting in less ground resistance. However, rods have
very unfavourable surface potential distribution. In practice, combination of grid and
rods are used to provide low resistance and desirable surface potential. The grounding
resistance of vertical rod or pipe as shown in figure1.3 is given by Prof. Dwight [5]

5
 Figure 1.3: Vertical ground rod

= −1 (1.2)

According to Rudenberg and Datta [5]

4
= (1.3)
2
The formula derived from rotating ellipsoid by Tagg, Ollendorf and Zingraff is [6]

2
= (1.4)
2
Where

is the length of vertical rod or pipe in (m)

d is the diameter of rod or pipe in (m)
ρ is the uniform soil resistivity in (Ω-m)

Horizontal ground electrode:

The ground resistance of horizontal round conductor buried in the soil at a depth h
(m) depicted in fig. 1.4 is given by

2
= −1 (1.5)
√ ℎ

If the conductor is strip having width w (m) and thickness t (m), then equivalent
diameter is approximately given by = /2 when ≤ /4

Figure 1.4: Horizontal ground electrode buried at depth h

Plate Electrode: The formula for ground resistance of vertically buried plate
electrode is given by

6
 = (1.6)
4 2
Where

A is the surface area of one face of plate in m2

Ring Electrode: The grounding resistance of ring shaped electrode as shown in

fig.1.5 is given by

Figure 1.5: Ring electrode buried at depth h

16 ′
= (1.7)
2 ′ ℎ

Where

D’ is the diameter of the ring

d is the cross sectional diameter of the ring

1.2.6: Substation Grounding Grid

Grounding grid usually consists of horizontal equally spaced bare grid conductors
interconnected to each other in X and Y directions and burred in the soil at a certain
depth; provides a common grounding to all substation equipments and steel structures.
It is often supplemented by several vertical ground rods at the corner, perimeter of the
grid and inside the grid as per statutory requirement of substation equipments.
Grounding grid resistance is a function of soil resistivity, grid configuration and area
available for the grid. Once the area of grounding grid and soil structure/model is
defined; grid resistance is almost fixed and there is very little scope to decrease the
grid resistance by adding more number of grid conductors, increasing its diameter and
burial depth. However, there are other techniques to decrease the grid resistance.
Figure 1.6 shows the typical substation grounding grid with vertical rods.

7
 Figure1.6: Typical substation grounding grid with ground rods

1.2.7: Grid resistance values

As per IEEE Std. 80 -2000 [1], a good grounding system provides low
resistance to remote earth in order to minimize GPR and thereby dangerous touch
voltages within the respective maximum permissible limits. The earth resistance may
be made as low as possible. For large EHV/UHV ac substations the ground resistance
is usually less than 0.5 Ω and that of the distribution substations, the acceptable range
is from 1 Ω to 5 Ω, depending on the local conditions.

1.2.8: Calculation of grid resistance

In uniform soil, the minimum value of substation grounding resistance can be

calculated by using the formula of circular metal plate placed at the surface of the soil
developed by Dwight formula [5]. The formula is based on duality principle of DC
resistance to ground of the conductor and its capacitance.

= = (1.8)
.

Rg is the substation ground resistance in Ω

ρ is the soil resistivity in Ω m
A is the area of grounding grid in m2
r is the equivalent radius of grounding grid in m

The formula in equation (1.8) is modified by adding additional term with length of
ground conductors by Laurent and Niemann [7]

= + (1.9)

8
Where,
LT is the total buried length of grid conductors in m.

When the length of grounding grid conductor increases and becomes

(infinity), then the condition of solid plate approaches and the second term in equation
becomes zero. However, this formula does not take care of depth of grid burial. The
effect of burial depth of ground conductor is taken into account by Sverak J.G. [8]

= + 1+ ⁄
(1.10)
√

Where,
h is the burial depth of grid in m

It does not consider the influence of well type grounding electrodes, mutual resistance
between grid conductors and ground rods, conductor separation and conductor
diameter.

Schwarz [9] developed the equations to take into account the vertical rods (well type)
in uniform soil. It consists of formula for horizontal grid, vertical rods and mutual
resistance between horizontal grid and vertical rods.

.
= (1.11)

Where,
R1 is the grounding resistance of (horizontal) grid in Ω
R2 is the resistance of all vertical ground rod beds in Ω
Rm is the mutual ground resistance between group of grid conductors R1 and
group of ground rods R2 in Ω.
The resistance of the horizontal grid, vertical rod and mutual resistance between them
are given by

.
= .
+ − (1.12)
√

.
= −1+2 . (√ − 1) (1.13)
. . √

.
= .
+ − +1 (1.14)
√

9
Where,

ρ is the soil resistivity at burial depth h

Lc is the total length of grid conductors in m

d' is √ℎ. grid conductors buried at depth h in m (when h=0, d' =0.5d 1)
d is the diameter of grid conductors in m
dr is the diameter of vertical rods
nr is the total number of ground rods
Lr is the average length of vertical ground rods in m
k1, k2 are the coefficients related to geometry of grounding grid
A is the area of grounding grid in m2
= .

Where,

is the length of grounding grid in X-direction

is the length of grounding grid in Y-direction

When the length of ground rods is greater than the equivalent radius of grounding
grid, the resistivity of soil ‘ρ’ should be considered at the depth of ground rod because
most of the current is mainly dissipated into ground from bottom of the vertical rods

k1= -0.04 x + 1.41 for depth h=0

k1= -0.05 x + 1.20 for depth h=√ ⁄10
k1= -0.05 x + 1.13 for depth h=√ ⁄6
k2 = 0.15 x + 5.50 for depth h=0
k2 = 0.10 x + 4.68 for depth h=√ ⁄10
k2 = -0.05 x + 4.40 for depth h=√ ⁄6

Where, x is the ratio of length to width of the grid

The ground resistance formula developed by Nahman and Skuletich formula [10]
/
0.53 1.75 100 ℎ
= + / 1 − 0.08 (1.15)
√ √

Y. L. Chow and M. M. A. Salam [11] had developed a simple but accurate formula
for the calculation of substation grounding resistance. The basis of proposed method
is a theoretical manipulation of the numerical moment method.

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 1 1 1 0.165 ∆ 2ℎ
= + 1− 1.128 (1.16)
4 ∆ √2 √

Where
k number of meshes in the grid
∆ length of one side of mesh in square grid

Electrical resistivity of soil in and around the substation grounding grid affects
its performance. Soil resistivity affects the grid resistance. For the similar electrode
configuration, higher the soil resistivity, higher will be the ground resistance. Soil
resistivity is mainly the function of depth. It decreases to large extent when water
table is reached. If the grounding electrode is close to water table, ground resistance is
reduced. One of the important reasons of burying grounding grid about 0.6 m below
the earth surface is that top layer of earth may be prone to drying up in summer
season and freezing in winter; both phenomenon increases the soil resistivity. Also
grounding grid conductors must be buried such that it forms good contact with the
surrounding soil and safe from mechanical damage.

1.3: Soil resistivity

Electrical conduction in soils is essentially electrolytic. The surface soil layer

consists of clay mixed sand and often mixed with decayed vegetable matter also.
When dry this soil may not conduct much electricity. However in the presence of
moisture, ionic conduction takes place according to the type of slots present in the
water contained soil. As a result soil resistivity is dependent on physical and chemical
composition of soil, grain size, soil compactness, porosity, moisture content and
temperature. Resistivity of soil can vary within extremely wide limits, between 1 Ω m
and 100,000 Ω m. It depends on type and nature of the soil. Table 1.1 shows the
typical resistivity of various types of soil and other materials.

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Table 1.1 Resistivity of various soils [12]

Sr. Types of Soil Resistivity (Ω-m)

No.
Average Usual Variation

1 Surface soil (loam – clay and sand 5 5-10

decayed organic matter )
2 Clay (stiff various earth chiefly 30 8-100
aluminum silicate), Black clay
3 Sand and gravel 100 40-300

4 Sand clay and gravel mixture 150 50-250

5 Shale (fine grained sedimentary rock --- 5-500

of mud and clay), sand stone wet
(sedimentary rock chiefly quartz
cemented together), slate, schist
6 Sandstone dry --- 1000->10000

7 Surface lime stone (chiefly calcium --- 100-10000

carbonate)
8 Deep limestone --- 5-4000

9 Granite (crystalline rock of quartz, 1000 200-10000

mica etc.)
10 Basalt (Dark colored fine grained rock) --- 1000

11 Decomposed gneiss (rock containing --- 50-500

minerals and quartz)
12 Gravel 3000 1000-10000

13 Primary rock ( Gneiss, Granite) 25000 10000-50000

14 Lake water non polluted lakes in hilly --- 200 and up

terrains
15 Tap water --- 0.01-50

16 Sea Water --- 0.02-20

17 Concrete, New or buried in earth 100 25-500

18 Concrete dry 10000 200->1000000

19 Asphalt wet --- 10000-6000000

1.3.1: Effect of moisture, salts and temperature

The resistivity of soils decreases abruptly whenever the moisture content

accounts for more than 15% of the soil by weight. The amount of moisture further

12
depends upon the type of the soil, its grain size, compactness, and variability of the
grain sizes. Dry soil is generally very poor conductor of electricity.

The resistivity of soil increase very slowly, when temperature decrease from
25℃ to 0℃ .But, below 0℃, moisture in the soil start freezing and resistivity of soil
increases to very high. Dissolved substances in the soil such as NaCl, CaCl2, decrease
the soil resistivity.

1.3.2: Soil Model

In uniform soil model, the soil is assumed to have uniform resistivity ρ (Ω-m)
to a very large depth below earth surface. Actually the soil is rarely homogeneous in
all directions; this approximate representation is used when non-uniformity is ± 30
% of average value of resistivity.

A two-layer soil model is shown in figure 1.7. It consists of top layer having
uniform resistivity (Ω-m) up to depth ℎ , overlaying a bottom layer of infinite
depth and uniform resistivity of (Ω-m). Both the layers are of very large extent in
the transverse direction.

Figure 1.7: Two layer soil model

There is abrupt change in resistivity at the boundary of two layers, known as

reflection factor

=( − ) ⁄( + ) (1.17)

Where,

K = Reflection factor

ρ = Soil resistivity of top layer up certain depth.

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ρ = Soil resistivity of bottom layer up to infinite depth.

1.4: Permissible touch and step voltages

Maximum permissible limit of touch and step voltages which are related to
safety of peoples are based on the permissible limits of shock current flowing through
human body without ventricular fibrillation of heart. Permissible touch and step
voltages are the functions of

 Permissible limit of body current

 Duration of shock current ( )

 Resistance to the flow of current through human body consisting of body

resistance ( ) and feet resistance.

 Resistivity of surface layer gravel and resistivity of native soil beneath to

surface layer ρ.

 Thickness of surface layer ℎ .

Permissible limits of body current ( ), depends on time duration, magnitude and

frequency of current. Table 1.2 depicts the effect of magnitude of current on human
body.

Table 1.2 Effect of magnitude of current on human body [14]

Sr. No Magnitude of Physiological effects on human body

current (mA)

1 1 Threshold of perception

2 1-6 Let-go currents, unpleasant.

3 9-25 Painful and muscular contractions could make

breathing difficult.

4 25-60 Muscular contractions could make breathing

difficult, Unconsciousness.

5 60-100 Stoppage of the heart, death

14
1.4.1: Body Current path

Figure 1.8 shows the touch and step voltage situation. For the step voltage, the
current flows in from one foot, passes through the body and flows out through the
other foot. The total resistance encountered is the body resistance plus resistance of
two feet in series. Where as in case of touch voltage, it flows in from the one hand,
through body and flows out from the both feet in parallel. Thus, the total resistance is
the resistance of human body plus resistance of two feet in parallel. As per IEEE Std
80, an average value of body resistance ( ) is treated as 1000 ohm.

Figure 1.8: Touch and step voltage body current path

Ground resistance of foot; modeled as a circular disc having equivalent radius of ‘b’
meter placed on soil of uniform resistivity of surface layer ρ is given by

R = ρ ⁄(4 b) (1.18)

R ≅ 3 ρ , assuming b = 0.08 m

E = R + 1.5 C . ρ × I ⁄ t (1.19)

E = R + 6 C .ρ × I ⁄ t (1.20)

For a person having 50 Kg weight, I = 0.116 A

15
E = 1000 + 1.5 C . ρ × 0.116⁄ t (1.21)

E = 1000 + 6 C . ρ × 0.116⁄ t (1.22)

E = Maximum permissible touch voltage for human with 50 kg body weight.

t = Shock duration in second.

E = Maximum permissible step voltage for human with 50 kg body weight

. ρ⁄ρ
C = (1.23)
h .

ρ is soil resistivity
C is the surface layer de rating factor

For a person having 70 Kg weight, I = 0.157 A

E = 1000 + 1.5 C . ρ × 0.157⁄ t (1.24)

E = 1000 + 6 C . ρ × 0.157⁄ t (1.25)

1.5: Grid Current

During earth fault, the current flows through the grounding grid. It has several
alternate paths such as overhead ground wire, cable sheath, and system neutral and via
earth it return to sources from where fault was feed. The part of the fault current that
flows between grounding grid network and surrounding earth is known as grid current
Ig. It may vary from zero to 100% of the fault current depending on location of fault,
type of fault, transformer connections, conductor configuration, parameters of
overhead ground wires and phase conductors, soil resistivity along the power lines,
grounding grid resistance of the station (Rg). Sizing of grid conductor is based on
magnitude of fault current whereas magnitude of grid current (max value) Ig is
responsible for most stringent safety criterion i.e. dangerous voltages such as step,
touch and transfer potential. The maximum value of grid current is given by

I = C .D .S .I (1.27)

Where,

16
 is the fault current

S = ⁄ is the fault current division factor (split factor)

is the grid current

C is the projection factor to account for future expansion of grid over the life
span of the substation.

D is the decrement factor to account for D.C, offset component of fault current.

1.5.1: Shock duration (ts)

The maximum permissible values of step and touch voltages are the function of
shock duration. Lesser the shock duration time, more will be the permissible values of
touch and step voltages which enhances the safety level. On the other hand, higher the
shock duration time, lesser the magnitude of safety voltages limit and there by
endanger the personal safety in the substation. Therefore, for stations using digital
relays the shock duration time of 0.5 second and for stations using electromagnetic
relays, shock duration time of one second may be used for determination of maximum
permissible values of Estep and Etouch.

1.5.2: Fault duration (tf)

Grid conductor sizing is the function of fault duration and magnitude of fault
current. The fault duration, tf, is greater than shock duration ts. To calculate the
conductor cross-section, the time tf should be the maximum possible fault clearing
time including backup. Therefore, fault duration time (tf) of 1 second for stations
using solid state or digital relays and 3-second for stations using electromagnetic
relays may be adopted [14].

1.6: Selection of ground conductors

The capacity of grounding system to carry and dissipate ground fault current
without creating a fire or explosive hazard in the area during the entire service life
depends mainly on type of material and size of various elements of the grounding
system. Every element of the substation grounding system, such as horizontal grid
conductors, down lead conductors, connecting leads, vertical ground rods and all

17
primary electrodes, should possesses the following properties throughout the
expected design life span [15].

 Should have good conductivity, so that it will not produce local potential
differences.
 Should resist fusing and mechanical deterioration of joints during adverse
condition of fault current and its duration.
 Be mechanically rugged and strong.
 Should withstand and maintain the integrity of grid and its function even when
exposed to corrosion.

1.6.1: Type of Materials

Copper: Copper was very commonly used in the past. It has high conductivity and is
resistant to underground corrosion. However, a grid of copper forms a galvanic cell
with other buried steel structures and pipes and is likely to hasten the corrosion of the
latter in the substation. One of the drawbacks for the use of copper is the theft which
may threaten the integrity of the grounding grid. It is also costly as compared to other
materials.

Galvanized steel: The material, most commonly used presently is galvanized steel.
The use of steel avoids galvanic action between grid and other underground structures
and pipes. However, the grid itself may suffer corrosion. The zinc coating gets
destroyed over a period of time. It is desirable that a suitable allowance for corrosion
be made while determining the size of conductor.

Mild steel: It is popularly used in India with suitable corrosion allowance. It is cheap
and readily available. It is used in the form of rectangular strips as well as round grid
conductors. For the same area of cross section of grid conductor, the rectangular strip
has more surface area as compare to round conductor and hence, more corrosion for
the same value soil resistivity. However, rectangular conductor can be easily bent,
bolt and weld. Both mild steel strip conductors and mild steel circular conductors are
used for fabricating the grounding grids. Mild steel material is also used for vertical
ground rods.

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1.6.2: Corrosion of Ground Conductors

The deterioration of metals and alloys due to electrochemical reaction is known

as corrosion. The galvanic cells are formed between different metals when buried in
the soil, results into corrosion of less noble metal. All the commonly used metals and
alloys are classified according to standard electromotive series as shown in table
1.3.The metals towards top of the series act as an anode and undergo corrosion while a
metal towards bottom of the series function as a cathode and is protected. For
example, if copper is used for grounding grid horizontal conductors and vertical rods
are of steel material, then due to cathodic nature of the copper, vertical rods, water
pipes, metallic sheath of cables, substation metallic structures made of steel gets
corrode. Therefore, same material should be used for grid conductors, ground rods /
pipes / plates and metallic structures and risers.

The corrosion reduces its effective area of cross-section and current carrying
capacity. The degree of corrosion depends upon the properties of soil. Generally, soil
with acidic in nature, high moisture content and high dissolved substances like
sodium chloride, calcium chloride are the characteristics of corrosive soil. Lesser the
soil resistivity more is the corrosion of metals buried in it. Ferrous products corrode
more easily.

Table 1.3: Standard electromotive series [15]

Type of material Standard electrode potential Remark

Magnesium ( M g) -3.34 Anodic or least noble or

corroded end
Aluminum (Al) -1.66 --
Manganese (Mn) -1.05 --
Zinc (Zn) -0.76
--
Chromium (Cr) -0.70 --
Iron (Fe) -0.44 --
Cadmium (Cd) -0.40 --
Cobalt (Co) -0.28 --
Nickel (Ni) -0.25 --

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 Table 1.3 continue
Type of material Standard electrode potential Remark
Tin (Sn) -0.14 --
Lead (Pb) -0.13 --
Hydrogen (H2) 0.00 --
Copper (Cu) +0.35 --
Mercury (Hg) +0.80 --
Silver (Ag) +0.80 --
Platinum (Pt) +1.20 --
Gold (Au) +1.42 Cathodic or most noble
or protected end

Ph Value: The acidity or alkalinity of the soil is measured by its Ph value. Ph value is
numerically equal to 7 for neutral soil. The soil is said to be acidic in nature when Ph
< 7, whereas for alkaline soil Ph value is more than 7. Ph value of soil can be
measured with a number of commercially available battery-powered meters. Bare
steel is more susceptible to corrosion in acidic rather than neutral or alkaline media
i.e. it corrodes more easily in soils of Ph value less than 7. As far as corrosion is
concern, the ph value of soil in immediate vicinity of grid conductor material is of
consequence. The corrosion is mainly due to low resistivity of soil. Corrosiveness of
soil is based on magnitude of soil resistivity as shown in table 1.4.

Table 1.4: Corrosion allowance for underground steel conductors [16]

Sr. No. Soil resistivity Ω-m Class (corrosive) of soil

1 Less than 10 Severely corrosive

2 > 10 < 25 Corrosive

3 > 25 < 50 Moderately Corrosive

4 >50< 100 Mildly Corrosive

5 > 100 Very Mildly Corrosive

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1.6.3: Size of earth conductors

The area of cross section of the grid conductor is given by [16]

.
0.00104
= (1.28)
1+
. .
1+
Where
= Area of cross section,

= Maximum grid current, A

= Resistivity of material, µΩ-cm

= Temperature coefficient of material, per ℃

= Fault duration, sec

= Density of material ⁄

= Specific heat of material ⁄ ℃

= Maximum allowable temperature, ℃

= Ambient temperature, ℃

For mild steel,

= 7.86 ⁄ , = 0.114 ⁄ ℃

= 0.00423 per ℃ , = 15 µΩ-cm ,

= 620 ℃ for welded joints

= 310 ℃ for bolted joints

= 40 ℃

When above values of mild steel are substituted in Eq. 1.28, we get

= 12.15 × 10 √ for welded joints (1.29)

= 15.7 × 10 √ for bolted joints (1.30)

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1.7: Calculation of Actual step and mesh voltages

Empirical formulae for determination of actual touch and step voltages in a uniform /
homogeneous soil available in IEEE Std 80-2000 [1] are produced here

E = ρ. K . K . I ⁄L (1.31)

= . . . ⁄ (1.32)

E = Mesh voltage

E = Step voltage

K = Spacing factor for mesh voltage, simplified method

= Spacing factor for step voltage, simplified method

K = Correction factor for grid geometry, simplified method

( ) h
K = ln + − + . ln )
(1.33)
π h π(

K =π + + (1 − 0.5 ) (1.34)

Where,
D = Spacing between parallel conductors, m

h = Depth of burial of grounding grid conductors

d = Diameter of grid conductor [for strip d = w/2], m

K = 1⁄(2n)( / )
(1.35)

K = For grid with no or few vertical ground rods, with none on corner or in
periphery; =1. It is the corrective weighting factor that adjusts for the effects of inner
conductors on the corner mesh.

.
= (1 + ℎ ) (1.36)

=Corrective weighting factor that emphasizes the effects of grid depth.

= . . . (1.37)

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n= Geometric factor composed of factors , ,

n = 2L ⁄L (1.38)

= 1 for square grid; =1 for square and rectangular grid

= 1 for square, rectangular and L shaped grid.

.
= ⁄ 4√ (1.39)

.
n = .
(1.40)

=0.644+0.148 n (1.41)

.
= ⁄ + (1.42)

=Maximum distance between any two points on the grid, m

=Maximum length of grid conductor in x direction, m
=Maximum length of grid conductor in y direction, m
= Effective length of + for mesh voltage, m

= + 1.55 + 1.22 (1.43)

When, vertical rods are placed on the corner as well as on the perimeter of the grid.

= × =Total length of ground rods, m

= Total number of ground rods

= Length of ground rod, m

= + --- very few rods, none located on the corner and perimeter

= 0.75 + 0.85 (1.44)

= Length of perimeter, m

=Total length of grid conductor, m

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1.8: Technical challenges

Design of substation grounding is difficult in high resistivity soil and having

limited area for substation. Such situation arises at a site of hydro electric project in a
hilly area. It becomes difficult to achieve desired low grounding system resistance and
to meet the safety criterion touch and step voltages. The low ground resistance is
required to control the GPR and transferred voltage. Large value of GPR would
damage the insulation of low tension cables and devices such as switchgears, cable
insulation etc. and also affect the reliable operation of equipments. Note that GPR is
the product of ground resistance and grid current. Use of deep ground well may
become imperative. Thus, in order to have low ground resistance, it is very essential
to make an accurate soil model that is very close to actual one or to reduce the
magnitude of grid current by diverting it to nearby towers or use of satellite
grounding.

There are numerous challenges to grounding grid design of HV/EHV/ UHV ac

substations. Few of them are summarised as follows.

i) To achieve the low grounding resistance in a soil having high resistivity and area
constraint.

ii) To develop the accurate soil models which is very close to measured and
calculated values of soil resistivity.

iii) Accurate estimation of grid current.

iv) Design of grounding system that meet the increased fault level.

v) Effect of seasonal influence on soil resistivity like freezing and thawing

vi) Optimization of grounding system that will provide low ground resistance and
meet the touch, step voltage criterion. At the same time, reduce the length of
ground conductors which makes the saving.

vii) Measurement of soil resistivity in rocky and hilly area having high resistivity
terrain.

viii) Measurement of ground impedance, touch and step voltage for large extended
substation in urban areas; surrounded by buildings.

24
ix) High Quality equipments and skilled manpower to obtain the reliable data.

1.9: Aim of the thesis

Economic design of substation grounding and to assure the safety of personal in

EHV/UHV substation is always the main objective of the researchers. The complexity
involved in substation design and analysis is more due to variation of parameters on
one site to another site. Extensive research is going on in the area of substation
grounding with multilayer, uniform and non uniform soil with equally and unequally
spaced grounding grid conductors of different shapes and geometries. In places of
high resistivity soils to meet the IEEE standard 80 requirement and to minimize the
seasonal influence on the variation of soil resistivity, many researchers are proposed
various methods. Day by day due to more interconnection of power systems, the fault
level has been increased. The economic design of substation grounding to meet the
requirements is a major challenge faced by the various researchers. More research is
needed to address new requirements and challenges in case study of substation
grounding design including parametric analysis. Substation grounding design has
become a multidimensional problem.

Objectives of the research work:

 Study of effects of equally and unequally spaced grounding conductors of

different geometries in multilayer soils, considering the effect of freezing and
thawing with the help of grounding software.

 Determination and analysis of various factors governing grounding resistance

of substation in uniform and multilayer soil model having variation in soil
resistivity, horizontally.

 Analysis of seasonal influences like freezing and thawing on grounding

resistance of multilayer non uniform soil.

 Study of effect of ground grid depth on ground potential rise in case of

multilayer soil and effect of ground rods of different geometries and shapes.

 Study of effect of various dissolved substances on grounding grid resistance,

mesh and step voltages.
 Study of effect of dust and dirt deposition on substation soil layer on step and
touch voltages.
25
  Study of effects of various high resistivity surface layers on the parametric
analysis and cost of the grounding grid.

 Validation of proposed multilayer substation grounding on a scale down

model.

1.10: Organisation of thesis

This thesis is organised in seven chapters.

Chapter 1 covers overview of EHV/ UHV substation groundings, fundamental

concept of groundings, basic terminology used in grounding systems and shock
situations due to step voltage, touch voltage, mesh voltage, transferred potential and
GPR. The factors governing the parameters of grounding grid such as ground
resistance, step voltage, touch voltage and ground potential rise are presented. The
factors affecting the grounding grid resistance, effect of shape and size of electrode on
its grounding resistance, types of simple ground electrodes along with their resistance
formulae, substation complex electrode resistance formulae by various researchers are
discussed along with limitations.

Effect of moisture content, salt and temperature on soil resistivity.

Determination of maximum permissible limits of touch and step voltage have
described along with the effect of magnitude of body current on physiological
condition of human body is listed. The formulae for maximum permissible limits of
touch and step voltages for persons having weight 50 kg and 70 kg are discussed.
Determination of maximum value of grid current and factors governing it, effect of
fault duration on sizing of grid conductor, effect of shock duration on permissible
limits of touch and step voltage are also discussed.

Selection of grid conductor material along with factors affecting the sizing of
conductors, types of material, their choice, corrosion of ground conductors, conductor
sizing formula for welded type and bolted type joints, selection of round Vs strip
conductors for grounding grid and conductor corrosion are discussed. Calculation of
actual touch and step voltages in uniform soil as per IEEE STD 80-2000, technical
challenges associated with substation grounding, organization of thesis and
contribution is covered.

26
 Chapter 2 presents literature review on economic and efficient design of
substation grounding grid using unequally spaced grid conductors, cost optimization,
type and sizing of grid conductor materials. Determination of surface potential,
analysis of substation grounding grid in multilayer soil models, influence of deep
driven ground rods on grid resistance in uniform and multilayer soil models. Further,
it also explains the measurement of soil resistivity and its interpretation, measurement
of grid impedance in large extended EHV substation, influence of overhead ground
wires on grid resistance, measurement of ground resistance in hilly areas and urban
areas surrounded by public and commercial buildings.

Moreover, it also presents testing for integrity of substation, up gradation and

expansion of existing grounding systems and limitations on GPR for 100 kV to 1000
kV substations in China.

Chapter 3 describes the problem identification and scope of work. Many

researchers have worked on small and medium type of substation grounding grids.
However, it was necessary to study the complete parametric analysis of EHV / UHV
AC substations in uniform and multilayer soil model to provide cost effective grid
design. Authors have proposed the algorithm in MATLAB software for finding the
conductor spacings in equally and unequally spacing grids (UESG) for large extended
grids having conductors 35 x 35 to small grids having conductors 4 x 4.

The detailed scope of work consists of economic and efficient design of

grounding grid by UESG by three methods. Conductor spacings suitable to substation
equipments and structure layout. Efficient and economic design by exponentially
spaced grid conductors substations. Reduction of ground resistance in highly resistive
soil by using deep ground rods and satellite groundings are covered. Analyses of the
effects of seasonal variations on performance of substation grounding and its
mitigations have been carried out. Measurement of substation surface layer wet
resistivity of rock material in the laboratory. Analysis of the effect of contamination
and deterioration of surface layer rock material on its wet resistivity. Soil treatment to
well type ground rods. Analysis of the grounding grid in multilayer soil models by
field measurements and using AGP grounding software.

Chapter 4 explains the system development and methodology used. The

qualitative grid conductor arrangement has been presented for efficient and economic

27
design of grounding grids. The two methods of conductor spacing with and without
rod are proposed.The algorithm have been developed in MATLAB software which
gives minimum number of conductors along with their spacings for equally and
unequally spaced grid by keeping safety touch voltage within the maximum
permissible limit in accordance with IEEE Std 80. The data obtained shall be analysed
using Auto grid Pro [AGP] grounding software for several cases to evaluate the grid
resistance, GPR, safety touch and step voltages.

Following cases have considered for the analysis

i] 70 x 70 m square grid IEEE STD 80-2000 with variation of soil resistivity.

ii] 84 x 63 m rectangular grid IEEE STD 80-2000 with variation of grid current.

iii] 50 x 50 m grid

iv] 100 x 100 m grid IEEE STD 81-2012.

v] 107 x 72 grid

vi] 200 x 200 m large size grid

vii] 497.5 x 345 m 765 kV AC substation grounding; a practical case study.

viii] 224 x 117 m, 1200 kV UHV AC National Test Station Bina.

Further, the effect of ground rods at various locations on touch voltage has discussed.
Some of above grids are also analysed using method III which uses exponentially
spaced grid conductors ie using compression ratio (CR).

The effects of CR with and without rods on touch voltage have been presented
for uniform soil, two layer soil and multilayer soil models. The factors that govern the
resistance of grounding grid such as, depth of grid burial, diameter of the ground
conductors, conductor separation, use of long vertical ground rods, use of unequal
spacing of grid conductors, effect of shape and size of rods, concept of satellite
grounding have been described. Effect of seasonal variation of soil resistivity on
performance of substation grounding grid in uniform, two layers and multilayer soil
models have demonstrated with mitigations.

28
 Further, methodology for laboratory tests such as soil resistivity measurement
by sampling method, effect of moisture contents, compaction of soil , addition of
salts like NaCl and KCL, and effect of temperature have been explained. The method
of testing wet rock resistivity and effect of contamination has been explained.
Moreover, methodology and system development for analysis of grid in three layer
soil models, soil treatments to rod electrodes and analysis of 12 x12 m grid in layered
soil by means of field measurements and software analysis have been devised.

The methods for measurement of soil resistivity, grounding grid resistance,

safety touch and step voltages are presented. Necessity of soil resistivity measurement
at the substation site, Dr. Wenner four probe method, Schumberger- Palmer method,
their mathematical relations, procedure and precautions are discussed. Measurement
of ground resistance by fall of potential method (FOP), mathematical relations,
procedure and precautions are discussed. Moreover, method for measurement of step
and touch voltage along with precautionary measures are depicted.

Chapter 5 explains the results and analysis. Result analysis of all the eight
cases considered have been carried out using Algorithm developed in MATLAB for
ESG and UESG method I and method II.a. It presents the number of conductors
required for ESG and UESG along with % of saving in conductor length. The effect
of variation of soil resistivity and grid current on grid configurations are analysed
separately. Analysis for touch and step voltages using IEEE STD -80-2000 formulae
and AGP grounding software have been presented. The % of increase or decrease in
touch voltage, step voltage and grid resistance as compared to ESG is tabulated. The
comparisons of touch voltages using all the methods are shown. The % of increase or
decrease in touch voltage as compared to ESG is presented using bar charts.

The practical case of 765 kV AC substation grounding having size 497.5 m x

345 m has been analysed separately. The performance analyses for grid resistance
touch and step voltages are carried out using all the methods. The comparison of
touch voltages obtained using all the methods are presented using bar charts. The %
reduction of touch voltage using UESG method I and UESG method II.b is shown.
Touch voltage plots in 2D and 3D are depicted. Moreover, 1200 kV, 244 x 117 m
grounding of National Test Station Bina has been analysed.

29
 Effect of CR on touch voltage with and without rods are analysed and
presented graphically for uniform, two layer and multilayer soil models. Further, the
effect of soil resistivity reflection factor K on touch voltage and OCR, effect of
ground rods and top layer thickness on touch voltage and OCR is analysed and
presented graphically.

Effect of various factors governing the ground resistance such as grid

conductor diameter, variation of grid depth, ground rods, ground rod length and
diameter are analysed. Further, effect of shape and size of ground rods in uniform and
two layer soil has analysed. Effect of satellite grounding on grid resistance and touch
voltage is presented.

The Effect of seasonal influence on soil resistivity, formation of soil models and
grid parameter like grid resistance, touch and step voltages are analyzed. Effect of
freezing and raining on grid resistance, touch and step voltages in uniform soil model
and two layer soil models are analyzed. Moreover, the impact of freezing, early spring
and raining seasons on grid resistance, touch voltage and step voltage are simulated in
multilayer soil models/ structures. Mitigation by using long vertical rods.

The measurement and analysis of soil resistivity by sampling method, effect of

moisture, and compaction of soil, addition of salts like NaCl, KCL, and temperature
on soil resistivity is practically verified and described. Further, measurement of wet
rock resistivity in the laboratory by the use of tap water and solutions of different
conductivities and its correlation with rain water resistivity is analysed. The effect of
contamination and deterioration of wet rock resistivity has been practically obtained.

Analysis of artificially prepared grid in three layer soil models, soil treatment to
well type ground rods and analysis of 12m x12m grounding grid with rods in four
layer soil model has been verified by field measurements, analytically and by the use
of AGP grounding software. Field measurements include soil resistivity by Wenner
method, ground resistance by fall of potential method and measurements of touch and
step voltages. All the field measurements were carried out using DET4TCR2 Megger
make earth tester.

30
 Chapter 6 covers discussions and conclusions on the basis of simulation
results of the various cases considered, laboratory test results and analysis of various
earthing models.

Simulation study results are based on –

1] Economic and efficient grounding design: saving in conductor length, effect on

touch voltage, step voltage and ground resistance. Analysis of effect of grid spacing
factor and ground rods on ground resistance, touch and step voltages.

2] Analysis results of 765 kV, 497.5 x345 m and 1200 kV, 244 x 117 m grids. Use of
UESG method -II.b for analyse of the performance of substation grounding, effect of
ground rods at various locations.

3] Analysis results of CR on ground resistance touch and step voltage in single layer,
two layer and multilayer soil models with and without rods.

4] Factors governing the resistance of grounding grid such as grid layer depth,
diameter of grid conductors and ground rods, variation of number and length of
ground rods, conductor separation , satellite grounding, use of deep driven ground
rods. Effect of shape and size of ground rods on grid resistance.

5] Simulation results of seasonal changes of soil resistivity on performance of

substation grounding system. Effect of freezing, raining and early spring on grid
resistance, touch and step voltage in single layer, two layer and multilayer soil
models. Use of long ground rods for mitigations.

6] Analysis results of laboratory measurements: Validation of soil characteristics by

measuring soil resistivity using sampling method. Measurement of wet rock resistivity
and effect of contamination on surface layer material resistivity.

7] Effect of soil treatment to ground rods using natural mother soil, loamy soil and
bentonite powder.

8] Analysis of performance of grid in multilayer soil models and 12 m x12 m grid

with ground rods in four layer soil by field measurement and using software.

Chapter 7 depicts future scope of work, bibliography and appendix.

31
1.11: Contributions

The main contribution of this thesis is as follows:

1] The economic and efficient design of substation grounding grids have been
obtained by developing algorithm in Matlab software which gives minimum
number of conductors required along with their spacings for equally and
unequally spaced grid by keeping safety touch voltages within the maximum
permissible limit. It also provides number of conductors required in X and Y
directions of grid along with saving in conductor length. Further, it can be
applied to square as well as rectangular shape grids with and without ground
rods for uniform soil model. Moreover, it also gives conductor spacings for a
grid as small as 4x4 conductors to large grid 35 x35.

2] Suggested the formulae for unequal spacing of grid conductors with meshes
3≤ ≤6

3] One more method for unequal spacing of grid has been proposed.The method is
applicable to the grids having number of meshes (k) more than six. In this
method, the number of conductors used for equally and unequally spaced grid
remains same. By making only the three conductor spacings at the periphery of
the grid unequally safety can be enhanced by large margin. The peripheral three
conductor spacings are progressively decreases towards the periphery of the
grid. The proposed method is very simple but very powerful and superior to
published methods.

4] Suggested the formulae for unequal spacing of grid conductors with meshes

≥6

5] For unequally spaced grids with number of meshes 3 ≤ ≤ 6 , the best results
are possible when grid spacing factor kj1 lies in the range of 0.5 to 0.70.

6] For unequally spaced grids with number of meshes ≥ 6 , good results are
possible when grid conductor spacing factor Kj for method II.b varies from 0.70
to 0.80.

5] Measurement of effect of deterioration and contamination of substation surface

layer wet rock resistivity.

32
6] Limitations of IEEE STD 80-2000 empirical formulae such as ground resistance
touch and step voltages.

The outcome of research work will be useful to Indian utilities, power engineers,
substation grounding designers, consultants and various researchers.

33