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Fetal Death PDF
Fetal Death PDF
Fetal Death
Robert M. Silver, MD
The death of a formed fetus is one of the most emotionally devastating events for parents and
clinicians. With improved care for conditions such as RhD alloimmunization, diabetes, and
preeclampsia, the rate of fetal death in the United States decreased substantially in the mid
twentieth century. However, the past several decades have seen much greater reductions in
neonatal death rates than in fetal death rates. As such, fetal death remains a significant and
understudied problem that now accounts for almost 50% of all perinatal deaths. The availability
of prostaglandins has greatly facilitated delivery options for patients with fetal death. Risk factors
for fetal death include African American race, advanced maternal age, obesity, smoking, prior
fetal death, maternal diseases, and fetal growth impairment. There are numerous causes of fetal
death, including genetic conditions, infections, placental abnormalities, and fetal–maternal
hemorrhage. Many cases of fetal death do not undergo adequate evaluation for possible causes.
Perinatal autopsy and placental examination are perhaps the most valuable tests for the
evaluation of fetal death. Antenatal surveillance and emotional support are the mainstays of
subsequent pregnancy management. Outcomes may be improved in women with diabetes,
hypertension, red cell alloimmunization, and antiphospholipid syndrome. However, there is
considerable room for further reduction in the fetal death rate.
(Obstet Gynecol 2007;109:153–67)
Other Infections
Spirochete, protozoal, and fungal infections may oc-
casionally cause fetal death. Treponema pallidum, the
organism responsible for syphilis, may cross the pla-
centa in the second and third trimesters and directly
infect the fetus. This risk increases with advancing
gestation. Fetal death may occur due to direct infec-
Fig. 3. Fetal spleen from a case of parvovirus B19 –associ-
ated fetal death in the second trimester. Erythroblasts show tion or due to placental vasculopathy associated with
marginated chromatin and typical amphophilic intra-nu- placental infection. Syphilis was a common cause of
clear inclusions (arrows). Hematoxylin and eosin stain. (x fetal death at the beginning of the twentieth century.
1,000, original magnification.) Copyright 1994, J. L. B. Although less common today, syphilis remains a rare
Byrne. Used with permission. cause of fetal death in developed countries and a
Silver. Fetal Death. Obstet Gynecol 2007.
common one in places with higher prevalence, such
as Africa. Other spirochetes that may cause fetal
Other viruses sporadically linked to fetal death in- death include Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme
clude echoviruses, enteroviruses, chickenpox, mea- disease, Leptospirosis, and African tick borne relaps-
sles, rubella, and mumps. For those viruses amenable ing fever.
to vaccine prevention, fetal death is rare in countries The parasite Toxoplasma gondii may cross the
with routine vaccination. Human immunodeficiency placenta in association with acute maternal infection.
virus (HIV) may cross the placenta and cause fetal The organism may directly infect the fetus and has
infection. Although fetal death has occasionally been been linked to sporadic fetal death, which may occur
attributed to HIV, HIV-positive women usually have in up to 5% of pregnancies after first trimester infec-
other risk factors for fetal death, making it difficult to tion. However, the rate of primary infection is about
document an independent association. Herpes sim- 1 per 1,000 in the United States, making it unlikely to
plex virus rarely causes fetal death because it is rarely cause a substantial proportion of fetal death in the
transmitted to the fetus in utero. United States.25 Other infectious diseases that have
been associated with sporadic fetal death include
Bacterial Infection malaria and Q fever. The relative importance of all of
Bacterial infections are generally accepted as a cause these infections is influenced by the local prevalence
of some cases of fetal death throughout gestation. In of the infectious agent.
developed countries, a higher proportion of losses in
the second trimester are due to infection compared Small for Gestational Age Fetus
with term fetal deaths.25 In contrast, fetal deaths due A major obstetric risk factor for fetal death is the
to bacterial infection persist through term in develop- presence of an SGA fetus. This is a complicated
ing countries. This may be due to increased burden of subject for several reasons. First, the risk factor of
exposure to infectious agents or a decreased immune interest is fetal IUGR rather than SGA. However,
response associated with low socioeconomic status in IUGR implies a downward deflection on a growth
developing nations.25 curve, requiring several measurements over time,
Most bacterial infections associated with fetal which is unavailable in many populations. In fact,
death are organisms that reach the fetus by ascending precise knowledge of gestational age is often missing.
Obstetric Conditions
Fetal–Maternal Hemorrhage
Fetal–maternal hemorrhage is one of the most com-
mon single disorders responsible for fetal death. The
condition has been reported in 5–14% of cases.28
Fetal-maternal hemorrhage may be associated with
vaginal bleeding or abdominal pain due to abruption
but also may occur in the absence of symptoms.
Because labor and delivery cause fetal–maternal hem-
orrhage, ideally assessment of fetal blood in the
maternal circulation should be done before delivery.
However, it is probably useful to assess for the
condition after delivery if not done previously. Small
amounts of fetal blood routinely enter the maternal
circulation. Accordingly, only large amounts of fetal–
maternal hemorrhage, ideally in association with au-
Fig. 4. Placenta demonstrating arterial-to-venous anastomo-
topsy confirmation of fetal anemia and hypoxia, ses after injection of milk (arrows) in a pregnancy compli-
should be considered causal for fetal death. In rare cated by twin–twin transfusion syndrome. Copyright 1994,
cases of vasa previa, fetal blood passes per vagina J. L. B. Byrne. Used with permission.
rather than entering the maternal circulation. Histo- Silver. Fetal Death. Obstet Gynecol 2007.
Other Conditions
A variety of other disorders such as red blood cell
alloimmunization may contribute to some cases of
fetal death. Although fetal death from this condition
has decreased dramatically due to the use of RhD
immune globulin and improved obstetric care, the
condition continues to be a cause of fetal death.
Uterine malformations have been associated with
fetal death and should be considered in cases of
recurrent losses and very early preterm labor or
preterm premature rupture of membranes. Maternal
trauma through motor vehicle accident or violence is
a rare but important cause of loss, especially in
teenagers.
Unexplained
In the majority of studies of fetal death, many cases
Fig. 5. Third-trimester fetal death with acalvarium. On
ultrasonography, there was suspicion of possible neural are unexplained, even after extensive evaluation. In
tube defect. However, autopsy demonstrated amniotic many cases this is due to inadequate attempts to
band syndrome (arrow points to amniotic band). Copyright determine a cause of death. The proportion of unex-
1994, J. L. B. Byrne. Used with permission. plained fetal deaths also are influenced by whether
Silver. Fetal Death. Obstet Gynecol 2007. conditions that are associated with, but may not be
directly causal, are accepted as a cause. Losses later in
also can provide clues regarding other mechanisms of gestation (third trimester) are more likely to be unex-
death, such as infection, thrombosis, inflammation, plained than losses earlier in gestation. Such losses are
and vascular abnormalities. strongly associated with IUGR as well as most of the
previously described risk factors for fetal death. Un-
Cord Accidents doubtedly, continued investigation will identify pre-
Many cases of fetal death, especially at term, are viously unrecognized causes of fetal death so that
attributed to umbilical cord accidents. This is thought fewer cases remain unexplained.
to occur due to cord occlusion in the presence of
nuchal or body cords and true knots in the cord. “Workup” of Fetal Death
However, because cord entanglement occurs in up to The value of an investigation into potential causes of
30% of uncomplicated pregnancies, and because fetal death cannot be overemphasized. First, deter-
these may be transient findings, caution should be mining a cause of death helps bring emotional closure
used in attributing fetal death to the presence of these to the event. Second, most families at least consider
findings. Similarly, true knots are usually associated trying to have another child. Invariably, they are quite
with live births. Thus, the presence of a true knot or interested in whether there is a chance for recurrence.
nuchal cord is insufficient evidence that cord accident Finally, in some cases, medical intervention may
is the cause of death. Ideally, the demonstration of reduce the risk of recurrence and improve outcome in
cord occlusion, fetal hypoxia, and the exclusion of subsequent pregnancies. Couples should be coun-
other causes is required to confirm the diagnosis. seled regarding these issues in a supportive manner
and encouraged to permit an evaluation of their
Other Obstetric Disorders pregnancy loss with sensitivity to their needs and
Numerous obstetric disorders may directly or indi- concerns.
rectly cause fetal death. Examples include abruption, The optimal evaluation for potential causes of
preeclampsia, cord prolapse, cervical insufficiency, fetal death is uncertain. It is necessary to balance cost
preterm labor, and preterm premature rupture of and yield when considering which testing to perform.
membranes. These conditions often lead to intrapar- Thus, it is appropriate to focus on the most common
tum, or early neonatal, rather than antepartum death. causes of fetal death. It also is desirable to emphasize