EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCES
MIDTERM REVIEWER
Earth Science-
Study of the Earth
- Geography (Historical and Physical
Geology <Internal and External
Force>)
- Oceanography
- Meteorology
- Astronomy
Universe-
- Energy = Matter
- Matter = mass/ weight
Principles:
God Created the Universe -
Genesis by Roman Catholic and Theory of
South African People
The Universe Created itself - Big Bang
Theory
The Universe was always being there -
Steady State Theory
Evolution
Refers to the biological changes of living
things
Astronomy
The branch of science that deals with
celestial objects, space and the physical
universe as a whole.
Baryonic Matter
Ordinary matter consisting of protons,
electrons and neutrons that comprises
atoms, planets, stars, galaxies, universe
and other bodies.
Dark Matter
Matter that has gravity but does not emit
light
Protostar
an early stage in the formation of star
resulting from the gravitational collapse of
gasses.
Light Years
The distance that a light can travel in a year;
a unit of length used to measure
astronomical distance
Thermonuclear Reaction
A nuclear fusion responsible for the energy
produced by stars
Main Sequence Stars
Stars that fuse hydrogen atoms to form
helium atoms in their cores; outward
pressure resulting from nuclear fusion is
balanced by gravitational forces
Dark Energy
A source of Anti- Gravity; a force that
counteracts gravity and causes the
universe to expand.
STAGES OF A STAR
1.Stars star as a diffused cloud of gas and
dust drifting through space. A single one of
these is called a nebula.
2.The force of gravity pulls the nebula
together forming clumps called Protostar.
3.Heat and Pressure starts to build inside
the core of the protostar until nuclear fusion
takes place.
4.Hydrogen atoms are fused together
generating an enormous amount of energy
igniting the star causing it to shine.
5.The stars begins to run out of fuel and
expands into a red giant or a red super
giant.
6. What will happen next depends on the
mass of star.
Nebula
Protostar
Red Giant or Red Supergiant
(1. Stars with low and medium Mass)
(2. Stars with High Mass)
(1.1 Planetary Nebula)
(1.2 White Dwarf)
(1.3 Black Dwarf)
(2.1 Supernova)
(2.1.1 Most Massive)
(2.1.2 High Mass)
(2.1.1.1 Black Hole)
(2.1.2.1 Neutron Star)
Cosmology-
The study of how the universe started, what
it is made of, and how it changes.
Scientist took careful measurements of
galaxies and found that the Universe is
expanding.
Big Bang Theory- The Theory that states
that the universe began with a huge
explosion. All contents of the universe were
originally squeezed into a very small
volume. These contents were at extremely
high pressure and temperature and rapidly
expanded and cooled after the big bang.
First 3 things that formed after the Big Bang:
The Light Elements, such as helium.
Forces of nature, such as gravity. The
beginning of galaxies.
After the Big Bang the temperature
becomes cooler.
Evidence for the Big Bang:
The Universe is Expanding.
Cosmic Background Radiation- Energy
left over from the Big Bang
Structure of the Universe
Planet – Planetary System – Galaxy –
Galaxy Cluster – Universe
Age of the Universe 13.7 Billion Years
old
Scientist can estimate the age of the
Universe by Studying the oldest Star in
the Milky Way Galaxy. These are White
Dwarf.
Edwin Hubble – Started the Big Bang
Theory with the redshift theory.
How do Solar Systems form?
It began as a nebula, all solar system start
as clouds of gas and dust in space called
nebulas or nebulae. Our Solar System
formed from Nebula called Solar Nebula.
Gravity – Pulls object together.
Pressure- As particles inside the nebula
moves and bumps each other it, creates
pressure and makes the particle in the
nebula moves apart.
Globule – Small regions of Nebula
Formation of Solar System
(Globule- Formed near the center of the
solar nebula. The Nebula began to rotate
and flattened)
(Flattened Disk- Due to angular
momentum)
(Planetesimals – collision of dust and
rocks)
Largest Planetesimals – Attracted more
gas and less dust and moves away from
the center
Small Planetesimals – Attracted more
dust less gas and moves near the center.
Most of the gas moves towards the
center, the particles of gas become very
dense and began to react with each
other forming a huge amount of energy
and with that the SUN was born.
Planetesimals - Bodies formed from
rocks and dust combined.
BIG BANG THEORY
(2 ERAs)
Radiation Era – Energy Dominates, Super
force
Matter Era – after 1.80 seconds
Radiation Era-
Inflation – Rapid explosion, hot
temperature at the beginning of expansion.
Quark – Quarks and gluons combined.
Creating each other instead of making a
new matter
Natural Laws – temperature goes down,
splits the super force. (gravity) (Nuclear
force) (Electromagnetic) (Weak nuclear
force)
Hadron/Lepton – formation of very first
atom. Formation of subatomic particles
(protons and electrons)- combined and
formed the nuclei – electrons orbit around-
formation of hydrogen and helium (lightest
element)
Matter Era-
- Clouding of hydrogen and helium
gas
- H and He clumps at the Center
- Attract more particles
- Form galaxies
Steady State Theory
Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold and Fred
Hoyle (1948)
States that the universe is expanding,
matter and density remains the same. The
Discovery of CMB debunked this theory.
String Theory
In String Theory, elementary particle has
been said that made through vibrations,
gravity however is made by curvature of
space-time.
ROCKS
The Solid Layer of the Earth’s Crust are
made up of rocks
*Minerals
*Texture and Composition
Texture - Fined-grained and Coarse
grained > How fast or cool it crystalized.
The cooling process determines the size of
crystals.
Composition – Minerals
KIND OF ROCKS:
Igneous Rocks:
Formed from the solidification of molten
rock material (magma). Rocks can solidify
either above or beneath the earth’s
surface.
Extrusive – Solidified above the surface of
the earth. Fined-grained
Intrinsic – Solidified below the earth’s
surface. - coarse grained
Came from magma/ fire rocks after cooling
process
Felsic Igneous – High presence of Silicon,
appears light
Mafic Igneous – Low presence of Silicon,
appears dark
Sedimentary Rocks:
Formed from the accumulation of materials
called sediments. They are classified
according to the kind of sediments.
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Formed from weathered debris example
sandstone, siltstone and conglomerate.
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
Formed from precipitation of dissolve
minerals, precipitate from solution. Example
hematite and limestone
Organic Sedimentary Rocks
Formed from accumulation of different plant
or animal debris, examples are limestone
from shells, coral and coal.
Metamorphic Rocks
From extreme pressure and heat
If there is a change in composition
It will melt and become a magma
Metamorphism- Process
Foliated – With layers or banded
Non Foliated- No layers or banded.
ROCK CYCLE
A Magma turns into an igneous rock
because by definition, igneous roc is cooled
or hardened magma. Igneous rocks can be
subjected to either weathering and erosion
or heat and pressure. All rocks subjected to
weathering and erosion becomes
sediments, tiny debris can undergo
compaction and cementation to form
sedimentary rocks. Finally, igneous rocks
and sedimentary rocks subjected to heat
and pressure turn into metamorphic rocks.
All types of rock can melt and turn into
magma, and the cycle is completed.
MINERALS
Minerals are common solid material found
on earth. Earth’s land and ocean all rest on
layers of rock are made of minerals.
- Naturally Occurring
- Solid
- Inorganic
- Crystal Arrangement
- Chemical Composition
7 common properties
- Luster
- Hardness
- Color
- Streak
- Cleavage/ fracture
- Crystal arrangement
- Specific Gravity
Luster- The ability of the mineral to
reflect the light or being metallic –
shiny, submetallic to nonmetallic –
dull.
Hardness – The resistance of being
scratched. Moh’s Scale- Standard
measurement 1 – 10
1 being the softest and 10 being the
hardest
5 TOOLS USED
 Fingernails (2-3)
 Copper Iron (3-4)
 Nail, glass, steel knife (7-7.5)
 If not (8-10)
Pros – easy to conduct
Cons – not accurate because of the
different pressure, qualitative basis.
Color – less trustworthy; impurities
seen by the naked eye; not a good
basis
Streak – color of a mineral in a
powdered form
Streak plate- porcelain (the remaining
powdered mineral after being
scratched)
Crystal Arrangement – original
arrangement of crystals
Amorphous- not definite shape.
Cleavage/Fracture – smooth or
regular (cleavage) rough or irregular
(fracture)
Specific Gravity – the measurement
of the total weight of the mineral in a
volume (cm (cubed))
SPECIAL PPROOPERTIES (not
common)
1.Fluoride and calcite (neon lights)
2.Magnetite (Magnetism)
3.Calcite (forms bubbles)
4.halite (salty taste in nature)
DIFFERENT GROUPS
1.Silicate – most common; 90% of
minerals belong to this group; combination
of oxygen and silicon.
2.Oxide – If there is oxidation; additional
oxygen atoms.
3.Sulfate- Combination of sulfur and
oxygen
4.Sulfide – Additional Sulfur atoms
5.Carbonate – Additional Carbon Atom
6.Halide – A halogen group (fluorine,
chlorine, bromine, Iodine, Astatine) plus
additional elements.
LAYERS OF THE EARTH
CRUST – divided into the continental and
oceanic crust and the thinnest layer.
Abundant Elements: Oxygen, Silicon,
Aluminum, Calcium, Iron, Magnesium,
Nickel, Potassium.
The continental Part is 35-40 KM thick and
less dense and felsic.
The Oceanic Part is 8-10 KM and mafic,
denser.
Mohorovicic Discontinuity – Boundary
that separates the Crust to the mantle.
MANTLE – Thickest Layer of the earth, it
is the 84% of the total earth.
The Mantle is 2,800 KM thick, and
consist of its part, the Upper, Transitional
and Lower.
Higher than 150KM is Liquid while below is
Solid
Magnesium and Iron are found
Convection Current Flow – Movement or
Flow of Energy
Asthenosphere and Lithosphere
Gutenberg Discontinuity – Boundary
that separates the Mantle to the Outer
Core.
Outer Core – made up of liquid Iron and
nickel because the pressure is not enough
to make it solid. The molten metal state of
the outer core is speculated to be
responsible for the earth’s magnetic field.
Magnetic Field- Deflects the Solar Flare.
Van Allen Belt – Responsible in protecting
us from Solar Radiation.
When Ions escape to the atmosphere,
northern and southern lights can be seen.
Lehmann’s Discontinuity – Boundary
that separates the Inner Core from the
Outer Core
Inner Core – made up of solid iron and
nickel, the immense pressure prevents it
from being a liquid.
Pressure Freezing – Reason Why Inner
core maintain its solid materials.
Freezing – Process of solidifying the
material.
EARTH’S SUB SYSTEM
Atmosphere - All the gaseous part of the
earth, the earth is covered with a tiny gas
layers. Composed of 78% Nitrogen, 21%
Oxygen, and <1% Carbon Dioxide, while
the rest are trace amounts of neon, helium,
methane, krypton and hydrogen.
Layers:
Troposphere – Where the terrestrial life
and weather systems are possible,
temperature decrees as you go higher.
ABUNDANT: OXYGEN
Stratosphere - Where the ozone layer is
found, temperature increase as you go
higher because the ozone absorbs the
ultraviolet radiation. Where the passenger
airplanes and jets flies because there is no
weather in stratosphere, hottest.
Mesosphere – Burns all falling Body;
meteors.
Thermosphere - Where satellites are
located
Exosphere - Rotating Satellites are
located, a tiny layer of gas, once exceeded
the exosphere it’s the space already.