Steels—Processing, Structure, and Performance, Second Falition Copyright © 2015 ASM Intemational G. Krauss All rights reserved asmintersational.org CHAPTER 6 Bainite Bainite—An Intermediate Temperature Transformation Product of Austenite AT TEMPERATURES between those at which the cutectoid transforma- tion of austenite to pearlite and the transformation of austenite to martensite occur, a variety of unique microstructures may form in carbon steels. Daven- port and Bain (Ref 6.1) showed by careful light microscopy that the micro- structures formed at such intermediate temperatures were quite different from those of pearlite and martensite, and in honor of Edgar C. Bain, in 1934 his colleagues termed the unique microstructures bainite. Only later, in 1939 and 1942, R. F, Mehl was the first to use the term in the literature (Ref 6.2, 6.3). Figure 6.1 is a schematic time-temperature-transformation diagram, first, published by Zener (Ref 6.4) and reprinted by Bhadeshia (Ref 6.5), that om (50% (95% ((Pearite g & & Bainto 1% 50% \ = —»_ > sore = Marenste 250 — Log tine of hold Fig. 6.1. Schematic time-temperature-vansformation (TTT) diagram fora steel B+ OT ith well-defined pearite and bainite formation ranges, Source: Ref100 / Steels—Processing, Structure, and Performance, Second Edition clearly shows the intermediate temperature range, between those of pearl- ite and martensite, for bainite formation. Steels with carbon contents other than the cutectoid composition would of course have regions of procutec- toid phase formation at temperatures above that of pearlite formation. ‘The schematic diagram of Fig. 6.1 shows a well-defined time-temperature transformation range for bainite formation, Such a well-defined range of bainite transformation is characteristic of low-alloy steels, especially on continuous cooling, and several examples showing alloying effects on producing separate proeutectoid ferrite/pearlite and bainite transformation regions are presented in Chapter 10, “Isothermal and Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams.” In plain carbon steels the transformation re- gions for proeutectoid ferrite/pearlite and bainite are more continuous and even overlap with decreasing temperature. In alloy steels, alloying ele- ments may even cause the arrest of bainite transformation, causing incom- plete transformation at intermediate temperatures (Ref 6.6). The extreme effects of alloying, ranging from those in plain carbon steels to those in alloyed steels, on bainitic transformation are shown schematically in the time-temperature-transformation diagrams in Fig. 6.2. Bainite Transformation Start Temperatures The temperature at which bainite transformation starts is referred to as the B, temperature, and several empirical equations that show the effect of, alloying elements on Bg have been determined (Ref 6.5). Steven and Hayes (Ref 6.8) established the following equation for Bg as a function of @ Fig. 6. fx _ hae nN {P 7 Ronee SET P77 este Boe He : Fearie Fishes ferrite Pls z austenite ere fe Ferrite Pts alg Cotiae § i Bainite Storts i neree 7 ea aT ignAE Ms Aste we-—> one Time —~ Time — () 2. Schematic time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagrams for (a) plain carbon steel with overlapping pearlite and bainite transformation and (b) alloy steel with separated bainite transformation and incom plete bainite transformation, Source: Ref 6.6, 6.7composition (in wt%) for hardenable low-alloy steels containing from 0.1 to 0.55% carbon: Bg(°C) = 830 — 270(%C) — 90(%Mn) — 37(%Ni) — 70(%Cr) = 83(%Mo) (Eq 6.1) For low-carbon bainitic steels, containing between 0.15 and 0.29% C, for high-temperature applications in the electric power industry, Bodnar et al. (Ref 6.9) established the following equation, with compositions of the al- loying elements in wi%: Bg(°C) = 844 — 597(%C) — 63(%Mn) ~ 16(%Ni) — 78(%C1) (Eq 6.2) Bainite versus Ferritic Microstructures Bainitic microstructures take many forms. In medium- and high-carbon steels, bainite, like pearlite, is a mixture of ferrite and cementite, and is therefore dependent on the diffusion-controlled partitioning of carbon be- tween ferrite and cementite, However, unlike pearlite, the ferrite and ce- mentite are present in non-lamellar arrays. As in martensite, the ferrite of bainitic microstructures may appear as acicular crystals, similar to the laths and plate-shaped crystals of martensite. Two major morphologies of ferrite-cementite bainitic microstructures have been identified, as de- scribed subsequently, and in view of the two temperature ranges at which the morphologies develop, Mehl in 1939 designated the types as upper (temperature) bainite and lower (temperature) bainite (Ref 6.2). Figure 6.3, as determined by Pickering (Ref 6.10), shows the effect of steel car- bon content on transition temperatures between upper and lower bainite formation, In low-carbon steels, at intermediate transformation temperature ranges, austenite may transform only to ferrite, resulting in two-phase micro- structures of ferrite and retained austenite. The latter microstructures have morphologies quite different from the proeutectoid ferrite morphologies de- scribed in Chapter 4, “Pearlite, Ferrite, and Cementite.” Although some fea tures of the intermediate ferritic microstructures are similar to those of the classical bainites, the absence of cementite in ferritic microstructures makes possible a clear differentiation of intermediate-temperature-transformation products of austenite decomposition, According to a microstructural definition of bainite in steels as a non- lamellar ferrite-cementite product of austenite transformation, Aaronson et al, recognize six morphologies of bainite (Ref 6.11); Fig. 6.4 shows schematically those six morphologies of cementite-ferrite microstruc- tures considered to be bainites. Upper and lower bainites are the most Chapter 5: Bainite / 101102 / Steels—Processing, Structure, and Performance, Second Edition 1400 700 Erapdatod Aem ” 1200 600 “ 2 Upper bainte 100 £ 0 sProsontrouts | 5 SPubisnodvesats | eco £ Eco 1 80 § E pms - 600 3007 Lower bainite 20 00 0 02 04 06 08 10 12 Carbon content, wi% Fig. 6.3 fifec of stel carbon content on the transiion temperature between upper and lower bainite, Source: Ref 6.10 i Schematic illustrations of various ferrite (vhitel-cementite (black) Fig. 6.4 oraructures defined as bute according to Asronson cal et (@) Nodular bainite, (6) Columnar bainite. (©) Upper bainite. (d) Lower baimite.(e) Grain boundary allotromorphic bainite. (9 Inverse bainite common forms found in medium-carbon steel and are described in more detail in later sections of this chapter. However, in the absence of ce- mentite, intermediate-temperature-transformation products of austenite fall in the category of ferrites, as described in Chapter 7, “Ferritic Microstructures.”Upper Bainite Upper bainite forms in the temperature range just below that at which pearlite forms, typically below 500 °C (930 °F). Figure 6.5 shows light micrographs of upper bainite formed by holding 4360 steel at 495 °C (920 °F) and 410 °C (770 °F). The bainite appears dark, and the individual ferritic crystals have an acicular shape. The bainitic transformation was not completed during the isothermal holds at the temperatures noted, and therefore the light etching areas are martensite that formed in untrans- formed austenite on quenching after the isothermal holds. The bainite ap- pears dark (i.e., has low reflectivity) because of roughness produced by etching around the cementite particles of the bainitic structure. The cementite particles, however, are too fine to be resolved in the light microscope. The feathery appearance of the clusters of ferrite crystals is clearly shown in the light micrographs and is sometimes an important identifying feature of upper bainite. Upper bainite microstructures develop by packets or sheaves of parallel ferrite crystals growing across austenite grains, pro- ducing a blocky appearance. Figure 6.6 shows the latter characteristic of upper bainite in a 4150 steel transformed at 460 °C (860 °F). ‘The cementite particles of upper bainite form between ferrite erystals in austenite enriched by carbon rejection from the growing ferrite crystals. Figure 6.7 is a thin foil transmission electron microscope (TEM) micro- graph that shows interlath cementite in a 4360 steel transformed to bainite at 495 °C. The carbide particles, compared with those that are present in lower bainite, are relatively coarse and appear black and elongated. In some steels, especially those with high silicon content, cementite forma- tion is retarded. As a result, the carbon-enriched austenite between the fer- © Chapter 6: Bainite / 103 Fig. 6.5. Upper bainite in 4360 steel isothermaly transformed at (a) 495 ° (920 *F) and (b) 410 °C (770 °F. Light micrographs, picral etch, original magnification 750. Source: Ref 6.12104 / Steels—Processing, Structure, and Performance, Second Edition Fig. 6.6 Upper bainite (dark rectangular areas) in 4150 stel transformed at 460 °C (860 “F). Light micrograph, nital etch, original magnification 500x. Courtesy of Florence Jacobs, Colorado School of Mines Fig. 6.7. Cabide panicles (dark formed between ferrite crystals in upper bainite in 4360 steel transformed at 495 °C (920 °A). Transmission electron micrograph, original magnification 25,000x. Source: Ref 6.12 rite laths is quite stable and is retained during transformation and at room temperature. Figure 6.8 shows retained austenite in bainite formed at 400 °C (752 °F) in a steel containing 0.6% C and 2.0% Si. The austenite in this ‘TEM image appears gray, and an example of the austenite is marked “A.”Fig. 6.8 Retained austenite gray, marked with A) between ferrite laths of upper bainite in 0.6% carbon steel containing 2.0% Si and trans- formed at 400 °C (750 °F). Transmission electron micrograph, original magnifica lion 40,000. Source: Ref 6.12 Lower Bainite An example of lower bainite, obtained from a specimen of 4360 steel partially transformed at 300 °C (570 °F), is shown in Fig. 6.9. Again, the bainite etches dark and the white-etching matrix is martensite formed on cooling in the austenite not transformed to bainite at 300 °C. Lower bainite is composed of large ferrite plates that form nonparallel to one another, and analogously to plate martensite microstructures, is often characterized as acicular. The carbides in the ferrite plates of lower bainite are respon- sible for its dark etching appearance but are much too fine to be resolved in the light microscope. Figure 6.10, a transmission electron micrograph, shows the very fine carbides that have formed in ferrite of lower bainite in 4360 steel trans- formed at 300 °C. The fine carbides typically make an angle of about 60° with respect to the long axis of the matrix ferrite crystal. In contrast to upper bainite, fine carbides form within ferrite crystals, rather than be- tween plates, and are significantly finer than the interlath carbides of upper bainite, Recently, improvements in the resolving power of scanning elec- tron microscopes have made possible the observation of the fine carbides in lower bainite on polished and etched sections, as shown in Fig. 6.11. ‘A variant of lower bainite has been identified by Okamoto and Oka in hypereutectoid steels (Ref 6.13). This form of lower bainite is termed lower bainite with midrib and forms isothermally at lower temperatures, 150 to 200 °C (300 to 350 °F) than the temperatures at which conventional Chapter 5: Bainite / 105106 / Steels—Processing, Structure, and Performance, Second Edition Fig. 6.9 Lower bainite in 4360 stee! transformed at 300 °C (570 °F). Light mi: B- 6.9 Crtraph pica etch, orginal magnieaton 750%. Source, Ret 612 Fig. 6.10 Lower bainite with fine carbides within ferrite plates in 4360 steel transformed at 300 °C (570 °F). Transmission electron micrograph, criginal magnification 24,000x. Source: Ref 6.12 lower bainite forms, 200 to 350 °C (390 to 660 °F). Figure 6.12 shows light and TEM micrographs of lower bainite with midrib in a 1.10% car- bon steel transformed at 190 °C (370 °F). The midrib is an isothermally formed thin plate of martensite which provides the interface at which the two-phase carbide-ferrite lower bainitic structure forms.Fig, 6.11 Lower bainite, showing fine carbides in the plates of the lower Dnainte, on a polished and nitaltched section of a medium car- bon steel. Original magnification 3,000x, Field Emission SEM micrograph Fig, 6.12. Lowerbainite with micrbs ina 1.10% carbon steel tansformed at 190 °C (75 °F for 5 h(a) Light micrograph. (b) TEM micrograph, Courtesy of H. Okamoto, Tottori University Bainite Formation Mechanisms The fact that the classical bainites consist of ferrite and non-lamellar distributions of cementite attests to the need for carbon diffusion during some stage of bainite transformation. However, the relatively low tem- peratures at which bainites form severely restricts iron atom diffusion.108 / Steels—Processing, Structure, and Performance, Second Edition The latter feature of the transformation of austenite to bainite has led to two quite different views of ferrite nucleation in bainite (Ref 6.5, 6.11, 6.14, 6.15). One view states that the first-formed ferrite is formed by a diffusionless shear or martensitic transformation. The other view states that the first-formed ferrite nucleates and grows by a ledge-type mecha- nism in which short-range iron atom rearrangement can take place at ledges in the ferrite-austenite interface. The references cited provide sci- entific and experimental support for both sides of the argument about the nucleation and growth mechanisms of bainite, and the reader is referred to these references for more information and more extensive reference lists. ‘The empirical Bs equations noted earlier refiect the strong effect of al- loying elements on the start of bainitic transformation. Coupled with this characteristic of steels with prominent bainite transformations is the pres- ence of a pronounced bay, or region of very sluggish transformation, in time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagrams. These regions corre- spond to the temperature ranges that show the marked separation of the transformation curves for pearlite and bainite in Fig. 6.1. An example of such a bay is shown in the isothermal TTT diagram for 4340 steel (Fig. 6.13). Such bays correlate with the presence of substitutional alloying ele- ments that may partition to or from ferrite and concentrate at austenite- ferrite interfaces, creating a solute drag, or significant restraining force, on the formation of bainitic ferrite (Ref 6.15, 6.17). As noted relative to Fig. 6.2, the isothermal transformation of austenite to bainite may be se- ine 570 200 Boe oe re Mao so 200% fo TOON Fig, 6.13. lsothermal transformation diagram for 4340 stee! and isothermal B- 6.13 pe reatments apple to produce various mrosuctites Tot fracture evaluation. Source: Ref 6.16verely retarded. This phenomenon is referred to as stasis and is also dis- cussed in terms of atom partitioning and solute drag at austenite-ferrite interfaces (Ref 6.17, 6.18). The distribution of very fine carbides in plates of lower bainite suggests that a ferrite crystal has initially formed, perhaps by a martensitic mecha- nism, and as a consequence of the supersaturation of the ferrite with car- bon, fine carbides precipitate within the ferrite. Another explanation for the formation of lower bainite has been proposed by Spanos et al. They conclude, based on extensive transmission electron microscopy of a series of Fe-C alloys containing 2.0% Mn, that a unit of lower bainite forms by a four-step process: “(1) precipitation of a nearly carbide-fiee ferrite spine; (2) sympathetic nucleation of secondary plates of ferrite, usually on only one side of and at an angle of approximately 55 to 60 degrees to the initi- ating spine; (3) precipitation of carbides in austenite at a:e boundaries, forming gaps between adjacent secondary (ferrite) plates; and (4) an an- nealing process in which the gaps are filled in with further growth of fer- rite and additional carbide precipitation” (Ref 6.19). Mechanical Behavior of Ferrite-Carbide Bainites Steels largely transformed to ferrite-carbide bainitic microstructures develop a wide range of strengths and ductilities (Ref 6.10). Ultimate ten- sile strengths of high-carbon lower bainitic microstructures may reach 1,400 MPa (200 ksi) and hardness may reach 55 HRC or higher, The strengths are derived from relatively fine ferrite crystal structures, high dislocation densities within the ferritic crystals, and fine dispersions of cementite. The lower the temperature of bainite formation, the finer the carbide dispersions, and the higher the hardness and strength. Lower bainite microstructures compete well with low-temperature-tempered martensites in strength and fracture resistance. Often low-alloy steels are subjected to isothermal holds to form bainite, instead of quenching to martensite, in order to reduce the stresses that produce quench cracking. The latter heat treatment is referred to as austempering and is discussed in more detail in Chapter 20, “Residual Stresses, Distortion, and Heat Treatment.” The type of bainite affects fracture characteristics. Hehemann et al (Ref 6.20) showed that specimens with upper bainitic microstructures have low toughness and ductility compared with specimens with lower bainitic microstructures, and Pickering has shown that upper bainites have high ductile-to-brittle transition temperatures (Ref 6.10). These observa tions were confirmed in a study of 4340 steel isothermally transformed at various temperatures as shown in Fig. 6.13. Specimens quenched in oil and tempered at 200 °C (390 °F) had tempered martensite microstructures with hardness of 52 HRC, those held at 200 °C (390 °F) also transformed to tempered martensite with hardness $2 HRC, those held at 280 and 330 °C Chapter 5: Bainite / 109110 / Steels—Processing, Structure, and Performance, Second Edition (540 and 630 °F) transformed largely to lower bainite with hardness of 50 and 44 HRC, repectively, and those transformed at 430 °C (810 °F) trans- formed largely to upper bainite with hardness of 32 HRC. Figure 6.14 shows the results of room-temperature instrumented Charpy V-notch (CVN) testing of the 4340 specimens. Instrumented impact test- ing measures both initiation and propagation energies. The fracture energy of the specimens with the upper bainitic microstructures was significantly lower than those with tempered martensite or lower bainite, When frac- ture was initiated in the upper bainite, the propagation energy dropped to zero. Fractography of the upper bainitic specimens showed, except at ini- tiation at the notch root, that the fracture surface consisted entirely of cleavage fracture (Fig. 6.15b), a result attributed to the coarse interlath carbides and common cleavage plane of the parallel ferrite crystal in pack- ets of upper bainite, In contrast, the fracture surfaces of the specimens transformed to tempered martensite consisted of ductile microvoid coales- cence (Fig. 6.15a). Although in general, microstructures with lower strength and hardness show better ductility and fracture resistance than microstructures with higher hardness, the behavior of upper bainite, with its lower hardness compared with other microstructures in 4340 steel, contradicts this general rule. A study of the fracture behavior of 4150 steel isothermally transformed to lower and upper bainite confirms the strong susceptibility of upper bainite to cleavage fracture despite its lower hard- ness and strength relative to lower bainitic microstructures (Ref 6.21). Isothermal transformation temperature, °F 30 210. 390 570 750 Eneray absorbed, fib oa 100 200 300 400 ‘sothermal transformation temperature, “C Fig, 6.14. Impact energy absorbed asa function of isothermal transformation temperature Tor specimens of 4340 steel. Fy is total energy ab- sorbed, Eis fracture initiation energy, and E, is fracture propagation energy. Source: Ref 6.16Chapter 6: Bainite /111 jo=m Fig, 6.15. Fracture morphologies of acture surfaces of 4340 ste! CVN specimens heat treated a: (a) ol quenched and tempered at 260 °C (390 °F) and tb) isothermally transformed at 430 °C (810 °F) Source: Ref 6.16 REFERENCES 6.1 B.S. Davenport and E.C. Bain, Transformation of Austenite at Con- stant Subcritical Temperatures, Trans. AIME, Vol 90, 1930, p 117- 144; reprinted as a Metallurgical Classic, with commentary by Har- old W. Paxton, in Metall. Trans., Vol 1, 1970, p 3475-353; also reprinted in Metall. Trans. A, Vol 41A, 2010, p 1353-1390 with an Introduction by H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia, p 1351-1352 6.2. RF. Mehl, The Physics of Hardenability - The Mechanism and the Rate of the Decomposition of Austenite, in Hardenability of Alloy Steels, ASM, 1939, p 1-65 6.3. G. V, Smith and R. F, Mehl, Lattice Relationships in Decomposition of Austenite to Pearlite, Bainite, and Martensite, Transactions AIME, Vol 150, 1942, p 211-226 64 C. Zener, Kinetics of the Decomposition of Austenite, Transactions AIME, Nol 167, 1946, p 550-595 6.5 H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia, Bainite in Steels, Book No. 504, The Institute of Materials, London, 1992 6.6 HI. Aaronson, W.T. Reynolds, Ir, G.J. Shiflet, and G. Spanos, Bainite Viewed Three Different Ways, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 21A, 1990, p 1343-1380 6.7 R.F, Hehemann and A.R. Troiano, The Bainite Transformation, Met Prog., 1956, Vol 70 (2), p 97-104 6.8 W. Stevens and A.G. Haynes, The Temperature of Formation of Martensite and Bainite in Low-alloy Steel, JIS, Vol 183, 1956, p 349-359 6.9 RL. Bodnar, T, Ohhashi, and RI, Jaffee, Effects of Mn, Si, and Pu- rity on the Design of 3.SNiCrMoV, 1CrMoV, and 2.25Cr-1Mo Bainitic Alloy Steels, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 20A, 1989, p 1445-1460