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Ishtiaq Jadoon
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Structural Geology & Tectonics: ERS 253 CIIT, Abbottabad
Instructor Dr. Ishtiaq Jadoon
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Structural Geology & Tectonics: ERS 253 CIIT, Abbottabad
Instructor Dr. Ishtiaq Jadoon
Stress
Stress
Stress = Force / Area (F/A) where F = ma
“Force per unit area that tend to deform a body”
Expressed as pounds or tons/ square inch (English system), or dynes or kilogram / square cm (C.G.S system)
A dyne is a force that will give an acceleration of 1 cm per second per second to a mass of 1 gram
A poundal is a force that will give an acceleration of 1 foot per second per second to a mass of one pound
σ1
1 Pascal = 1kg/m 2 σ3
1 Bar = 105 Pascal
1 Mpa (Mega-Pascal) = 106 Pascals (10 bars)
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Structural Geology & Tectonics: ERS 253 CIIT, Abbottabad
Instructor Dr. Ishtiaq Jadoon
Stress
System of equal stresses (Lithostatic Pressure) may be manipulated to a
system of unequal principal stresses such that, vertical stress (σ1) is the
axial stress > confining pressure (σ2=σ3)
• This vertical axial stress will leads to a change in shape (compaction,
folding)
σ1
σ3 σ1
σ3
σ3 σ3
• The change in shape is due to differential stress, the one that will produced
deformation which is axial stress – confining pressure
∆σ (differential stress) = σ1-σ3
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Structural Geology & Tectonics: ERS 253 CIIT, Abbottabad
Instructor Dr. Ishtiaq Jadoon
Stress
∆σ (differential stress) may be :
2) Compressive (compression)
3) Shear (Couple)
Two equal but opposite forces along a plane. They tend to rotate a body
4) Shear (Torsion)
Two equal but opposite forces along an axis. They tend to twist a body
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Structural Geology & Tectonics: ERS 253 CIIT, Abbottabad
Instructor Dr. Ishtiaq Jadoon
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Structural Geology & Tectonics: ERS 253 CIIT, Abbottabad
Instructor Dr. Ishtiaq Jadoon
Strain
Strain is the deformation caused by stress
It may be dilation (change in volume), distortion (change in shape) or both.
3 Stages of Deformation
A body under stress may go through 3 stages of deformation.
1) Elastic strain: the body returns to its original shape & size if the stress is withdrawn.
• There is a limit to elastic strain (Elastic Limit), after which, the body either fails by fractures
(brittle deformation) or undergoes through further deformation without returning to its original
shape (ductile deformation).
• Brittle deformation occurs at shallow depths.
• Thus, below the elastic strain, stress (σ ) ∞ to strain (ε ), which is Hooke’s Law: where
strain is represented by a straight line on stress – strain diagram
2) Plastic strain: after elastic limit, the strain is Plastic that is ‘the body doesn’t fully returns to its original
shape & size even if the stress is withdrawn.
• Leads to ductile deformation which is partially recoverable of non-recoverable.
• Occurs at depth with higher P & T conditions.
3) Rupture: a stage where specimen fails with rupture (fracture) with increasing stress.
Ultimate strength
.
Differential Stress
st i c t i o n
Yield Pl a o rm a Yield strength: the value of stress that marks the onset
strength def
Brittle fracture plastic deformation
Fracture strength: the value of stress at which a rock
fails by brittle fracture
Elastic deformation
Ultimate Strength: the maximum stress the rock
Strain sustains during deformation
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Structural Geology & Tectonics: ERS 253 CIIT, Abbottabad
Instructor Dr. Ishtiaq Jadoon
Strain
Tensile or Compressive Stress & Strain
Stress that causes stretching (normal-fault system) or shortening of a body (thrust-
fault system). The related ‘longitudinal’ strain brings about a fractional change in
length and is represented as:
ε = lf – lo / lo = ∆l/ lo
where ε = strain, lo original length, and lf = final length, ∆l = change in length
lo lf
Strain
Bulk Stress & Strain
Stress that causes a volume change (dilation). The related ‘bulk’ strain is
represented as:
Vo Vf
“The ratio of bulk stress (∆P=fractional change in pressure) to bulk strain is Bulk
Modulus (B).
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Structural Geology & Tectonics: ERS 253 CIIT, Abbottabad
Instructor Dr. Ishtiaq Jadoon
Strain
Shear Stress & Strain
Stress that induces rotation and/or tortion. The related shear strain is represented
as:
A B
“The ratio of shear stress (т) to shear strain (γ) is Rigidity Modulus (G) which is
resistance to change in shape
Thus, G = т / γ
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Structural Geology & Tectonics: ERS 253 CIIT, Abbottabad
Instructor Dr. Ishtiaq Jadoon
Stress
C
B
A D
Strain
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Structural Geology & Tectonics: ERS 253 CIIT, Abbottabad
Instructor Dr. Ishtiaq Jadoon
1. Temperature (T)
2. Confining Pressure (CP), and
3. Strain Rate (SR) which is the ratio of strain (ε) divided by time (T)
Thus, SR = ε / T
Assume 50 km shortening of a fold belt in 9 Ma & calculate the strain rate?
a) Variable CP, Constant T & SR: Increasing CP is ∞ to the ultimate strength (M-10.10a)
During brittle deformation only a small elastic strain (< 3%) is achieved. During ductile deformation,
fractures may not occur even after large strain is achieved (>25%). Rocks that fail by brittle
fracture when the strain is between 3-25% is said to have brittle-ductile behavior. Ductile
deformation is common in nature.
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Structural Geology & Tectonics: ERS 253 CIIT, Abbottabad
Instructor Dr. Ishtiaq Jadoon
• Brittle behavior: response of a solid material to stress during which rock loses
continuity (cohesion). Brittle behavior reflects the occurrence of fracture mechanisms.
It occurs only when stresses exceed a critical value, after body has already
undergone some elastic and/or plastic behavior.
• Ductile behavior: response of a solid material to stress such that the rock appears to
flow mesoscopically like a viscous fluid. In a material that has deformed ductilely,
strain is distributed, i.e., strain develops without formation of mesoscopic
discontinuities. Ductile behavior can involve brittle (cataclastic flow) or plastic
deformation mechanisms.
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Structural Geology & Tectonics: ERS 253 CIIT, Abbottabad
Instructor Dr. Ishtiaq Jadoon
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Structural Geology & Tectonics: ERS 253 CIIT, Abbottabad
Instructor Dr. Ishtiaq Jadoon
Temperature
• Suppresses fracturing
• Promotes ductility
• Reduces strength
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Structural Geology & Tectonics: ERS 253 CIIT, Abbottabad
Instructor Dr. Ishtiaq Jadoon
Pressure
• Suppresses fracturing
• Promoted ductility
• Increases strength
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Structural Geology & Tectonics: ERS 253 CIIT, Abbottabad
Instructor Dr. Ishtiaq Jadoon
Strain rate
Strength Curve
• Competency is relative
term that compares
resistance of rocks to flow.
• Rock competency scale:
• rock salt > shale >
limestone > greywacke >
sandstone > dolomite
• schist > marble > quartzite
> gneiss > granite > basalt
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Structural Geology & Tectonics: ERS 253 CIIT, Abbottabad
Instructor Dr. Ishtiaq Jadoon
Strain Measurements
2 general types
1) Pure Shear
Irrotational, straight lines remain straight, change in length of lines occur due to
tension (pull-apart forces) or compression (pressed together). The result is
elongation or shortening in lines that are perpendicular to each other.
lo lf
2) Simple Shear
Rotational, straight lines no longer remains straight. It may be due to couple
(circular clockwise or anticlockwise rotation) or torsion (if two ends of a cylinder are
twisted in opposite direction.
Y
A P B
σ1
For a given stress, there are 3 principal planes on
which the magnitude of shear stress is ZERO and θ x
stress vector across these mutually perpendicular O A
planes are called as principal stresses (σ1=maximum, σ3
σ2= intermediate, σ3= minimum). The general orientation of principal
stresses, σ1 and σ3, and the stress vector,
P, resolved into σn and σs.
The angle θ is between normal to the plane
Principal stresses of a stress ellipsoid (geometrical AB and the σ1 (in x) direction
Mohr Circle
Mohr Circle is one plotted on Cartesian axes,
The x-axis represents normal stress (σn), & y
The y-axis represents shear stress (γ) B P
σs
The coordinates of each point on the circle represent the values θ σn
of normal & shear stress components, of a plane specified, by an
angle θ, measured between pole to that plane and the σ1. σ1
To plot a circle, points representing σ1 and σ3 can be plotted
along the x-axis (remember maximum stresses do not have a θ x
shear component). Now by placing the anchor needle of a compass O A
on a point midway between σ1 & σ3 and the pencil on one of these
points a circle (Mohr) can be drawn. σ3
The general orientation of principal
stresses, σ1 and σ3, and the stress vector,
Length of the diameter of the circle is Differential Stress P, resolved into σn and σs.
(σ1 - σ3); Whereas, the X-coordinate of the center of the circle The angle θ is between normal to the plane
is Mean Stress (σ1 + σ3/2). The values of σn and γ represent AB and the σ1 (in x) direction
the normal & shear component of the stress vector on a plane
oriented at a certain angle of 2θ measured clockwise from σ1.
+σs (MPa)
Sign conventions
+ & - along x-axis represent compressive & tensile stresses 20
+ & - along y-axis represent left-lateral & right-lateral shear,
σs O
respectively.
σn(MPa)
On Mohr circle visualization of stress component becomes σ3 σn N σ1
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easy, similar to as shown on the figure of the circle.
Structural Geology & Tectonics: ERS 253 -σs CIIT, Abbottabad
Instructor Dr. Ishtiaq Jadoon
Mohr Circle
Problem:
The mean stress at a point in a rock is 40 MPa, and the differential stress is 20
MPa. A) What are the values of σ1 and σ3 in the rocks.
B) What are the magnitude of shear (σs) and normal (σn) stress acting on a
plane that is inclined at 30º to σ1?
+σs (MPa)
20
O
σs
σn(MPa)
σ3 σn N σ1
60
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Structural Geology & Tectonics: ERS 253 CIIT, Abbottabad
Instructor Dr. Ishtiaq Jadoon
Where
• c = (σ1+σ2)/2 is the center, which lies on the
normal stress axis (x axis)
• r = (σ1-σ2)/2 is the radius
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Structural Geology & Tectonics: ERS 253 CIIT, Abbottabad