en - BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GROUND-WATER FLOW » 311 POROSITY OF A SOIL OR ROCK » 3.2 DARCY'S EXPERIMENTAL LAW » 33 HYDRAULIC GRADIENT AND GROUND-WATER-FLOW DIRECTION > 34 HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY AND PERMEABILITY » 35 LABORATORY MEASUREMENT OF HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY > 26 DARCY'S EQUATION FOR ANISOTROPIC MATERIALS » 47 HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY IN HETEROGENEOUS MEDIA > 38 MAPPING FLOW IN GEOLOGICAL SYSTEMS ‘Water flows in sediments or rocks through open spaces, which range from tiny imperfec- ‘ions along erystal boundaries in igneous rocks to huge caverns in limestone. This chapter introduces the basic concepts and principles of ground-water flow in sediments and rock. »3.1 POROSITY OF A SOIL OR ROCK Total porosity of a rock or sols defined asthe ratio ofthe void volume tothe total volume of material: Ys via eee G1) nr where isthe total porosity, V, isthe volume of voids, Viste volume of solids, nd V- isthe total volume. tn some cases, porosity is expressed as a percentage. ‘Priniary porosity refers othe original interstices (or voids) created when some rock or soil was formed, These interstices include pores in soil or sedimentary rocks, and vesicles, Java tubes and cooling fractures in basalt (Figure 3.14, ; Heath 1988). Secondary porosity refers to joins, faults in igneous, metamorphic, and consolidated sedimentary rocks, and solution-enlarged openings in carbonate and other soluble rocks (eg, Figure3.1-f; Heath, 1988), Porosity may also be defined in tems of grain density and bulk densi o moi-® 8.2) meliasy 82) ‘where is the bulk density density of dry soil or rock sample) and p, isthe density of solids.8.1 Porosity of Soil or Rock 48 “done nf in conaiaed sediment ese lt anda in Joes marron “ste comaiates ‘se mshe gens esmenty rook ro Figure 3... Types of openings in selected water-bearing rocks. Block (a) is a few milimeters to few tens of cemimeters wide depending on the medium. The remaining blocks ae a few tens of ‘meters wide. Openings in Panels (0) and (b) ae primary those inthe others are secondary (from Hydrogeology Heath, 1988). Reproduced with permission of the publisher, the Geological Society (of America, Boulder, Colorado USA, Copyright ©1988 by the Geological Society of America, Ine Figure 32. Sections of four contiguous spheres of equal size (Ay (a) the most compact oe) ae LY / (b) less compact arrangement, bigher porosity; leas compact smrangement, highest porosity o o (from Scher, 1899). “The porosity of ascil orrock depends on the degree of compaction of grains, the shape ‘of gain, and the particle-size distribution. fa material consists of spheres of equal size, the greate the compaction, the lower the porosity Figure 3.2). The shape ofthe grains ean ‘cause the porosity to be larger or smaller than average, depending on how the grains are44 Chapter 3. Basie Principles of Ground-Water Flow TABLE 3.1 Range in values of porosity Material Sedimentary Grave, coarse Grave, fine Sand, coarse 424s ‘Source in pat fom Davis (1969) and Johnson and Moris (192). arranged and connected. A strongly sorted medium (soil particles of relatively equal sizes) possesses a higher porosity than a poorly sorted medium because particles of a smaller size tend to occupy the void spaces between larger ones, ‘The porosity ofa soil and rock can range from zero to more than 60% (Table 3.1). On average, the porosity is much higher for unlithificd materials than for‘ithified materials, For unlthfied sediments, the smaller the grain size, the higher the porosity. ‘The concept of effective porosity recognizes that not all ofthe pores participate mean- ingfully in the low of water. A case in point is flow through fractured shale, Although the ‘unfractured shale contains water-filled pores, almost all of the flow takes place through the fractures. In other words, the fracture system provides the effective pathway for flow through the rock. The effective porosity ofa sediment or rock isthe ratio of volume of the interconnected interstices tothe total volume of the sol or rock. Effective porosity is more losely related tothe flow of ground water in a medium than total porosity. In some eases, the effective porosity can differ significantly from the total porosity (Table 3.2), »3.2 DARCY'S EXPERIMENTAL LAW Henry Darcy was a civil engineerin the mid-1800s concerned with the public wate supply of Dijon, France. He was interested in acquiring data that would improve the design of fier sans fr water purfcation, In his search for this information (Darcy, 1856), Darcy conducted experiments using an apparatus similar to that shown in Figure 3.3. His testing ‘system consisted of a cylinder having a known cross-sectional area A (L2), which was filled ‘with various filter sands. Appropriate plumbing was provided to flow water through the «column. Theeylinder contained wo manometers whose intakes were seperated by adistance are nothing more than small open tubes that provide measurements their open end in the medium. Water was flawed into— 3.2 Darcy's Experimental Law 45 ‘TABLE 32 Range in values of total porosity ‘Total Porosity (%) Elective Porosity (2) Maal ‘Anhydtitet 05-5 005-05 Chalk 005-2 Limestone, dolomite o1s Sandstone 05-10 Shale 05-5 Salt On 0.0005 00005 0.01, ® Data from Crof tl. (1985). ® Data from Norton and Knapp (1977). Figure 33. Laboratory apparatus to demonstrate Day's law (rom Domenico and Schwartz, 1998. Physical ‘and chemical hydrogeology). ‘Copyright ©1998 by John Wiley {& Sons, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, ne {and out of) the cylinder ata known rate Q (L?/T), and the elevation of water levels in the ‘manometers, iy and hz (L), was measured relative to a local datum. Darey conducted a variety of experiments in which the flow rate Q or the types of filter medium were changed. He derived the following relationship, now known as Darcy's ‘equation ‘where K is a constant of proportionality termed fydraulic conductivity. The term (hy ~ ‘n)/ALis known a5 the hydraulic gradient. The term Q/A, representing the volumetic flow rate per unit cross-sectional area ofthe cylinder, isthe Darcy velocity (q), or specific discharge. In words, Eq. (3.3) states thatthe velocity of flow is proportional othe hydraulic gradient. If the hydraulic gradient is denoted as i, then em) a 64 and Darey's equation is written as“sor "aos 7 Aoqy wHOE Jo worssAd uma: ‘hq ponnaday “u's = AHL WHOL R661 BUKdaD "(oqootanpsy orwayo pao po1ssya 966} "AREAS, Bue o>qt=u0C ON) PI MO 29 ut po 0p pray eon passed ‘onAofs Suds ume. pe ANN -worenba ytnowing ta posta st yso[98 pu ‘aunssad "uoNE9 Peat -oyfnespAy Suoure drysuonejas oy ‘Aus0j90 puv ‘ounssasd “uoyeAa|> 01 parvjas “siuauoduto> ‘sap Jo sisisu09 3 ‘poy symmaupty oureU ayy BALE st Moy J0¥ ajqe|reAK ABaUD SI, _auozad 9m Jo wonng amp But 30 ‘exeiut aun ve oy Joy A3s9u9 axp Jo ammseauu w st LNZeP ay} Se [OAD] 9S YT TOEAD|S 197M UL “(p’¢ aunt) wersAs paremies 2xp w tndop wos 0; porrersu adidpurys e st ouI0z=1d ‘8 “unos rsojduits sit UT sarayoueus Azomsogey B41 OF wsedsorUNOD play otp AijeNUDSSa st ypIym vazwozaid e Yt opeur are syuamamnseayy “9oujd 0} aoR}d wWosy aBuNY> s[oAo{ J97EM ‘soy 18 3upyoot 4q pourwuarep st soy Jorem-Punous yo wonDoMIp axp ‘sSum2s pjay UT -wuinjoo gp wr OF yo MO Fa} Sf oy BY Sy Cy wo ye HSH 5 |A9] en 2m ne) on “EE mL UH SMOG 25 2ygEEAE ABAD a JED aN Aa, sore 2qn s0yty ay—tiMIEp awos axogE saIawIOUELA Xp Ut Z9TEN Jo 1YBI9y yp Aq parrayar st moy 2 ogee ABzuo go amsvour 24, a} sxpoue Ye Ug Ungoo > YIOd 300 1 of 30) 2igepea® ABU aso sey Ja} DoH W WoHPeNT ABauD Jo Puy aos Jo canst 2 Sit Sonu Jake eH 18} aM Yee AMNBLD stosMUEdSD add Gomeq UT “eypojas srem-punos 32 2 ‘pin pouodsuen am sqweurureyuoo ‘sroudey> sone] UF wopIAd aq [IM SY “An1D0poA axod agp qosen qs ofa am sore amp ut paced st 2jonmed sooen ponxpodty j2ydumex9 3, “fypojan waredde at 28z6y2ep apf 40 Aso} KogBC 3k SEALY “nIpau Snood {© UF oy Tem Jo Koo[an an a st Aso} azod a, AysoH0d annoy at *u ay 4 wo Gea -eoeds aiod parouuoarayu yun sod ayes Moy ouraunpoa amp se Pouyap st KGyD0/a4 «moUIy 2 poy os (4) Soopatazod ay, ho0pe4 Koma ayn uM JRA 81 ADoya4 a1od JO ‘ays0ja8 moy rise 249208 asod ayy ul Soy, Kuo Ja}EM asNEDOq “UUINIOD [0S Mp JO are aoejms ayia a 240 sun200 og wp WoRNTumsse we | ADF Kou a OW NL Arpopa aod 10 Aapop24 J9IeA4-PUNOID TWIUYT “(6961 ‘yosou204 pur og) 20844 s2ye1 oy 210329 pastas 09 PINE sworpes’ pjoysanp umuuyurn ‘sesarewr Arpiquautiod-Mo-Ai9h ut ‘awianx9 Jano at 1 ‘sped snono) azour ae sofored sate on Moly ww2|NqAMH Jo SuoHTPUOD JepuN) seUITAT] ‘{ moy ou se Buoy sv euoreus sejnues# wou YETOsIN Moy 105 pre st worNbe s, EXAMPLE 31 Pa TABLE3 Unit conversion factors between different units of pressure 3.2 Dares ed haze Pes 28 ‘here / isthe hydraulic head [L], zis the elevation (L], P isthe pressure exerted by water column (M/LT?}, oy isthe fluid density [M/L, g is the gravitation acceleration (L/T], and ‘vis the velocity [L/T. In ground-water settings, the flow velocity isso low thatthe energy contained in velocity can be neglected when computing the total energy. Thus, the hydraulic head is waitten as GB) ‘This relationship is illustrated in Figure 3.4. The hydraulic head isthe sum of elevation head and pressure head. In SI units isin meters (m), zis in meters (m) above the datum (usually sea level), P is in Pascal (Pa), py. is in kg/m, and g is in mis*. The density Pu. varies as a function of temperature and chemical composition, with fresh water at 15.5°C having a density of 1000 ke/m?, The gravitational constant, g, is 9.81 m/s?, The Pascal is defined as 1 Pascal = 1kg/m/s* 3.10) ‘In English engineering wnits, the pressure is in psi (pounds per square inches). Table 33 lists the unit conversion factors between different units of pressure With reference wo Figure 3.4, assum that the elevation ofthe ground surface is 1000 m above sa Aeyel the dephto water i 25m the total enh f the piercer 0 m, ad the water has density (of 1000 kg/m. What ae) the ttl hyaulic head at he measurement point, (6) the pressure he, nd) the pressure? SOLUTION (@) Toal hydraulic head at the bottom ofthe piezometer f= 1000-25 = 975 m (Pressure head Pik em 975-9590 25m ek (© Pressure P= pyath — 2) = (1000 kg/m? (9.81 mis?)(25 m) = 2.45 x 10° kg/m/s? = 0.245 MPa Kylen? Pascal Atmospheres Inches of Hg Militar Fro HO 1 703 x10 6895 x 10 6807 x 10> 2036 6895 x 10! 2307 1422 « 10! 1 9.807 x 10 9.681 x10! 2.896 10! 9.807 x 10? 3.281 x 10! 14810-4102 x 10-5 1 987210 2953x104 1.x 10"? 3.346 10-4 1.469 « 10! 1.083 1.013 x 108 2992 x10! 1.01310 3.389 x 10! ‘ofl 4911 x 10"! 3.453 x 10-2 3.386 x 10° 13386 x 108 1133) 145 x 10-2102 10-9 x 1 2.983 10-2 1 3.346% 10-2 yO 4335 10-3048 x 10-2 2.989 102.951 x 10-2 8.877 x 10-! 20 at 4°C and Hg at 0°C.48 Chapter3. Basie Principles of Ground-Water Flow ‘We cam also caleulte pressure in a using Table 33. p= 25 mof water = 82 fof water = 82 x 2989 Pa =0:245 MPa » 33 HYDRAULIC GRADIENT AND GROUND-WATER-FLOW DIRECTION where hy and his the hydraulic head at points 1 and2, respectively, and AL ste distancs onveen points | and 2. The hydraulic gradient in Eq (3.11) i the hydraulic gradient from point 1102. Tra feld setting, itis possible to installa large numberof piezometrs ina unit and 10 ‘contour the resulting hydraulic head values (Figure 3.5) Starting at one of the piezometer: ‘decrease in some directions and Figure 35. Example of the head distribution efined along 2 hypothetical ‘ross section using piezometers fad watertable observation ‘wells (from Winter etal, 1998).50 Chapter 3. Basie Principles of Ground-Water Flow 1 gpd/ft? = 4,075 x 10°? m/day = 0. 1337 ft/day G14) ‘Ground wate ows throogh a buxied alley aguife with a cros-sctionlaeaof 1.010% £2 anda Tenth of2 10° Has heads tthe ground-water etry and ei pins in eager are 1009 eeD respectively, Atthe downstream end of the aquifer, ground water discharges into a seam aaane of Ox 1° felday. What isthe hydraulic conductivity ofthe bured-valley aquifer in Vay, sefaay, and gp? Ifthe festive poosty ofthe material s 0.3, what i the nar ground-water velosity? SOLUTION 41, Catelaton ofthe Darey velocity: 2 _ 1.0 10508 /day ara Toone, * MY 2. Calculation of the hydraulic gradient: (40008) = (9609) _ 9 5<10- amass 3. Caleulation ofthe hydraulic conductivity: eg og = = 2 agg = ass = Mien = 152 mln = 33 lh “4, Calculaton ofthe linear ground-water velocity: g_ 0.1 day _ ve b= A n0.3s tay ‘Many tens of thousands of hydraulic conductivity values have been measured for geological materials of al kinds, Subsequent chapters wil desribe hydraulic conductivity pee ranety of geological materials and structural stings, and the variety of field and ‘Experiments have shown that hydranic condvetiviy depends on both properties of the potous medium andthe uid (or example, density and viscosity). For many ground wat eo joa water is the uid of intrest, providing more or less constant values of density and acosity (neglecting temperature dependences). Thus, measurements of hydraulic con- ucuity are useful in compazing differences in hydraulic behavior ofthe actual materi {Th looking more generally at systems where the fuids other than water are present (such ‘sar, olf, and gasoline) hydraulic conductivity becomes an awkward parameter because the density and viscosity ofthe uid vary together with the medium properties, iA snnwenient altemative isto write Darcy's equation ina form where the properties of the medium and the fui are represented explicitly8.4 Hydraulic Conductivity and Permeability 51 TABLE 34. Representative values of hydraulic conductivity for ‘various rock types “Hydraulic Conductivity ms) 3x 10-43 x 10? 9x 10-76 x 10-3 910-75 x 10-4 2x 1077 2x 10-4 1x 10-9 - 2x 10-5 1x 10-7 -2 x 10-6 1x 10“ — 4,7 x 10-9 8x 10-8 210-9 1x 1075 —2 x 10-2 1x 10- 6 x 10° 3x 10-19 ~6 x 10° 110! 1.4 10-8 1 10-1 x 10-1 4x 1078 —2x 10°F 110-9 2x 10-9 4x 1077-2107 8x 10-9 3x10 3x tori 210710 eater “Saace: From Derenioo tnd Schwarz, 1998, Priel nd chemical ndvoeotay. Copyright ©1998 by Jha Wiley & Sons, Ine Reprinted by permission John Wiley Sons, te. G15) where q is the rate of flow per unit area, k is the intrinsic permeability, py is the density of ‘water, gis the acceleration due to gravity, 1 isthe dynamic viscosity of water, and di/d is the unit change in hydraulic head per unit length of flow. The intrinsic permeability of a tock or soil is a measure of its ability to transmit fluid as the fluid moves through it) ‘The permeabil eet rent eugie cnaes yee in msec, wis in kg/(m.sec), Py isin kg/m’, g in m/sec*, and dh/dl in m/m, the unit for k ism’, (onfseone(msee)) 2 Siogateatec inal = (Geg/a m/sec) td Intrinsic permeability also has units like em? or the darcy. Equations are ‘conversion between the units.AGFen 4 GEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER fn. the diving is given the (called a > 4.1 AQUIFERS AND CONFINING BEDS » 42 TRANSMISSIVE AND STORAGE PROPERTIES OF AQUIFERS 43 GEOLOGY AND HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES > 44 HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES OF GRANULAR AND CRYSTALLINE MEDIA > 45 HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES OF FRACTURED MEDIA Life as a hydrogeologist would be downright boring if field settings looked anything like the soilfilled pipes or simple media we have considered so far. The reality i that the complexities of the geology are magnificently manifested in the hydrogeological world that we are starting to explore. The geologic setting provides a context for hydrogeological investigations. This chapter wll link elements of geology and hydrogeology. "The discussion begins with aquifers and confining beds, which are manifestations of the geological setting, Next, we examine how key hydrologic variables, like hydraulic conductivity and porosity, are influenced by the geology and geologic processes 41 AQUIFERS AND CONFINING BEDS From resource perspective, the primary unitin ground-water investigations isthe aquifer. lithologic unit or combination of lithologic units capable of yielding water to pumped wells cor springs (Domenico, 1972). An aquifer can be co-extensive with geologic formations, ‘2 group of formations, ot part of a formation. It may cut across formations in a way that makes it independent of any geologic unit. Units of low permeability that bound an aquifer are called confining beds. Linking the definition of an aquifer to features of water supply can create confusion. In ‘reas with prolific aquifers, a low-permeability unit might be considered a confining bed. ‘However, in ground-water-poor regions, the same deposit could be considered an aquifer. In actual field studies, this ambiguity in the definition of an aquifer turns out not to be ‘much ofa problem because hydraulic conductivity or porosity values explicitly define the hydraulic character ofthe unit. "Aquifers and confining beds come in flavors. The terms water table or unconfined are applied to aquifers where the water table forms the upper boundary (Figure 4.1), When shallow wells or piezometers are installed into such an aquifer, the water levels in these ‘wells approximately define the position ofthe water table. 69.70 Chapter 4. Geology and Ground Water Figure 4.1. Conceptual model ‘of aquifers developed in afield setting (modified from Bureas ‘of Reclamation, 1995). “Aconfned(or artesian) aquifer bas ts upper and lower boundaries marked by confining beds (Figure 4.1), Stated another way, an auifr is confined by overlying and underlying low permeability beds. The water level ofa well or piezometr installed in a confined aquifer occurs somewhere above its upper boundary, Occasionally the wate level ofa well ‘ceutsabove the ground surface. This condition can produce a flowing artesian wel (Figure ‘21, As noted in Section 3.8, «contoured map of hydraulic heads for a large number of ‘wells installed in the same aoifer isa potentiometric surface. ‘A perched aquifer is an unconfined aquifer that develops above the regional water table. In effec, there isan unsaturated zon below the low-hydraulic conductivity layer 02 ‘whic the perched zone develops. ‘Occasionally the terms agufuge, cqutord, and agiclue ae applied to various types of confining beds. The use ofthese terms has fallen out of favor, but sometimes readers night encounter them. An agufuge i the utimate low-hydralic conductivity unit, which fe poor conductor of ground water and is essentially impermeable. An aqufard is alow- penneability unit thats capable of storing water and transmitting water between adjaceot utes. This stored and transmitted water is available to wells being pumped in nearby ‘aquifers. The term aquiclude is essentially a synonym for confining bed. ‘AQUIFERS OF LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK [Long Islnd, located on the East Coast of the United States The uppermost aquifer consists ofa thick sequence of ot (Figure 42), has imporaot ground-water resources. sequence wash deposits, related to the most recent glaciation. These (Gf Cretaceous aquifers (Lloyd Aquifer, Magothy Aquifer) and "deposits consist mainly of statiied sand and gravel with lit- onfning beds Raritan Confning unit) dip fom north to south, de o no clay nd silt. The water table is found at shallow depth “Above the Cretaceous deposits isa series of marine clays and in this unt, which makes the uppermost aquifer unconfine. ‘layey sands (Gardiners Clay and Monmouth Greensand) that Later inthe book, we wil revisit the unconfined glacial aquifer fact as a confining unit above the Magothy Aquifer. The eross on Long Island because ofits susceptibility to ground-water Section (Figure 4.2) shows tha the Lloyd Aquifer and some of contamination, the Magothy Aquifer can be classifieds confined aquifers, given the presence of confining units above and below,4.2 Transmissive and Storage Properties of Aquifers 71 Figure 4.2. Generalized cross section showing the distribution of confined and unconfined aquifers, and confining beds on Long Island, New York (inser) from Wexler, 1988) »4,.2 TRANSMISSIVE AND STORAGE PROPERTIES OF AQUIFERS Aquifers play a key role in supplying water to wells. When a pump is tumed on in a well, the water level in the well casing (and the hydraulic head) iseduced, causing ground water to low from the aquifer into the well. Of the water that is pumped from the well, much of it initially comes from “storage” inthe aquifer. Thus, aquifers have at least two important characteristics—some ability to store ground water and to transmit this water to a nearby ‘well. These properties depend to an important extent on the geologic setting, ‘The term transmissivity describes the ease with which water can move through an aquifer. ‘More explicitly, itis the rate at which water of prevailing kinematic viscosity is transmit {ed through a unit width of the aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient (Figure 4.3). The ‘concept of transmissivity is similar to hydraulic conductivity. The main difference is that ‘transmissivity is a measurement that applies across the vertical thickness of an aquifer. If the thickness of the aquifer is b, the transmissivity (7) is T=6K an ‘where K isthe hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer. Transmissivity has units of (L2/T] (for ‘example, f/day, m?/day). In English engineering units, transmissivity has units of gpd. ‘The following set of factors provides a basis for unit conversions 1 m?/day = 10.76 2 /day = 80.52 gpa (42) 1 /day = 0.0929 m?/day = 7.48 pat 43) ),01242 m? day = 0. 1337.82 /day aay 1 epartt = [Not surprisingly, one can develop a form of the Darcy equation that applies to an ‘aquifer. This equation, which applies to a homogencous confined aquifer (Figure 4.4),‘Figure 43 Diagram ilustrating lnydrauic conductivity and transmissivity in an aquifer (Grom Feri ta, 1962). igure 4 Diagrams illustrating the concept of storativity in (a) an unconfined aquifer and (b) a 5) where W is the width ofthe aquifer [L], 7 is the transmissivity of the aquifer (L?/T, and is discharge ate (L*/T]. “The hydraulic conductivity of a confined aquifer with a thickness of 10 fis 374 gpd. Caleulste the transmissivity ofthe aquifer in epi, fay, and m?day.4.2 Transmissive and Storage Properties of Aquifers 78 SOLUTION T=Kb= (G74 gpah2(10f) = 3740 gpa Conversion to f?Aday and m?/day T= 46, 45m? day = 500.08 /day Storativity (or Coefficient of Storage) and Specific Storage Aquifers have the ability to store water. How this storage is accomplished differs depending ‘on whether the aquifer is confined or unconfined. When a well is pumped in a confined aquifer, the declining hydraulic head in the vicinity of the well enables the pressurized ‘water to expand slightly, adding a small volume of additional water. In addition, the decline in hydraulic head lets the aquifer collapse slightly, thereby compensating for the volume of water that flows to the well. Inanunconfined aquifer, the main source of waters the drainage of water from pores.as the water table declines in response to pumping. Fora comparable unit decline in hydraulic head, an unconfined aquifer releases much more water from storage than a confined aquifer (Figure 44), ‘The storativity of an aquifer is defined as the volume of water that an aquifer releases from or takes into storage per unit surface area of the aquifer per unit change in head (Figure 44), ‘volume of water m $= Taarea(unit bead change) ~ mi co where $ is storativity (dimensionless). In a confined aquifer, values of storaivty range from 10-3 to 10-5. A related measure ofthe water stored in an aquifer is specific storage. ‘Specific storage is defined as the volume of water that an aquifer releases from or takes into storage per unit surface area ofthe aquifer per unit aquifer thickness per unit change in head. ‘volume for water 1 ‘anit areay(anit aquifer thickness\(unit head change) ~ mm an where is the specific storage of an aquifer [1/L}. Equation (47) indicates the the unit of specie storage inthe SI unit system is tm. Specific storage is related to storativity by =56 as) ‘where b is the thickness of an aquifer. vet ‘in Confined Aquifers For a confined aquifer, the mathematical definition of specific storage reflects the storage ‘coming from compression of the granular matrix and the expansion of water. The specific storage in a confined aquifer (see Domenico and Schwartz, 1998) is 5S. = Pu B(By +P) a9) where pis the density of water (ML~*), g is gravitational constant (9.81 mvs?) (LT-?}, mis the porosity ofthe auifer isthe vera compressibility of rock matrix, and fyChapter 4. Geology and Ground Water is the compressibility of water. The unit for compressibility is the inverse of presse, Ae rome of ground water (By) is 4.8 x 10-10 IN (or 2.3 x 107" fo) at J5°G Table 4.1 lists the compressibility of some common geological materials. To use the ompressibiliy itis imporant to review the nits of fore. TNewon(N) = 1kg- mis? 4.10) Ligof force = 9.80665N = 2.02046 bof force aay Equation (4.9) canbe used to estimate the range of specific storage and stoatvity of some aquifer types. ‘Aconfined suite is composed of dense, sandy gravel with ahikness of 100 m and porosity of sat esmats the ely rang fr speiic storage and storativiy. Fora total head drop of 100 m = ‘an area of 1 > 10° m?, how much water is released from the storage? SOLUTION ‘From Table 4.1, the compressibility of dense, sandy gravel ranges from 5.2 % 10% to 1.0 x 1078 m2/N. To calculate the specific storage, ‘tis computationally convenient to rephace mina ts- MC urage ue the compress of wars es St = peenbn = (1000 beim?) simityo.n(«e xt) wen “The specific storage duc to the compressibility of granular matrix is SM = eb Bp = (100 taty9.81 m/2) 10 2-10 x0 I 1 = .1~9.81)x 104 5.19.81) x 10 “The specific storage forthe aquifer combines these Sem pettp rap =94cie 7451 ~9AD x10 G2 29104 TABLE 4:1 Vertical compressibility pidAa1as x0 210-26 x 10-7 2.12 x 10 ~ 2.65% 10 1.25 «10-5625 <10-$ S13 «10-7 2.65 10-2 = 1.29 x 107 Gas o-#33 x10 13 x10? —6.9 < 10-8) 1.29 1072 7.05.10 5 xl0-6-25 x10 sb x10? 5.2.x 10-% 5,310 1 x10-*-625 10-7 i =1.32« 10 Sxl0-725x10-7 1 x10 5. 1.06 x 10-3 = 5.3 10 Sat-Tai6 x10“ 69x10" 3.3.x 101 7.05 x 107% 3.24 10 Tess than 1.6 x 10% tess than 3.3 x 10-1 Jess than 3.24 x 10-$ 4.8% 10-1 3x104.2 Transmiscive and Storage Properties of Aquifers: inverse of pressure. 93 x 10-* feb) at ‘The soatvity de tothe compressibility of water is s¥ =0sif = (100m) 9.4% 10-9 ‘The storativity due tothe compressibility ofthe matrix is a SM a5 = cooms.1~9.81) x10°54 = 65,1 ~9.81) x10 ‘The overall storaivity ofthe aquifer is Sa 9M 4 SH 29.45 10F 45.1 ~9.8) x 10-9 = 6.2~9.9) x 10> ‘The volume of water, which s withdrawn from the storage due toa drop in hydranlic head of 100/m ‘nan area of 10? m?,is 2~ 9.9) 108 m? V = SAA = (5.2 ~9.9) x 10-9(100m\(1 x 10° m*) Inthis example, most of the water comes from the compression of the matrix. In some areas of California and Texas, overpumping of ground water leads to land subsidence. in Unconfined Aquifers In an unconfined aquifer, the ground-water response to pumping is different from a that in a confined aquifer. At an cary time, when there i.no significant change of water level, water comes from expansion ofthe water and compression of the grains, Later on, water comes mainly from the gravity drainage of pores in the aquifer through which the water table is falling. The storativity of an unconfined aquifer is expressed as Sy+b5, 12) where ; isthe specifi yield ofthe aquifer. The specific yield ranges from 0.1 to0:3, while the product of aquifer thickness and specific storage isin the rnge of 10°? to 10-*. Thus, specific yield isthe storage term for an unconfined aquifer. Tinsome cases, an aquifer may be confined at an early stage of pumping, only tobecome unconfined at a late time, Water levels that intially stated out above the aquifer end up falling below the top ofthe aquifer as it dewaters. As the aquifer changes from a confined to an unconfined aquifer, storaivity values change accordingly. ‘Yield and Specific Retention Specific yield isthe water released from a water-bearing material by gravity drainage. The specific yield is expressed asthe ratio of the volume of water yielded from soil or rock by gravity drainage, after being saturated, 10 the total volume of the soil or rock (Meinzer, 1923). Ve sat (4.13) “where 5, isthe specific yield and Vj is the volume of water that drains from a total volume of Vr. Not all ofthe water initially present inthe rock or sediment is released from storage. ‘The term specific reention describes the water that is retained as a film on the surface of ‘grains or held in small openings by molecular attraction. The specific retention is expressed76 Chapter 4. Geology and Ground Water 1s the ratio of volume of water that is retained, after being saturated, tothe total volume: the soil or rock (Meinzer, 1923). Saye au where Sis the specific retention and V, isthe volume water retained against gravity. porosity defined in Section 3.1 is related to specific yield and specific retention by n=S+S a ‘Thatis, the sumof specific yield and specific retention equals porosity. The specific increases with decrease of grain size and pore size of a sol or rock (Table 4.2). > EXAMPLE 43 After a soil sample is drained by gravity, the weight of the soi sample is 85g. After the sample ‘vended, the sample weighs 80 p The bulk density ofthe wet sols 1.65 g/em®, and the density. ‘water is | g/cm, Calculate the specific yield, specific retention, an porosity ofthe sample. ‘water that was drained by gravity is 20g. SOLUTION The total volume ofthe sample is 5g+208) dae, = 63.6ekm? T= Ces yem) “The volume of water retained inthe sample ater it was drained by gravity is v= Sa sen? “The volume of water that was drained by gravity is (208) . Ve = 200m’ ** Tgiem) ¥, __ Sem) = ae 5 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF GROUND-WATER FLOW IN SATURATED ZONES » 52 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS > 53 INITIAL CONDITIONS FOR GROUND-WATER PROBLEMS » S4 FLOWNET ANALYSIS » SS. MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS OF SOME SIMPLE FLOW PROBLEMS In this chapter, we describe the theory of flow in saturated, ground-water systems and develop basic equations of ground-water flow. These equations are fundamhental to the ‘quantitative treatment of flow and provide the basis for calculating hydraulic heads, given an idealization of some hydrologic system, boundary, and intial conditions. This chapter also provides simple approaches for solving such equations. For example, flownet theory Provides a straightforward graphical wey to determine a hydaulicchead distribution and the resulting pattem of flow, especially for problems that have a simple geometry. This chapter also shows how analytical solutions are developed and used for solving problems of steady-state flow. NTIAL EQUATIONS OF GROUND-WATER ‘BN SATURATED ZONES What setshydrogeology apart from many of the other geosciences is an emphasis on treating problems mathematically. For example, one might be interested in calculating how much Water levels will fallin the vicinity of a well after 10 years of pumping, oF how eontam- inant concentrations change after five years of aquifer remediation, These mathematical approaches also help us interpret measurements made in the field (for example, aquifer tests and slug tests) Basically the mathematical approach involves representing a ground-water process by ‘an equation and solving that equation. Lets illustrate this idea with the simple ground-water flow problem shown in Figure 5.1a. For this two-dimensional section, assume we know the Patter of layering, the hydraulic conductivity ofthe various units and the configuration of the water table. Given this information, can one calculate what the pattern of flow would look like? Developing this problem from a mathematical viewpoint requires (1) finding ‘and using the appropriate equation to describe the flow of ground water (2) establishing a ‘domain or egion where the equation is to be solved, and (3) defining flow conditions along. 107= lato role “Nop a stale no Conaietty ow boundary 20 reac neo mas) eto of pounder fo Figure 5.1 A grolopicel problem (2) is concepualized asa formal mathematical problem (b) ‘which provides the basis for calculating the hydraulic head distribution (c) (from Domenico and Schwartz, 1998. Physical and chemical drogeolegs). Copyright ©1998 by John Wiley & Sons ‘ne. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Ine. ‘the boundaries (the so-called boundary conditions(Figure 5.16). With thi ‘ean calculate the hydraulic head ata large numberof specified locations (x and z) within ‘domain, In principle, this step is like taking readings from a large number of hypothe: piiezometers. Contouring the hydraulic-head distribution provides the equipotential di bution, from which we ean deduce the pattern of flow (Figure 5.1c). This simple exa helps to highlight some of the new knowledge that is required forthe quantitative of ground-water flow.ae ~ 5.1 Differential Equations of Ground: Watar Flow in Saturated Zones 4 108 iseful Knowledge about Differential Equations, ‘Many students of ground-water hydrology have difficulty in deating with the quantitative ‘specs ofthis subject. A first glance, a differential equation describing ground-water flow {immediately implies @ need to understand advanced mathematical concepts: a(R), 8 (p 9h), 8 (9H me (ng)+ 5 (3)+ % (9) Fortunately this incoductory level, on doesn’ tneedo doch wth this eqtion except crranes ihe baie of hydregclogy ae setup to provide simplified approaches for dealing wit these equations, re ceanderti dea hatthese equation contain recognizable features Even tod ter ac atesaldrecopie things, Shown a picture ofa hinocers, we could s5)—Je8, Se in toca of the four stubby lps and two hors on a uglylookng bead. roskiog ci pcture, one wouldnt become consumed with trying to igre out why een ec entby and why there were two horns. Lets consider Eq, (5.1). What ae se dcdipishingfgturs? Well fst ike al equations, cha some unknown tat we are a eevdiuae The unknown s ide inthe derivative ens, fr example: 6.) ah ah oh Enh 62) ‘where h is the unknown. In other words, a solution to Eq. (5.1) will be of the form stuf (53) where the “stuff” om the right-hand side are terms that are simple functions ofthe time and ‘space variables (x, 2) and various parameters like T and S. Fora solution to exist, all the ‘terms on the right-hand side need to be known. Fortunately, for most of our applications, the “stufF” is algebraic inform and easy to evaluate. Here are some simple steps in examining a differential equation. First look at the equation and determine the unknown. This steps straightforward—an equation containing ‘n+ (hydraulic head) makes the equation a ground-water flow equation, CC: (Concentration) makes the equation a mass transport equation, and ‘T's (temperature) makes the equation an energy-transport equation. ‘Thus, Eq, (5.1) with h as the unknown is a ground-water-flow equation. We know thet it is used to apply to aquifers because it also contains the expected hydraulic parameters (F and 5). Similarly, a mass transport equation will contain parameters (for example, D, 1a dispersion coefficient) related to processes involved with mass transport. “Equation (5.1) has other distinguishing features as well. For example, you can look atthe space variables to determine the dimensionality of the problem. The dimensionality (ofa problem describes in how many directions the unknown (hydraulic head) is changing. For example, in Eq, (5:1), there are three space variables, x,y, and z. Three space variables ‘make this equation a three-dimensional equation. Later in this chapter, you'll encounter ‘one-dimensional flow equations that imply that values of hydraulic head change in one110 Chapter 5. Theory of Ground-Water Flow hydraulic head changing with time, the equation of flow is transient. If heres no term ‘equation describes a steady-state problem, where hydraulic head doesn't change with A partial differential equation is a concise way to represent hydrogeological processes. looking at the unknown parameters, dimensionality, and transient nature, you will us stand something about the problem that the equation is trying to portray. Such eq) are still difficult to solve, but in looking at a patil differential equation, you'll disca plenty of useful information. The following example illustrates how to use these ideas. ‘Shown here re two different differential equations tht canbe applied to ground-water prob [Look at each equation and determine what kind of problem it applies to, what dimensionlay involved, and whether the equation is a transient or steady-state form. eh ae ‘The unknown is fr; tberefore, it isa ground.water-low equation. Only one space dimension (x) included therefore, it is one-dimensional. There is n0 time term; therefore, the equation i st state form, There are no parameters (like K); therefore you can conclude thatthe hydra 9.1 AQUIFERS AND AQUIFER TESTS > 92 THIEM’S METHOD FOR STEADY-STATE FLOW IN A CONFINED AQUIFER > 9.3 THEIS SOLUTION FOR TRANSIENT FLOW IN A FULLY PENETRATING, CONFINED AQUIFER > 9.4 PREDICTION OF DRAWDOWN AND PUMPING [RATE USING THE THEIS SOLUTION 95 THEIS TYPE-CURVE METHOD > 96 COOPER-IACOB STRAIGHT-LINE METHOD > 9:7 DISTANCE-DRAWDOWN METHOD 98 ESTIMATING 7 AND S USING RECOVERY DATA (THEIS, 1935) ‘One of the important jobs for ground-water hydrologists isto find and to develop water supplies, High-capacity wells installed in productive aquifers are capable of providing thousands of gallons of water per minute. Research inthe 1940s and 1950s produced quan- titative analytical tools to predict how pumping would impact hydraulic head inthe aquifers ‘and to interpret the results of hydraulic test From the mid-1960s through the early 1980s, Powerful numerical codes like MODFLOW became available to help analyze much more complicated system. "There are fundamentally two types of problems related to an aquifer’s responses to pumping. The so-called forward problem is concerned with predicting what the hydraulic: head distribution will be in an aquifer at times in the future, given boundary conditions, initial conditions, and information about transmissivity, storaivty, and pumping rate. AS wwe saw in Chapter 3, one can calculate this hydraulic-head distribution by solving a ground- ‘Water flow equation. Forward modeling is essential to designing well systems, analyzing ‘Whether drawdowns caused by a well are impacting other wells, and designing dewatering systems “The inverse problem, as applied to well problems, involves using measurements of hnydraulic head in an aquifer as function of time to calculate values of transmissivity storativity, specific yield, and so on. In other words, the mathematical theory provides the basis for interpreting the results ofan aquifer test. Here and in following chapters, you will earn howto make drawdown predictions for various types of aquifers and how to interpret the results of aquifer tests. 219220 Chapter 9. Response of Confined Aquifers to Pumping, »9.1 AQUIFERS AND AQUIFER TESTS ‘The study of well hydraulics is complicated. For every situation where the the pattem of layering of aquifers, or the length of the Seen in relation to ness changes, we need adifferent analytical solution If our goal was to tea situation that one might conceivably encounter inthe field, we could end 9" 50 different solutions. Fortunately, we have se less ambitious goal of 4 few ofthe most common situations. This chapter focuses on a confines ‘homogeneous, isotropic, and infinite in extent. ‘We have used the tem aquifer test without discussing it in detail. Ax involves pumping a well forthe purpose of determining aquifer parameters A test typically involves a pumping well and one or more observation wells ‘well has a relatively large-diameter casing and is sereened across allo part. (Figure 9.1) A large-diameter casing is necessary because a pump and piping to be installed down in the well. Observation wells are located at varying. the pumping well. They commonly are smaller in diameter and again are all or part of the aquifer. Before an aquifer testis begun, water levels in at are measured to provide the prepumping or static water levels (i). In other ‘measurements provide hydraulic beads inthe wells at time zero. A test ‘pumping, of water from the well. The pumping rate (O) isthe volume of from a well per unit ime (L477) ‘As the aquifer is pumped, water levels are measured periodically in the observation well. Water levels are measured frequently at fist because at eary change rapidly. The term pumping water level (is used to describe the was wel during atest By convention, one works withthe change in water levels through the test water levels, The term drawdown (5 = ho~f)is the difference between the sate: and the pumping water level (Figure 9.1), Once the impact of pumping becomes a wel, drawdowns usually increase with time. The zone around the well in wi a measurable water-level change is called the cone of depression. The cone of a water level low in water table or potentiometric surface, which has the inverted cone, centered on the pumped well. Away from the cone of depression, caused by pumping is undetectable. The radius of inuence (R) isthe di ‘pumped well tothe edge ofthe cone of depression. Under steady-state conditions. discharged by a well is assumed to be coming from sources beyond the radius of ‘Under transient-flow conditions, the water discharged by a well is assumed to Figure 9.1 A confined fom which ground being withdrawn at a rate Q. The cone of oe spreads away from the Produces drawdown 5 Contig te9.2 Thiem's Method for Steady-State Flow in a Confined Aquifer 221 from the aquifer storage within the radius of influence and sources beyond the radius of influence, ‘he analytical solutions presented in this and the following chapters are all developed in terms of consistent units, Thus it does not matter what units of length (for example fect or ‘peters) or ime (seconds, day) you use, a ong as al the units are consistent For erample, it meters and days ar selected asthe consistent unis, discharge would have unis of day, distances would be in meters, transmissivities in m/day, and so on. Readers wil often find 1 gpm = 192.5 f'/day = 5.45 m/day = 6.3 x 10-%m'/sec 1 A/day = 5.19 x 10°? gpm =2.832 x 102m Y/day =3.28 x 10-m/sec 0.2) 1m*/day = 35,31R°/day = 0, 1835 gpm = 1.1574 x 10~*m'/see os m/sec = 3.051 x 10° f/day = 1.58 x 10 gpm = 8.64 x 10'mY/day (0.4) "S METHOD FOR STEADY-STATE ‘BVA CONFINED AQUIFER "Historically, one ofthe frst quantitative approaches forlooking at ow ina confined aquifer ras that of Thiem (1906) This theory applis to a homogeneous and isotropic aqufe thet 's infinite in extent. The analysis also assumes that ther has been sufficlent pumping to system t0 achieve steady state. In other words, water levels in the wells do not change with time (Figure 9:2a), The map view in Figure 9.2b shows that the flow in this case is radial, toward the wel, with hydraulic heads increasing away freon the pumping wel “The hydraulic head in the aquifer can be determined as a solution to a ground-water flow equation, like those we presented in Chapter 3. However, inthis ease itis benefieal to use radial coordinates, where distances (r) re measured from te welt some point of with appropriate boundary conditions is o Fieere 92 Steady-state con of depression ina confined auiter, a sectional view, t) map view:BE ctapeers, ‘Response of Confined Aquifers to Pumping * 3 THEIS SOLUTION FOR TRANSIENT FLOW IN A FULLY PENETRATING, CONFINED AQUIFER te REO les us evaluate the behavior ofa well pumping in «confined nag transient (that is, nonsteady-sate conditions. The low seer ‘dina confined aquifer (Figure 94) can be writen in pola onndnee ‘where @ is the pumping rate and 7 is the transmissivity of the aquifer. The well W(u) and the dimensionless variable w are expressed nt. Ca w= [ay “0.5776 — 1) +4— Figure 9.4. Dlustration of « onleaky, confined aquifer Pumped by a fully pene Wel (from Reed, 1980),0.4 Predistion of Drawdown and Pumping Rate Using the Theis Solution 225 - 2 s aT 2) ven though W() is «complicated fonction, it canbe crauated by wing well function eases Tage 92) by approximating computer programs. The Tei soltionisbesed on the following assumptions: 1 The pumping wells uly penetrating, wita constant discharge rate ifnitesimal diameter and negligible storage. +2. ‘The aquifer is confine, infinite in exten, homogeneous, and isotropic a. All water pumped by the well comes from the storage and is discharged fnstantaneousy withthe decline in head. PREDICTION OF DRAWDOWN AND PUMPING USING THE THEIS SOLUTION “The drawdown in-an observation wel at some future time can be calculated direst) Hsing a (13) for known hydraulic parameters. For otber problems, we might need 10 vehat pumping rate provides a specified drawdown at a fixed place an time inthe fre “This Calculation requires transforming the Theis equation into the following form. 4nTs =e 0. = Ta 9.16) The tanomisiity and sraivity of confined aquifer are 1000 day and 00001, respectively sa Ais locted $00 m away from a pamping well. For 2 pumping period of 299 eo ie denown tthe neration well the acharge at 1000 ay (he romping rate required to provide a drawdown of I mat that wel afer 220 mine. STABLE 9.2 Valves of well function Wu) Gas ani Brncs ADs rre- AA Anion nh BD 70. 80. 0219 ‘013 0.0038 00o1T 0.00036 0.00012 0.000038 = = 12 ost 070 «(056 = OMS, 037 OT 408 36 30h ATE 2S 28 63 sa 4950473 4S 426 $63 794 753=«725~ 702A 655, 1094 9g 955933 886 24 ig as 1163 14S 11.16 1st as 141513931375 1346 ms 1674 1646 (16231605 15:76 2as 1905 1876 1854 1835 1807 Ras 2176 «21352106 2084 2066 2037 75 2365 2336 «2314-2296 267 75 2596 2567 25442526 I 2497 m2 791-95 256 728 moss 302730052887 2958 gous 325832353217 31.88226 —Chaptor 9. Response of Confined Aquifers to Pumping SOLUTION Drawdown can be calculated using the Theis equation. All ofthe [RHS of Eq (9.13) are known except for W(u).To evaluate W(u), we first caleulate w as Wo0.081) = 2.66 Fora pumping rte of 1000 my, the dawson saluted as 1000 m?/day B14 1000 m2 ay 79 = O71 @ = Sw Fora drawdown of 1m, the pumping rates calculated as inT's _ 43.14 x 100m? /day x Im eres a wi) ~ (2.66) aad 1? ar »9.5 THEIS TYPE-CURVE METHOD Another important use of the Theis solution is in determinating the storaivty from daa collected from an aquifer test. A variety of aquifer testing ‘are available, We begin here withthe so-called type-curve matching technique, Widely used. The test data area series of drawdown values in an observation matched with atime since pumping began. The approach involves plotting the fils ‘one graph, which is overain on atype curve plotied atthe same scale. Here are the 1. Create the type curve by plotting the well function W(u) versus 1 om ‘raph paper Figure 9.5). Usually, you can buy a copy ofthis curve. 2. Define match pointon the type curve. This match point only serves asa and canbe located anywhere onthe graph. However, the math works ox: or shot mich pot ihe cxofinae I(0) = 1nd Ue 10, or 10.9.6 Cooper-Jacob StraightLine Method 227 3. Prepare a transparent overlay with drawdown (s) plotted versus time () on log-log graph paper. This graph paper must be the same as the type curve. This step is Where you use the set of field data from the observation well. 4. Superimpose the transparent graph of the field data onthe type curve. Adjust the field curve until the collection of field points appears to fall along the type curve uundemeath. You must keep the axes ofthe two graphs parallel to each other. ‘5. Mark the point onthe field curve that exactly corresponds with the match point on the type curve undemeath, Now you will have points marked on both graphs with coordinates W(u), Mu, and s(t, t. These pars of values will be substituted in step. {6 Calculate 7 and S using the following equations. -2 r= 24 oan 4Ttu 7 0.18) Inthe case of Eq, (9.17), Q is known from the pump-test data, Wu) isthe coordinate value ‘of the match point on the type curve, and sis the coordinate value fr the match point on the ‘curve ofthe field data. Inthe case of Eq. (9.18), 7 is knowa from the previous calculation, is known from the setup ofthe aquifer test, and 1/u and tare the match-point coordinates, ‘obtained via curve matching. Here is an example that illustrates these steps. Tnatest ofa confined aquifer, the pumping rte was 30 may Drawdownfime data were collected tan observation well 00 maway Table 93). Use he ype-cuve method to detemine the hyauic condoctivity and trav ofthe aquifer SOLUTION Figure 96s the plot of drawdown versus time. Superimposing the fd curve on 0 the type curve, as shown in Figure 97 gives the match-point coordinates Le = 10, Wu) = 1.0, = Bui, ands = 0.78 m Ts, o (500m? /dayt) 7 a5 NO = Gexy0.78) asim?) = =Sim/day m?) eral et arin? (timin 32) 0.9 ae 50 te a oo JACOB STRAIGHT-LINE METHOD Using the Theis solution (Eq. 9.13) is complicated by the fact that it contains the func~ tion W(u), which is an exponential integral. The value of W(u) is the sum of an infinite series (see Eq. 9.14), which we normally evaluate using the table of well functions. How- ever, when the values of u are small, less than 0.01, the higher order terms of the infinite seties are negligible and can be ignored (Cooper and Jacob, 1946; Jacob, 1940). With the ‘Cooper-Jacob’s assumption, drawdown is calculated as Q 2.3 230, 2.2578 = Gop 0.577216 — iw) = FE og a As @.19) il228 Chapter 9, Response of Confined Aquifers to Pumping, io? Figure 9.6- plot of measured drawdown: ‘on log-log paper.‘The result ofthis simplification by a much simpler function, It can be evaluated using @ ‘able of well functions “another benefit of the Cooper and Jacob (1946) modification of the Theis equation is thatitieads toa simple, graphical approach to data are plotiedas drawdown versus the logarithm of ime, the Coaper-Iacob theory predicts thatthe data will fall along a straight line. By extracting two numbers fr ‘can solve équations to determine tran steps involved, followed by an example. 1 916 Cooper-Jacob Straight-Line Method 229 Figure 97 Tosration ofthe method of superposition used t0 Getermine transmissivity and storatvity js that integral expression in the Theis solution is replaced calculator without the need for the ‘evaluating aquifer test data. If drawdown/time n the graph, we smiasivity and storatvity. Here isa summary of the ‘lot drawdown versus time on semi-log graph paper, with time on the x-axis as a Togasthmic scale and drawdown onthe y-axis as an arithmetic scale, Often, zero drawdown is atthe top ofthe y-axis. Fita saight line through the datapoints. If here is difclty, use the late-time points. ‘Select wo points (ty $1 and f, $3) on the line. The equation that is needed can be geaved from Eq, (2.19) by writing one equation in terms of s2 and one equation teres of sy and subtracting them from each other. After some manipulation, the resulting equation is 2 3Q jog (0.20) As — ‘eT ans ‘Choose #1 and fz one log cycle apart, for example #, = 10 minutes and fa = 100 trinutes, togive As or dfawdown perlogeycle. This choice simplifies the math, For texample, with = 10 minutes and = 100 minutes, og(t/f))=10g(100/10)=1 ‘The log term in Eq (9.20) becomes one, and the equation simplifies eee (9.21) r Seas where As is the drawdown per log cyele. Al the terms on the RHS of Ea, (9:21) are know, $0 its «simple matter to calculate transmissivity.230 Chapter 9. Response of Confined Aquifers to Pumping ‘5, Find the value of o on the graph by extending the straight lin to intersect (of zer0 drawdown (s = 0). The corresponding time (1p) is in effect the time takes for the cone of depression to reach the observation well. With this all values on the RHS of Eq, (9.21) are known, and storativity can be 257 = ‘You can derive Eq, (9.22) by setting the drawdown in Eq. (9.19) to rearranging terms. ‘The final step is a final check to make sure that the Cooper-Iacob applies to this problem orin other words whether w = r°5/(47%) < 0.01, the check will be successful and the problem solved. sé Determine the transmissivity and storatvity ofthe aquifer in Example 94 using the C straight-line method. SOLUTION Figure 9.8 shows a plot of drawdown versus og() forthe data set. A line late-time section of the curve. On the figure, we find Grawdowns corresponding to two times: area factor of 10 different from each other. For example, with ry = 100 min, sj = 2.58 m 1000 rnin, 5 = 4.39 m. Thus, the drawdown per log eycle is 4.39 ~ 2.58 or 1.81 m 2.30 _ @2.31500m? day) ars x81 = 51m? jay “The nest stp iso substitute the value ofp, 34 min (determined from the graph) in Ea (9. “with the other known parameters, and to calculate $ 1 day TO mi eect (2 (300m)? =3.0x 10 2257 s (ip 100079, 154 439.) 288294 rin 3-9) the Cooper-Icob sti Y i io 00 meted is sed with Te nin) wal data9.7 Distance-Drawdown Method 281 “The last sep is to use the calculated T and § values with other parameters to see whether « is appropriate fr the Cooper-Jaco assumption As ___cooPma.ox 10 41nd (100m =0.02 1m Te0min Inthis example, the maximum wis close to 0.01, anditis acceptable wo calculate 7 and S values using, the Cooper-Jacob method. DISTANCE-DRAWDOWN METHOD “The Cooper-Jacob simplification is also useful in determining transmissivity and strativity values in aquifer tests if water levels are measured in two or more observation wells atthe ame time. For example, assume that two observation wells are located at distances 7 ‘and 7 from the pumping well. Knowing the drawdowns at these two wells are s1 and $2. respectively, at some time f, we can write this equation based on Ea. (9:19): 2.30 ,,2.250¢ o> Ger aS 0.23) 230, 2257! Nog fat °F is “The combination of Eas. (9.28) ad 0.24) yields anne Fe tog? 025) “The procedures for determining the transmissivity and storatvity fran agufer using the distance drawdown method areas follows 1. Foraselectedtine plotthe drawdown and distance information forthe observation ‘wells on semi-log graph paper. Distance is ploted as a logarithmic scale on the x-axis and drawdown is plotted on a linear scale on the y-axi ._ Fit straight line through the data points Select two points (ri,ra) on the line, one log cycle apart, and determine the ‘drawdown As. The transmissivity is calculated by 230 iets) (926) ‘Extend the straight line to s = 0 and determine the distance rp. The storaivity is calculated by 27) ‘A confined aquifer is pumped at 220 gpm, At time = 220 min, drawdowns were recorded in nine (beervation wells Table 94), Calculate the transmissivity and storatvity ofthe aquifer. SOLUTION Drawdown vetss distance is ploted in Figure 99. The pumping rate in gpm is fist converted to F/day using Eq (9.1).232 Chapter 9. Response of Confined Aquifers to Pumping. TABLE 94. Values of drawdown, versus distance measured at 20 minutes ri) 10 0. 100 150 SSeee 10% 493520) Figure 9.9 Drawdown: for nine observation wells iferent radial distances ‘pumping well ae ft wi ‘00 1060 fo 1900.4=01 straight inet provide As rm ean e/a "= (220 gpm) (192,52) — aassore 2 ctieom (19288) — ensona Selecting 25 10 ft and r= 100, the drawdown per log cycle iss) 52, 0F35.2~ 19.5 = IS ‘The vale ofr = 1900 ft. Thus, 2:30 _ 234035000/8) _ og a2 Fea ~~ axa ~ 9878/8 and 3 mits 2.25(987 26,220 min) (5S min’ 9.4% 10-9 1900 »9.8 ESTIMATING T AND S USING RECOVERY DATA (THEIS, 1935) 1f pumping of a wel is halted, theory predicts thatthe water level in the aquifer will to its prepumping level, i. Water-Ievel data obtained during this recovery phase of = provides a basis for determining the transmissivity ofthe aquifer. The residual draw ‘during the recovery period for a confined aquifer is expressed as9.8 Estimating T and $ Using Recovery Data (Theis, 1995) 233 928) where (929) and Ps WW (930) ‘where tis the time since pumping stars, is time since pumping stops, ands is the residual drawdown. Because recovery measurements are made in the pumped well or in a nearby ‘observation well, the radius to the measurement point, r, is typically small. A small r ‘usually leads to small value /, which enables us to take advantage of the Cooper-Jacob ¢=222i4(*) 63» UES ageemte 2a (1 Fat ®ne(2) ox Te ced fo pragma slg recover tia follows 1. Plot the residual drawdown (s’) on an arithmetic scale versus the time ratio (1/t’) a logan ale 24 Choos two pons onthe graph. Agia it helps o selec the two poms one log et “Tho banat obtalaed = 230 iar ets i th ange in residal deena over one og eyele Sui an be clad tbe eave care collected in an observation well rahe han he pmping wel The dawdown (oy) when he pump is tuned of a me Gr) renee r 0.33) 52.30, 2.25Ttp a (034) Once 7 is known, the storatvity is obtained by se 2.257 ip Ste 22ST 19330 03: = (938) Tn an aquifer test reported by USBR in 1995, dravdowns ae recorded inthe pumped well (Table 9.5) and an observation well (Table 96). In both tables, the first column isthe time since the pumping Started, the second column isthe drawdown during the pumping period, the third column isthe time Since pumping stopped, the fourth column i the time ratio, and the last column isthe residual draw own. A constant pumping rate of 162.9 (°/min was maintained during the pumping pat ofthe test.294 Chapter 9. Response of Confined Aquifers to Pumping, ‘TABLE9S Aquifer tet information from a pumped well 2 ae eee er See 3 102 3 eC 8 106 8 101.00 3 B 108, 3 es = 05 20 3 20 4100 13 80 ne 0 11.00 1 0 Ti 140 on os 195 us 193 510 068 255 us 285 su 089 315 n 315 354 (O31 315 225 3088 435 1220 43s 28 0a 495 22 #5 22038 300 122 560 243-034 is 123 616 230033 668 2A 68 2203 737 us m7 210 800 2s 800 2.00 022 ‘Source: Modified from USBR (1995). ‘TABLE 9.6 Aquifer tet information at an observation well Becks i) oes hs tenia seh 5 098 3 161.0078 10 022 10 8100 Ls 5 033 13 33133 20 oat 20 s100 145 23 05 2s B00 137 30 035 30 me 132 40 056 0, 210 12 30 0 v0 Ls, o o 433108 7 70 143103 80 30 1100097 50 0 989094 100 100 900 09 i190 0 ez 087 20 120 161088 180 180 54407 240 240 433061 300 300 36738 360 360 a2 04s 20 20 29 046 480 480 26704 540 340 248 036 00 00 233036 60 0 20 70 70 2 om 300 00 20029 ‘Source: Modified from USBR (1995).9.8 Estimating 7 and $ Using Recovery Data (Theis, 1985) 285 ‘The observation well is 100 away from the pumped wel. Calculate the hydraulic parameters using the recovery data SOLUTION Drawdown das forthe pumped well andthe observation well are plotted in Figures 9.10 and 9.11, respectively. A straight line approximates the drawdown versus time curve in ech figure. Wehave derived Ar’ = 0.91 ftand 0.87 f for the pumped and observation wells, respectively. "Therefore, the transmissivity determined from the recovery data in the pumped well is 3 _ 2.3(162.98/min) Faw = SOON fais) — 39.8 min = 4.7 x 10" 82) Se = SOTA 32-88 /min = 4.7 x 10 /day Figure 9.10 This pot illustrates the straight-line methods for Figure 9.11. This plot illustrates the straight-line methods for determining transmissivity using residual drewdown data fom the observation well