 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

ã¹]<gè…‚jÖ]æ<ËÖ]<Üé×Ãj×Ö<íÚ^ÃÖ]<퉉ö¹]
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬




٢٤٧
 ‫א‬   ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
  

 W،،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ،‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  ‫א‬        ،‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  
‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬    ،  
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
     ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ،‫א‬   
 K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬

? ?? ?‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬      
    ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
  

 ،KKK،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬

 ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬،
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 KKKKKK،‫א‬

  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
ã¹]<gè…‚jÖ]æ<ËÖ]<Üé×Ãj×Ö<íÚ^ÃÖ]<퉉ö¹]
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

١
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •

-١-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

Introduction ١J ١
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 General Concepts٢J ١
 K‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 measured quantity E١F
Standard system E٢F
measuring instruments E٣F
measuring technology E٤F
 W‫א‬‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬W  E١F
 KKKKKKKKKKKKK‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W E٢F
 W
The international standards system‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬EF
K  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
The primary standards system ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬EF
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
The secondary standards system‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬EF

-٢-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
The working standard‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬EF
‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬W  E٣F
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W E٤F
 Electrical And Electronic Instruments‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ١
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
EF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KEF
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ،‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٣J ١
Functions and Characteristics of Electrical and Electronic Instruments
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬KK ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٪١٠٠
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬(amplifier)‫א‬‫א‬
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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 Electrical Units‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ١J ٣J ١
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 (Q)‫א‬‫ א‬E١F
(I)‫א‬‫ א‬E٢F
(V)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬E٣F
(R)‫ א‬E٤F
(L)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E٥F
(C)‫ א‬E٦F
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١J ١F
  ‫א‬   ‫א‬
   W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
m  (meter)  l (Length)‫א‬
kg (kilogram)‫א‬ m (Mass)‫א‬
 s  (second) t  (Time)‫א‬
°K (degree Kelvin) T  (Temperature)‫א‬‫א‬
cd (candela) (Luminous intensity)‫א‬
A (Ampere) i (Electric current)‫א‬‫א‬
   W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
V (Volt) V (Electromotive force)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
C (Coulomb) Q (Quantity of charge)‫א‬
Ω (Ohm) R (Electrical resistance)‫א‬‫א‬
 F (Farad)‫א‬ C (Capacitance)‫א‬
H (Henry) L (Inductance)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬E١J ١F


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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 Error Sources in Measurements‫א‬‫א‬٤J ١

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬،
 W(Instrumental Error)‫א‬‫א‬ E١F
 EJ J FW‫א‬ EF
E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬FW‫א‬ E
F
E–FW‫א‬ E
F
E–FW‫א‬ E
F
 W(Gross Error)‫א‬‫א‬ E٢F
 ‫א‬ EF
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E
F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E
F
(Environmental Error)‫א‬ E٣F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EF

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W ‫א‬‫א‬ E
F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

  ‫א‬‫א‬
K
‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
K ‫א‬‫א‬ (Expected Value) 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬(Error)‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
W
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K(Percentage Error)‫א‬(Absolute Error)‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 Absolute Error‫א‬‫א‬
 K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬
e = Yn − X n E١J ١F
 W
 ‫א‬‫א‬: e
‫א‬‫ א‬: Yn
 ‫א‬‫ א‬: Xn
 Relative Error‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬

e Y − Xn
Re lative Error = = n E٢J ١F
Yn Yn

 Percentage Error‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬

e Y − Xn
Percentage Error = × 100 = n × 100 E٣J ١F
Yn Yn



 W‫א‬
Accuracy‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

Relative Accuracy ‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ (A)‫א‬‫א‬
 W(A)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

Xn Y − Xn
A = =1− n = ١ – Relative Error E٤J ١F
Yn Yn
 W
 K‫א‬‫א‬WA
Percentage Accuracy‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬(a)‫א‬‫א‬
Xn Yn − X n
a = = 100 % − × 100 % E٥J ١F
Yn Yn
a = 100 % − Percentage Error E٦J ١F

 W
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬: a
 E١J ١F
‫א‬، 50 V 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬، 49 V 
 ‫א‬‫ א‬EF
‫א‬‫ א‬EF
‫א‬‫ א‬EF
‫א‬‫ א‬EF
 W‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬ EF
e = Yn − X n = 50 − 49 = 1 volt
 W‫א‬‫א‬ EF
50 V − 49 V
Percentage Error = × 100 % = 2 %
50V

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 W‫א‬‫א‬ EF
50 V − 49 V 1
A = 1 − =1− = 0.98
50 V 50
 W‫א‬‫א‬ EF
a = 100 % − percentage Error = 100 % − 2 % = A × 100 % = 98 %
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬(Precision)‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K
 ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 W‫א‬K
Xi − Xn
 = 1 − (Precision)i
Xn
 E٧J ١FW
(i)‫א‬‫א‬W(Precision)i
 (i)‫א‬‫א‬W X i
 (n)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬W X n

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 E٢J ١F
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ Xi (volts)‫א‬‫א‬
 ١ ٩٨
 ٢ ١٠٢
 ٣ ١٠١
 ٤ ٩٧
 ٥ ١٠٠
 ٦ ١٠٣
 ٧ ٩٨
 ٨ ١٠٦
 ٩ ١٠٧
 ١٠ ٩٩
 E٢J ١FE٢J ١F

 KE٤F‫א‬(Precision)‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬
 WE٧J ١F‫א‬
Xi − Xn
(Precision) i = 1 − 
Xn
 ‫א‬‫א‬١٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬n
 i = ٤W،E٤F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


 W،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ X10

98 + 102 + 101 + 97 + 100 + 103 + 98 + 106 + 107 + 99

X10 = = 101.1
10

X 4 − X10 97 − 101.1
(Precision)٤ = 1 − =1− = 0.96
X10 101.1


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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٥J ١
Statistical Analysis of Errors in Measurements
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬،E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬،
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W ‫א‬W ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،  ‫א‬
‫א‬W  ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬(Average deviationF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،(arithmetic mean)‫א‬‫א‬
 K(Standard deviation)
 Average value (arithmetic mean)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٥J ١
 (X1 , X 2 , X 3 .....X n ) ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬n X ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 WKn‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

X 1 + X 2 + X 3 + ... . . + X n
X =
n
 E٨J ١F
 deviation‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٥J ١
 X i ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬( d i )i‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 WK X ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

di = Xi − X
 E٩J ١F
 WK‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
d 1 + d 2 + d 3 + . . .. + d n = 0
 E١٠J ١F
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
n
 ∑ di = 0
i =1
 E١١J ١F
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 Average deviation‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٢J ٥J ١
 WK‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬(D)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

d 1 + d 2 + d 3 + . ... + d n
 D=
n
 E١٢J ١F
Standard deviation‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٢J ٥J ١
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬(S)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W
d 12 + d 22 + d 32 + ... + d 2n
 S=
n or (n − 1)
 E١٣J ١F
( n ≥ ٣٠ )‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬(n ١)‫א‬‫א‬( n < ٣٠ )‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 Kn‫א‬‫א‬
 E٣J ١F
 W‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 K X ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬EF
K d i ‫א‬‫ א‬EF

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

n
K ∑ d i ‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬EF
i =1
KD‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬EF
KS‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬EF

 ‫א‬  ‫א‬
٥٠{١ X١
٤٩{٧ X٢
٤٩{٦ X٣
٥٠{٢ X٤
 E٣J ١FE٣J ١F


 W‫א‬
 W X ‫א‬‫א‬ EF
50.1 + 49.7 + 49.6 + 50.2
X = = 49.9
4
 W d i ‫א‬‫א‬ EF
d1 = 50.1 − 49.9 = 0.2
d 2 = 49.7 − 49.9 = - 0.2
d 3 = 49.6 − 49.9 = - 0.3
d 4 = 50.2 − 49.9 = 0.3
n
 W ∑ d i ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EF
i =1
4
∑ di = d 1 + d 2 + d 3 + d 4 = 0.2 − 0.2 − 0.3 + 0.3 = 0
i =1
WD‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EF
0 .2 + − 0 .2 + − 0 .3 + 0 .3 1
D = = = 0.25
4 4

 WS‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EF
d 12 + d 22 + d 32 + d 24 0.2 2 + 0.2 2 + 0.3 2 + 0.3 2
S= = = 0.294 
4 −1 3


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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 Limiting Errors‫א‬‫א‬٦J ١
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ KFull scale reading‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K ± 2% ‫א‬‫א‬voltmeter‫א‬
K٢٪‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K٢٪‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 E٤J ١F
٢ % ٣٠٠ v ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K١٢٠ v‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
Limiting Error at full scale = 0.02 × 300 v = 6 v 
 W١٢٠ v‫א‬‫א‬
6
Limiting Error at 120 v = × 100 % = 5 %
120

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 Elements of Electronic Instruments‫א‬‫א‬٧J ١

 W‫א‬KE١J ١F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
Transducer Signal modifier Indicating device 
   

 ‫א‬‫א‬E١J ١F

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WTransducer E١F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WSignal Modifier E٢F
‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬
‫؛‬‫א‬‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
WIndicating Device E٣F
K(Ammeter)‫א‬(Voltmeter)‫א‬‫א‬
W ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬


-١٤-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬٨J ١
Selection, Usage and Care of Measuring Instruments
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،(The operating and instructions manual)E ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬KE‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
،‫א‬ ،W 
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ،
 K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬
 ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K ‫א‬










-١٥-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬،١{٥ A‫א‬‫א‬ ١J ١
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ١{٤٦ A

W‫א‬،١{٩٣ kΩ‫א‬،٢ kΩ‫א‬ ٢J ١
 K‫א‬‫א‬ EF
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E
F

‫א‬‫א‬،٣٠{١٥ V‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٣J ١
K٢٩{٩ V

W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٤J ١

‫א‬ (volts)‫א‬‫א‬
(a) ٢٠{٢٠
 (b) ١٩{٩٠
 (c) ٢٠{٠٥
 (d) ٢٠{١٠
 (e) ١٩{٨٥
 (f) ٢٠{٠٠
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 

-١٦-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٥J ١
‫א‬‫א‬ (mm)‫א‬
 ١ ٢{٢١
٢ ٢{١٨
٣ ٢{٢٠
 ٤ ٢{٢١
 ٥ ٢{١٧
 ٦ ٢{١٩

 K‫א‬‫ א‬EF
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E
F
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٩٨٪‫א‬‫א‬ ٦J ١
 ٣٠٠ V١٧٥ V‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EF
EF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E
F

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٧J ١
‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬K٣٠٠
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٨J ١
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،٥{٦ kΩ
‫א‬ (kΩ)‫א‬
 ١ ٥{٧٥
 ٢ ٥{٦٠
 ٣ ٥{٦٥
 ٤ ٥{٥٠
 ٥ ٥{٧٠
 ٦ ٥{٥٥
 ٧ ٥{٨٠
 ٨ ٥{٥٥
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

W‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٩J ١
‫א‬‫א‬ (kHz)‫א‬
١ ٥٣٢
 ٢ ٥٤٨
-١٧-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   

 ٣  ٥٤٣
 ٤ ٥٣٥
 ٥ ٥٤٦
 ٦  ٥٣١
 ٧ ٥٤٣
 ٨ ٥٣٦
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EF
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E
F
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E
F

‫א‬٢٪٣٠٠V‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ١٠J ١
K١٢٠ V‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬


-١٨-
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
ã¹]<gè…‚jÖ]æ<ËÖ]<Üé×Ãj×Ö<íÚ^ÃÖ]<퉉ö¹]
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

٢
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •

-١٩-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

Introduction ١J ٢
E ‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬W ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
D'Arsonval Meter Movement ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٢
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KW،‫א‬‫א‬
 Construction of D'Arsonval Meter‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٢J ٢
،E١J ٢F،
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،(soft iron)‫א‬‫א‬،(horseshoe)‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
،‫א‬
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،



Scale


Pointer 
 ‫א‬
Permenant Magnet 
 
Spring
 
Core 
N S 
  

North Pole South Pole
Moving Coil 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١J ٢F

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

Operation of D'Arsonval Meter‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٢J ٢

،‫א‬،‫ א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ٢J ٢
D'Arsonval Meter in Direct Current Circuits
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٣J ٢J ٢
D'Arsonval Meter as D.C Ammeter
،‫א‬‫א‬ 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬
 ‫א‬K٥٠µA‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬(Rsh)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٢J ٢FK‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Rm
Im _ 
+


Ish Rsh


I 
Vm
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٢J ٢F

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Im‫א‬‫א‬Ish‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬K
 W،E٢J ٢F‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬ WRsh
 E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ WRm
 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ WIsh
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W Im
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ WI
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٢J ٢F
 E١J ٢F Vm = I m ⋅ R m

‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Rsh‫א‬
 W،‫א‬‫א‬
E٢J ٢F Vm = Vsh
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W
E٣J ٢F          I = I m + I sh

W،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Rsh‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 E٤ J ٢ F I sh = I − I m

 WRsh‫א‬،Vm‫א‬Ish‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

Vsh I ⋅Rm
E٥J ٢F R sh = = m
I sh (I − I m )
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
 Wn‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬n‫א‬،‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

I
 E٦J ٢F n =
Im

 WE١J ٢F‫א‬‫א‬

(I m ⋅ R m ) / I m Rm
 E٧J ٢F R sh = =
(I − I m ) / I m (n - 1)
 E١J ٢F
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  ‫א‬100 Ω Rm‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K I m = 1 mA 
 K I = 10 mA ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬
 WE٥J ٢F‫א‬
Im ⋅ R m 1 × 10 −3 × 100
 R sh = = = 11.11 Ω
(I − I m ) 9 × 10 −3


 WE٦J ٢F‫א‬n‫א‬ 

10 × 10 −3
n = = 10
1 × 10 −3
 WE٧J ٢F‫א‬
Rm 100Ω 100
R sh = = = = 11.11 Ω
(n − 1) 10 − 1 9

 The Ayrton shunt‫א‬‫א‬١J ١J ٣J ٢J ٢

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Rsh‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Rsh‫א‬
 K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬(range selector switch)‫א‬‫א‬
 KRc، Rb, Ra Rsh‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٣J ٢F 
 WRsh‫א‬‫א‬
-٢٣-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

R sh = R a + R b + R c E٨J ٢F
 WE٧J ٢F‫א‬ Rsh
R sh = R m / (n − 1) E٩J ٢F
 W
n = I1 I m (١٠-٢)
Im Rm 

R sh 
Rc Rb Ra 

I١-Im
I٢ 
I٣ I١ 
I

- + 
K[I١]‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٣J ٢F

 ‫א‬‫א‬  R a , R b , R c 

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Rm  KE٤J ٢F
Im

R sh 

Rc Rb Ra

I٢-Im 
I٢
I٣ 
I١
I 
- + 
K[I٢]‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٤J ٢F

-٢٤-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

‫א‬Rb+Rc‫א‬‫א‬Ra‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬[I٢]‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬Rm+ Ra‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Rb + Rc‫א‬Rm
 W‫א‬‫א‬

VR b + R c = VR a + R m  E١١J ٢F
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
(R b + R c )(I 2 − I m ) = I m (R a + R m ) E١٢J ٢F
 W،‫א‬
I 2 (R b + R c ) − I m (R b + R c ) = I m (R a + R m ) E١٣J ٢F
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Im (Rb + Rc)

I 2 (R b + R c ) = I m (R a + R b + R c + R m ) = I m (R sh + R m ) E١٤J ٢F

 ‫א‬(Rb + Rc)‫א‬
I m (R sh + R m )
Rb + Rc = E١٥J ٢F
I2
 Ra ‫א‬(Rb + Rc)‫א‬Rsh‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬
R a = R sh − (R b + R c ) E١٦J ٢F

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

 WE٥J ٢F[I٣]‫א‬
Im Rm 

R sh 
Rc Rb Ra 

I٣-Im
I٢ 
I٣ I١ 
I

- + 
K[I٣]‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٥J ٢F
Rc‫א‬RaHRm‫א‬‫א‬ Rc‫א‬‫א‬Rb‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬Rm+ Ra+ Rb‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
VR C = VR m + R a + R b E١٧J ٢F
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
R c (I 3 − I m ) = I m (R a + R b + R m ) E١٨J ٢F
 W‫א‬
I 3 R c − I m R c = I m (R a + R b + R m ) E١٩J ٢F
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬RcIm
I 3 R c = I m (R a + R b + R c + R m ) = I m (R sh + R m ) E٢٠J ٢F

 ‫א‬(Rc)‫א‬
I m (R sh + R m )
Rc = E٢١J ٢F
I3
 W‫א‬‫א‬Rb‫א‬‫א‬
R b = R sh − (R a + R c ) E٢٢J ٢F
 E٢J ٢F
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،E٦J ٢F‫א‬‫א‬
-٢٦-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

Im = ١٠٠ µA Rm = ١ kΩ 



Rc Rb Ra


I3 = 1 A I 2 = 100 mA I1 = 10 mA



 KE٢J ٢F‫א‬‫א‬E٦J ٢F

 W‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 n = 10 mA 100 µA = 100
 W‫א‬‫א‬
R sh = R a + R b + R c = R m (n − 1)
R sh = 1 kΩ (100 − 1) = 10.1 Ω
 W R b + R c 
I m (R sh + R m )
Rb + Rc =
I2
100 µA (10.1 + 1000 )
Rb + Rc = = 1.01 Ω
100 mA

 W
R a = R sh _(R b + R c ) = 10.1 − 1.01 = 9.09
 W R c 
I m (R sh + R m )
Rc =
I3
100 µA (1010.1 Ω )
Rc = = 0.101 Ω
1A

 W R b 
R b = R sh − (R a + R c ) = 10.1 − (9.09 + 0.101) = 0.909 Ω
-٢٧-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٢J ١J ٣J ٢J ٢
Ammeter Loading Effect
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 
 ‫א‬
 ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ E٧J ٢F 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Ie = E / R١WEIeF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬



R١ Ie X
 
E
 
Y

 K‫א‬‫א‬E٧J ٢F
،ERmF‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W،‫א‬،E٨J ٢F
Im = E (R 1 + R m ) E٢٣J ٢F



R١ Im X

E Rm

Y

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٨J ٢F


 ‫א‬‫א‬،R١ = ١٠ kΩ‫א‬،E = ١٠V‫א‬‫א‬
 WE٧J ٢F
I e = E R 1 = 10V 1kΩ = 10 mA 

 ‫א‬‫א‬،٢kΩ E٨J ٢F

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 W‫א‬
Im = E (R 1 + R m ) = 10 V (1 kΩ + 2 kΩ ) = 3.33 mA

-٢٨-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬، ‫א‬‫א‬Rm

 K‫א‬‫א‬٦٧٪

  ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K١٠ Ω‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
J Voltmeter) ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٣J ٢J ٢
 EDC
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،E١٠ mvF‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ 
 ‫א‬،(RS) ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،١٠ mv
 KE٩J ٢F،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Im Rm RS 


Vm VRs

V


 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٩J ٢F

 WV‫א‬‫א‬،RS‫א‬
I m = V (R m + R S ) E٢٤J ٢F
R S = (V I m ) − R m E٢٥J ٢F
 W‫א‬(Sensitivity (S))‫א‬
-٢٩-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

S = 1 I FS E٢٦J ٢F
W
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W I FS
 WS‫א‬
1 1
S ≡ = = ohm / volt = Ω V E٢٧J ٢F
Ampere volt ohms
 WRS‫א‬
RS = S⋅ V − Rm E٢٨J ٢F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬RS‫א‬‫א‬V‫א‬‫א‬،
V‫א‬RS‫א‬‫א‬E٣J ٢FK‫א‬‫א‬
IFS‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١٠٠ µA‫א‬‫א‬،.١ kΩ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬. ٥٠ V
‫א‬
E٢٨J ٢F‫א‬
 R S = SV − R m
 WS‫א‬
S = 1 I F.S = 1 100 µA = 10 kΩ / V
 WRSS
R S = ( 10 kΩ / V × 50 V) − 1 kΩ = 499 kΩ

 ‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬

-٣٠-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

 E٤J ٢F
 KE١٠J ٢F‫א‬‫א‬RS١, RS٢, RS٣‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

I m = 50 µA R m = 1 kΩ


RS٣ RS٢ RS١


١٠ V
٣٠ V 
٣V
− + 

 KE٤J ٢F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١٠J ٢F
 W‫א‬
 WS‫א‬
S = 1 / I FS = 1 / 50 µA = 20 kΩ / V 
 W٣ V‫א‬‫א‬RS١
R S1 = S ⋅ V1 − R m = 20 kΩ / V × 3V − 1 kΩ = 59 kΩ
 W١٠ V‫א‬‫א‬RS٢
R S2 = S ⋅ V2 − R m = 20 kΩ / V × 10V − 1 kΩ = 199 kΩ
 W٣٠ V‫א‬‫א‬RS٣
R S3 = S ⋅ V3 − R m = 20 kΩ / V × 30V − 1 kΩ = 599 kΩ

-٣١-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

 E٥J ٢F
 KE١١J ٢F‫א‬‫א‬Ra, Rb, Rc‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

I m = 50 µA R m = 1 kΩ

Ra Rb Rc 


١٠ V
٣V ٣٠ V 
− + 
 KE٥J ٢F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١١J ٢F
 W‫א‬
 WS‫א‬
S = 1 / I FS = 1 / 50 µA = 20 kΩ / V 
 W٣ V‫א‬‫א‬Ra
R a = S ⋅ V1 − R m = 20 kΩ / V × 3V − 1 kΩ = 59 kΩ
 W١٠ V‫א‬‫א‬Rb
R a + R b = S ⋅ V2 − R m = 20 kΩ / V × 10V − 1 kΩ = 199 kΩ
R b = 199 kΩ − R b = 199 kΩ − 59 kΩ = 140 kΩ
 W٣٠ V‫א‬‫א‬Rc
R a + R b + R c = S ⋅ V3 − R m = 20 kΩ / V × 30V − 1 kΩ = 599 kΩ
R c = 599 kΩ − (R a + R b ) = 599 kΩ − 199 kΩ = 400 kΩ
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٢J ٣J ٢J ٢
Voltmeter Loading Effect
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
 K‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

-٣٢-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

‫א‬،‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬
 E١٢J ٢F

 ‫א‬،‫א‬  ،RB‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 W‫א‬RB‫א‬
RB
VR B = E × E٢٩J ٢F
RA + RB

5 kΩ
VR B = 30V × = 5V
25 kΩ + 5 kΩ


RA = ٢٥KΩ

E = ٣٠V
RB = ٥KΩ VR B 

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١٢J ٢F
‫א‬،١٠kΩ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ،RB‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 WReq‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
R eq = R B // R V
RB × RV
=
RB + RV
5 kΩ × 10 kΩ
= = 3.33 kΩ
5 kΩ + 10 kΩ

 W‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
R eq 3.33 kΩ
VR B = E × = 30 V × = 3.53 V
R eq + R A 3.33 kΩ + 25 kΩ
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،٢٩{٤ % ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬ ‫א‬
E١٢J ٢F  
 ‫א‬‫א‬
  ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K٥٠٠kΩ
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬٢J ٣J ٢J ٢
 D'Arsonval Meter as Ohmmeter
‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
 K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬،E١٣J ٢F‫א‬

Rz 
Rm
Ifs 



E
X 

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١٣J ٢F


،E١٣J ٢F
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ERxF‫א‬‫א‬،EEFERmFERzF
[E١٣J ٢FX, Y‫]א‬‫א‬
 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

 WERxF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
E
I = E٣٠J ٢F
Rz + Rm + Rx

 R x = ∞ W
 ‫א‬،ERxF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
 : R x = 0 ‫א‬، I = 0 W‫א‬‫א‬
E
I= E٣١J ٢F
Rz + Rm

 KEIFSF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،EE, Rz, RmF

E
I f .s = E٣٢J ٢F
Rz + Rm

 W، R x = R z + R m ‫א‬
E 1
I = = I FS E٣٣J ٢F
2 ( Rz + Rm ) 2

 ‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬،Ifs‫א‬‫א‬
 W، R x = 2 ( R z + R m )
E 1
I = = I FS E٣٤J ٢F
3( Rz + Rm ) 3

 W، R x = 3 ( R z + R m ) ‫א‬
E 1
I = = I FS E٣٥J ٢F
4 ( Rz + Rm ) 4

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬

(∞)،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ،‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬ERxF‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬[]‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 ،(Rz + Rm)
X, Y‫א‬‫א‬K(Rz + Rm)‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬EshortF‫א‬،E١٣J ٢F
 .(Rz)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٤J ٢J ٢
D'Arsonval Meter in Alternating Current Circuits
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K  ‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
‫א‬،،،‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬
 ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬(rectification) ‫א‬‫א‬  KE ‫א‬
 K‫א‬،(diode rectifier)‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬١J ٤J ٢J ٢
D'Arsonval Meter with Half Wave Rectification
،‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ 
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١٠J ٢F 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬

RS 


If.s

E r.m.s  E av
Rm



 ‫א‬‫א‬E١٤J ٢F

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
، ،E  ‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬(Eav)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W(Erms)‫א‬
E max
Q E av = = 0.318 E max E٣٦J ٢F
π
E max
Q E r.m.s = , ∴ E max = 1.414 E r.m.s E٣٧J ٢F
2
∴ E av = 0.318 × 1.414 E r.m.s = 0.45 E r.m.s E٣٨J ٢F
E av
∴ E r.m.s = = 2.22 E av E٣٩J ٢F
0.45
‫א‬‫א‬Eform factor)‫א‬،[٢{٢٢]‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬، ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W(Rs)‫א‬‫א‬
E d.c 0.45 E r.m.s
RT = RS + Rm = = E٤٠J ٢F
I d.c I d.c

 W
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W R T
E d.c 0.45 E r.m.s
RS = − Rm = − Rm E٤١J ٢F
I d.c I d.c

‫א‬ E٢٨J ٢F ،E٤١J ٢F‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬
 ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬١٠ V‫א‬،١٠ V

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬، ٤{٥ V

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 Sa.c = 0.45 Sd.c E٤٢J ٢F
 W R T ‫א‬‫א‬
E d.c
RT = = S d.c E d.c E٤٣J ٢F
I d.c
0.45 E r.m.s
RT = = 0.45 S d.c E r.m.s = S a .c E r.m.s E٤٤J ٢F
I d.c

∴ R T = R S + R m = S d.c E d.c = S a.c E r.m.s E٤٥J ٢F

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

 E٦J ٢F
‫א‬EE١٢J ٢F‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K10 Vr.m.s ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

RS 

If .s = 1 mA

E r.m.s = 10 Vr.m.s  E av
R m = 300 Ω



 KE٦J ٢F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١٥J ٢F
 W‫א‬
 WE٣٨J ٢F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
E av = E d.c = 0.45 E r.m.s = 0.45 × 10 = 4.5 V

 WE٢٦J ٢F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
1
S d.c = = 1000 Ω / V = 1 kΩ / V
I FS

 WE٤٢J ٢F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
S a .c = 0.45 S d.c = 0.45 × 1 kΩ / V = 0.45 kΩ / V
 WE٤٥J ٢F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
R T = R S + R m = S d.c × E d.c = 1 kΩ / V × 4.5 V = 4.5 kΩ

 W
R T = R S + R m = S a.c × E r.m.s = 0.45 kΩ / V × 10 V = 4.5 kΩ

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
R S = 4.5 kΩ − 300 Ω = 4.5 kΩ − 0.3 kΩ = 4.2 kΩ

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

 W‫א‬
0.45 E r.m.s 0.45 × 10
RS = − Rm = − 300 = 4200 Ω = 4.2 kΩ
I d.c 1 × 10 −3


‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
J ٢F
 (Rsh) ‫א‬
  ،‫א‬
 KE١٦
RS 

 I f .s

E in 
Rm





 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١٦J ٢F

‫א‬
 (reverse-biased)(D٢) ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،(forward-biased)  
 (D٢)‫א‬
‫א‬K(D١)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،(reverse-biased leakage current)
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 (D١)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬(Rsh) ‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬(D١)‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

 E٧J ٢F
‫א‬‫א‬EE١٧J ٢F‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬
٥٠Ω ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
 W‫א‬
 KRS‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E١F
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E٢F
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E٣F
 W‫א‬
 WRS‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١F
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
I f .s × R m = I sh × R sh

RS D١ IT

I sh I f .s = 100 µA

E in = 10 Vr.m.s D٢
R sh = 200 Ω R m = 200 Ω



 KE٧J ٢F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١٧J ٢F

WIsh‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
I FS × R m 100 µA × 200 Ω
I sh = = = 100 µA
R sh 200 Ω
 WIT‫א‬‫א‬
I T = I FS + I sh = 100 µA + 100 µA = 200 µA

 W‫א‬‫א‬
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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

E d.c = E av = 0.45 × E r.m.s = 0.45 × 10 V = 4.5 V

 WRT‫א‬‫א‬
E d.c 4.5 V
RT = = = 22.5 kΩ
I T 200 µA

‫א‬‫א‬ RS, Rd‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 WRsh‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Rm‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
R m × R sh
RT = RS + Rd +
R m + R sh
 WRS‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
R m × R sh
RS = RT − Rd −
R m + R sh
200 Ω × 200 Ω
R S = 22.5 kΩ − 50Ω − = 22.35 kΩ
200 Ω + 200 Ω
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٢F
R T 22.5 kΩ
S d.c = = = 5 kΩ / V
E d.c 4 .5 V
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٣F
R T 22.5 kΩ
 S a.c = = = 2.25 kΩ / V
E a .c 10 V

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬٢J ٤J ٢J ٢
 D'Arsonval Meter with Full Wave Rectification

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬
K ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١٨J ٢F
 K(bridge rectifier)

RS If.s 

Rm




 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١٨J ٢F


 ‫א‬‫א‬، ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
  ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬،،E‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

E٤٦J ٢F 2
Q E av = E max = 0.636 E max
π
E٤٧J ٢F Q E max = 1.414 E r.m.s

-٤٣-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

 E٤٨J ٢F ∴ E av = 0.636 × 1.414 E r.m.s = 0.9 E r.m.s

E av
 E٤٩J ٢F ∴ E r.m.s = = 1.11 E av
0.9

 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬[١{١١] ‫א‬

‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
 ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
 E٨J ٢F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K١٠ Vr.m.s‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،E١٩J ٢F


RS 
E in = 10 Vr.m.s
I f .s = 1 mA 

 R m = 500 Ω


 KE٨J ٢F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١٩J ٢F
 W‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
1 1
S d.c = = = 1 kΩ / V
I FS 1 mA
 W‫א‬‫א‬
E d.c = 0.9 × E r.m.s = 0.9 × 10 Vr.m.s = 9 V

-٤٤-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬
R T = S d.c × E d.c = 1kΩ / V × 9 V = 9 kΩ = R S + R m
∴ R S = 9 kΩ − 500 Ω = 8.5 kΩ

 E٩J ٢F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬٥٠ Ω‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،E٢٠J ٢F
 W‫א‬
 KRS‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EF
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EF
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EF
 ‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬RS‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EF

E d.c = 0.9 × E r.m.s = 0.9 × 10 Vr.m.s = 9 V



RS

E in = 10 Vr.m.s
I f .s = 1 mA
 IT I sh
 R m = 500 Ω
R sh = 500 Ω


 KE٩J ٢F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٢٠J ٢F


 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

I sh × R sh = I m × I m = 1 mA × 500 Ω = 0.5 V

0.5 V
I sh = = 1 mA
500Ω

-٤٥-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

 WIT‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
I T = I m + I sh = 1 mA + 1 mA = 2 mA
 WRT‫א‬‫א‬
E d.c 9V
RT = = = 4 .5 k Ω
IT 2 mA
 WRS‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

R m R sh
R T = R S + 2R d +
R m + R sh

500 Ω × 500 Ω
4.5 kΩ = R S + 2 × 50 +
500 Ω + 500 Ω

R S = 4.5 kΩ − 350 Ω = 4.15 kΩ

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EF
R T = S d.c × E d.c
R T 4 .5 k Ω
S d.c = = = 500 Ω / V
E d.c 9V

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EF
RT 4.5 kΩ
S a .c = = = 450 Ω / V
E r.m.s 10 Vr.m.s









-٤٦-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬


‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬E١F
K١٠٠ µA‫א‬‫א‬٨٥٠ Ω

‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬E٢F
K٢٠٠ µA‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١٥٠ V

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬E٣F
K٢٠ kΩ/V

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬E٤F
١٠٥ ‫א‬‫א‬١ mA‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١٥٠ mA
KΩ

W (٢ kΩ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬ E٥F
 K١٨ kΩ‫א‬‫א‬٠ ١٠ V‫א‬A EF
. ٢٩٨ kΩ‫א‬‫א‬٠ ٣٠٠ V‫א‬B E
F

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬R١, R٢& R٣‫א‬‫ א‬E٦F

W‫א‬

Im = ٥٠ µA Rm = ١ kΩ

R١ R٢ R٣


I 3 = 100 mA I 2 = 10 mA I1 = 1 mA

-٤٧-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬R١, R٢, R٣& R٤‫א‬‫א‬ E٧F

W‫א‬

Im = ٥٠ µA Rm = ١ kΩ



R١ R٢ R٣ R٤ 


- I 4 = 100 mA I 3 = 10 mA I 2 = 1 mA I1 = 100 µA 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬ R١J R٥‫א‬‫א‬ E٨F
W‫א‬

R١ R٢ R٣ R٤ R٥


Im = ٥٠ µA

Rm = ٢ kΩ

١V ٥V ١٠ V ٥٠ V ١٠٠ V 

Rx‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E٩F
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
Im = ٥٠ µA Rm = ٢ kΩ

R٢= ٤٫٦ kΩ


Rsh=٥٠٠ Ω R= ١ kΩ 
Rx

E = ١٫٥ V

-٤٨-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬٦ kΩ‫א‬‫א‬ E١٠F

١ V, ٥ V, ١٠ V, ١٠٠ W‫א‬‫א‬‫ ؛‬١٠ kΩ/V
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬، V
K‫א‬٣٪


١٠ kΩ

E=٨V

٦ kΩ 
V٠



‫א‬X, Y‫א‬٥ kΩ/V‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬A‫ א‬E١١F

‫א‬‫א‬B‫א‬،٣٠V‫א‬‫א‬١٥V‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
.B‫א‬‫א‬٥٠V‫א‬‫א‬١٦{١٣V‫א‬‫א‬X, Y‫א‬


١٠٠ kΩ

E = ١٠٠ V
X 
R

V٠

Y 


‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٥٠ kΩ‫א‬‫א‬ E١٢F

١٠ V‫א‬‫א‬±٢٪٢٠ kΩ/V
‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬


-٤٩-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬


٣٠ kΩ 
E = ١٢ V 

٥٠ kΩ
V٠ 

١٥٠ E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E١٣F
‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،µApeak

٠{٨ mA‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬E١٤F

‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

١mA‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E١٥F
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،٥٠٠ Ω‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K٣٠ Vrms‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

٢٠٠µA‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E١٦F
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،٥٠٠ Ω‫א‬‫א‬
 .٥٠Vp-p‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬E ‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬ E١٧F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
W‫א‬
RS RD٢ = ٣٠٠ Ω I T 
I sh I f .s = 1 mA 
E in = 20 Vr.m.s
RD١= ٣٠٠ Ω R sh = 250Ω R m = 250 Ω


-٥٠-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬E ‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬ E١٨F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
KE٣٠٠ Ω‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬


RS
E in = 20 Vr.m.s 
 IT I sh I f .s = 1 mA

R sh = 250 Ω R m = 250 Ω



 

-٥١-
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
ã¹]<gè…‚jÖ]æ<ËÖ]<Üé×Ãj×Ö<íÚ^ÃÖ]<퉉ö¹]
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬

٣
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 (Introduction)١J ٣
F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،E‫א‬‫א‬–‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬

 ،‫א‬(parameters)‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
KEEF١J ٣F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬KEEF١J ٣F 
‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬

 
   

  ‫א‬ 
   
 

    

    ‫א‬  
  
‫א‬  ‫א‬
 

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬EF  ‫א‬‫א‬EF
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١J ٣F


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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 (Digital Voltmeters [DVM])‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٣

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬W ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬(Decade Counting Units)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،(A/D Converters)‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ (Display Unit)‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 (Single-slope DVM's)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K١
 (Dual-slope DVM's)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٢
(Voltage-to-Frequency Converters)‫א‬ K٣
(Successive-Approximation DVM's)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٤
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
(Single-Slope DVM's)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٢J ٣
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬
 ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E٢J ٣F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،(-Vref)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
(Integrator)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬(Vx)‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ (Counter)‫א‬‫א‬(AND)‫א‬،(Comparator)
 W‫א‬‫א‬K(digital readout)
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K١
 (١) ‫א‬F(main gate control)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٢
،(leading edge)‫א‬‫א‬S‫א‬،EE٣J ٣F
 K[High]‫א‬‫א‬AND‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K
 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬C‫א‬،S‫א‬ K٣
‫]א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K[E٣J ٣F(٢)
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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 ‫א‬‫א‬(Vx)‫א‬‫א‬[High] ‫א‬ K٤
AND‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،K[E٣J ٣F(٣) ‫]א‬
K[High]



S‫א‬
‫א‬ ١ 
‫א‬

‫א‬
S 
C ٣ 
٥
R
٢  
Vref (−) - -
+
- ‫א‬ 
+ 
 
٤
Vx  
‫א‬

 K‫א‬E٢J ٣F
 
J ٣F (٤)  ‫]א‬Clock ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ K٥
،[High]‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،AND‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬[E٣
[E٣J ٣F (٥) ‫]א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K(Binary Counter)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬،Vx
 
 ‫א‬‫א‬ K٦
 ‫א‬،‫א‬ ‫א‬AND‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬،‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬(Clock)
‫א‬،Vx‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٧
 K‫א‬‫א‬(digital readout)‫א‬
،(main gate control)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،  K٨
‫א‬(falling edge)‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


‫א‬ ،C‫א‬‫א‬،S‫א‬
 
 K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٣J ٣F
 K(Timing Diagram)E٢J ٣F

S‫א‬ 
 S‫א‬

١
Vx


t١ t٢ ٢
T


٣


٤


٥

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٣J ٣F

‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬( T )‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
 W[Vio(t)]‫א‬‫א‬
1 t
Vio ( t ) = − ∫ − Vref dt E١J ٣F
RC t
1

1
∴ Vio ( t ) = Vref ( t − t 1 ) E٢J ٣F
RC
‫א‬ ‫א‬
 t٢‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬t١
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


at t = t2 ⇒ Vio ( t 2 ) = Vx E٣J ٣F

1
Vref ( t 2 − t 1 ) 
∴ Vio ( t 2 ) = Vx = E٤J ٣F
RC
 W،‫א‬‫א‬T‫א‬t٢t١‫א‬‫א‬
T = t٢ – t ١

1
∴ Vx = Vref T E٥J ٣F
RC

Vx
or T = RC E٦J ٣F
Vref
 KVx‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬T‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،E‫א‬R, C‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 E١J ٣F
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬t٢t١T‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬، Vx = 5 V  ‫א‬، C = 0.1 µf ‫א‬  R = 10 kΩ
 K Vref = − 10 V
 ‫א‬
 W،E٦J ٣F‫א‬‫א‬
Vx 5
  T = RC = 100 × 10 3 × 0.1 × 10 −6 × = 5 × 10 −3 sec = 5 m sec
Vref 10

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٢J ٣(Dual-Slope DVM's)

، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K  E٤J ٣F

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


R‫א‬‫א‬A١‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬،A٢‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،C‫א‬
[High]   ، ‫א‬[Low]
 W‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K١
 KCS٢‫א‬ J ١
 KA‫א‬S١‫א‬ J ٢
K(٠٠٠٠…...٠)‫א‬‫א‬ J ٣
‫داﺋﺮة‬
S٢ ‫ﺗﺤﻜﻢ‬
‫ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻴﺔ‬

Vref (-) 
B R C 
A
- 
S١ A١ -
Vi + 
A٢
+ ‫ﻋﺪاد‬


‫ﻧﺒﻀﺎت‬
 ‫اﻟﺴﺎﻋﺔ‬

 KE٤J ٣F

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٢
 K‫א‬،E٥J ٣F
،[High]‫א‬
  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ K٣
 K‫א‬‫א‬(Clock)‫א‬AND‫א‬‫א‬



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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   



‫ﺧﺮج اﻟﻤﻜﺎﻣﻞ‬ 
t١

t٢ t٣
‫ﺧﺮج اﻟﻤﻘﺎرن‬ 



 KE٤J ٣F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٥J ٣F

 t٢‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٤
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ [Overflow Pulse]،E٥J ٣F
‫א‬،‫א‬Vref‫א‬‫א‬،B‫א‬S١‫א‬
 K(٠٠٠٠ ……٠)‫א‬‫א‬(at time t٢)
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬t٣t٢‫א‬C‫א‬ K٥
،t٣‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬،‫א‬
 ‫א‬(Clock) ‫א‬AND‫א‬‫א‬
 ،[Low]‫א‬ ‫א‬
t٣t٢‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬t٣‫א‬ K٦
 K‫א‬
 WA‫א‬S١‫א‬‫א‬
1 t
V1 ( t ) = − ∫ Vin dt t1 ≤ t ≤ t 2 E٧J ٣F
RC t
1

Vin
∴ V1 ( t ) = − (t − t1 ) E٨J ٣F
RC
at t = t2 ⇒ V1 ( t ) = V1 ( t 2 ) E٩J ٣F
Vin
∴ V1 ( t 2 ) = − (t 2 − t1 ) E١٠J ٣F
RC
If T1 = t 2 − t 1 E١١J ٣F

- ٥٩ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


Vin T1
 ∴ V1 ( t 2 ) = − E١٢J ٣F
RC
‫א‬V٢(t)‫א‬،t٣t٢، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W

1 t
V2 ( t ) = V1 ( t 2 ) + ∫ Vref dt E١٣J ٣F
RC t
2
1
∴ V2 ( t ) = V1 ( t 2 ) + Vref ( t − t 2 ) E١٤J ٣F
RC
 E١٥J ٣F
at t = t 3 ⇒ V2 ( t 3 ) = 0
1 1
∴ Vref ( t 3 − t 2 ) = Vin T1 E١٦J ٣F
RC RC
If T2 = t 3 − t 2 therefore, E١٧J ٣F
Vref T2 = Vin T1 E١٨J ٣F
which equal,
T2 Vin T2
= ⇒ Vin = Vref E١٩J ٣F
T1 Vref T1

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KT٢‫א‬‫א‬

- ٦٠ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 E٢J ٣F
، ٥ V‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬t٢‫א‬Vref‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KT١=١ secVi =١ V‫א‬‫؟‬t٣t٢‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 W،E١٩J ٣F‫א‬‫א‬
Vin 1
T2 = T1 × = 1 × = 0.2 sec
Vref 5

 (Digital Multimeter [DMM])‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ٣

‫א‬L  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K(Decade Counter)‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 E٦J ٣F
(Compensated Attenuator)،‫א‬‫א‬(Attenuator)
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ 
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬L‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
،(Rectifier)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
E٦J ٣F ‫א‬(Current-to-Voltage Converter) ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬KE٧J ٣F‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬،Σi،(Summing Junction)
KIi‫א‬ IR‫א‬
 ، ‫א‬ ‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬(Voltage drop)IR‫א‬
‫א‬L
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- ٦١ -
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   




DCV

ACV
 

DCMA DCV
ACV


OHMS
DCMA  
OHMS



DCV 
‫א‬ 

ACV

DCMA 
‫א‬
OHMS  ‫א‬  
‫א‬
 






 K‫א‬E٦J ٣F

١٠ Ω 

١٠٠ Ω
‫א‬ 
IR ١ kΩ

Ii

J  ‫א‬ 
‫ﺗﻴﺎر ﻣﺠﻬﻮل‬

+ 

 KE٧J ٣F


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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬L
 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
















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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 ‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K١
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٢
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٣
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٤
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬( T )‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K٥
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٦
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٧
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٨
K‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K٩

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  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
ã¹]<gè…‚jÖ]æ<ËÖ]<Üé×Ãj×Ö<íÚ^ÃÖ]<퉉ö¹]
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬

٤
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •

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 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 Introduction ١J ٤
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
،،‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬،  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 Oscilloscope Block Diagram ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٢J ٤

‫א‬‫א‬(Cathode-Ray Tube or CRT)‫א‬
KEE١J ٤F ‫א‬F ‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬Y, X ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬
 ‫א‬ Y 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ C١ 
 ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬E١J ٤F S١ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
 
 ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
d.cS١ ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ،Y‫א‬‫א‬Y‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Y‫א‬
 (preamplifier).‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
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 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   





 









 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١J ٤F

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  (time base)  ‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،(saw tooth waveform)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬KEX ‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬، ‫א‬‫א‬
 C٢‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬X
 ‫א‬ ‫א‬xz،[]E٢J ٤F ‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬


-٦٧-
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   





 


 [][]
 Kxz،[]‫א‬‫א‬E٢J ٤F

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬، ‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬[E١J ٤F  S٣]  K ‫א‬‫א‬
، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  
K ‫א‬‫א‬E١J ٤F S٢‫א‬،‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  (graticule)  ‫א‬‫א‬ 
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KE ‫א‬F ‫א‬
‫א‬،Y‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
[VOLTS/DIV]Y، [(١J ٤FS١] ‫א‬
 ‫א‬Y‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ .Y‫א‬‫א‬
Y‫א‬VOLTS/DIV‫א‬K‫א‬Y‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬[TRIGGER LEVEL]‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
،AUTOTrigger level‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
 K[?J ?،?H?]‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
VARIABLE ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
TIME/DIV‫א‬KTIME/DIVCONTROL
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 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


K‫א‬CalibrateVARIABLE CONTROL‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ shiftJ X
FOCUS
 INTENSITY،‫א‬ 
‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 Oscilloscope as a measuring instrument‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬٣J ٤

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬،٢ - ١٠MHz‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬(Calibration)‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K 
،٥٠Hz‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١٠ms/divTIME/DIV
 K‫א‬‫א‬١٠ div
 Voltage Measurements‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ١J ٣J ٤
‫א‬ E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬ 
 ‫א‬FA‫א‬K(sine waves)E٣J ٤FK‫א‬
٢ div‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬F B ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬٤{٥div‫א‬E‫א‬
،١٠٠mv[VOLTS/DIV]‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬F

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 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   










 KEJ FE٣J ٤F
Wave A: VA = (٤{٥ DIV) × ١٠٠ mv/DIV = ٤٥٠ mv
Wave B: VB = (٢{٠ DIV) × ١٠٠ mv/DIV = ٢٠٠ mv

 Frequency Measurements‫א‬‫א‬ ٢J ٣J ٤
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬(CAL) ‫א‬  ‫א‬،Y
، ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ، ‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 W(T)‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
T = (Horizontal divisions/cycle) × (TIME/DIV)
 W،(T)‫א‬‫א‬،(F)‫א‬
 F = ١/T.
‫א‬،٠{٥ ms [TIME/DIV]‫א‬‫א‬
 WE٣J ٤F‫א‬(F)‫א‬(T)‫א‬
Wave A : TA = [(٨{٨ DIV) × ٠{٥ ms/DIV]/٢ cycles = ٢{٢ ms
FA = ١/ (٢{٢ms) ≅ ٤٥٥ Hz
Wave B : TB = [(٨{٨ DIV) × ٠{٥ ms/DIV]/٦ cycles = ٠{٧٣ ms
FB = ١/(٠{٧٣ms) ≅ ١{٣٦ kHz

-٧٠-
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 Lissajous Figures‫א‬ ٣J ٣J ٤
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
‫א‬
 [Lissajous figures]
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬Y(F٢)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬X(F١)‫א‬‫א‬
KE٤J ٤F ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 

 F١/F٢ = ٣L٢ F١/F٢ = ٥L٣

 [][]
 K‫א‬E٤J ٤F

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬

 F١LF٢=E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬FLE‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F

 Phase Angle Computation‫א‬ ٤J ٣J ٤
‫א‬(Phase difference)‫א‬ 
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
،(CAL) ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬(Channel ١ and ٢)

-٧١-
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
 K‫א‬
،‫א‬ E٥J ٤F
‫א‬١{٤ divisions‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬٨ divisions
  (One cycle)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
،٨ div = ٣٦٠°،  ،٣٦٠°
 W
١ div = ٣٦٠°/٨ = ٤٥°









 K‫א‬E٥J ٤F

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
θ = ١{٤ div × (٤٥°/div) = ٦٣°

‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬،‫א‬W ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،(Channel ١ and ٢)‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،E٦J ٤F
‫א‬،٠°
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬، ‫א‬ 
F‫א‬‫א‬٤٥°‫ א‬‫א‬
 ٠° ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،E‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


[ellipse]‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬،[٠° < θ < ٩٠°]٩٠°

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

   

















 K‫א‬(١L١)E٦J ٤F

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬٩٠°‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬KE ‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬[٩٠° < θ < ١٨٠°]١٨٠°٩٠°

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 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬[ellipse]
 K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١٨٠°‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
‫א‬F‫א‬ ‫א‬١٣٥°
 KE‫א‬
 ‫א‬[θ] ‫א‬‫א‬E٧J ٤F 
 K[ellipse]‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬










 K‫א‬‫א‬E٧J ٤F

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٧J ٤F[θ] ‫א‬

Sin(θ) = Y١/Y٢
 W
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W(Y١)
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W(Y٢)
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

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‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J ١
K‫א‬‫א‬ J ٢
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J ٣
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J ٤
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J ٥
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J ٦


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  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
ã¹]<gè…‚jÖ]æ<ËÖ]<Üé×Ãj×Ö<íÚ^ÃÖ]<퉉ö¹]
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬

٥
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


Introduction ١J ٥
‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
K ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KE،،‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 Direct Current Bridges‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٥

 Wheatstone Bridge١J ٢J ٥
EE١J ٥FF
‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
E
 F‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ (E)
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
I١ I٢

R١ R٢

E A G B

I٣ R٣ R٤ I٤


 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١J ٥F

‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ER٢ F‫א‬‫א‬ER٤ F‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 Condition of Balance of Wheatstone Bridge‫א‬‫א‬١J ١J ٢J ٥

‫א‬،‫א‬ BA‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W،R٢‫א‬‫א‬R١‫א‬
I1 R 1 = I 2 R 2 E١J ٥F
 W،R٤‫א‬‫א‬R٣‫א‬‫א‬
I3 R 3 = I 4 R 4 E٢J ٥F
 W،‫א‬ ‫א‬
I1 = I 3  , I 2 = I 4 E٣J ٥F
 WE٢J ٥F‫א‬E١J ٥F‫א‬
I1 R 1 I 2 R 2
= E٤J ٥F
I3 R 3 I 4 R 4

 WE٤J ٥F‫א‬E٣J ٥F‫א‬

R1 R
= 2 E٦J ٥F
R3 R4

 W‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٦J ٥F‫א‬
R1 R 4 = R 2 R 3 E٧J ٥F
 E١J ٥F
‫א‬‫א‬E٢J ٥F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Rx‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬

R١ = ١٢ kΩ R٢ = ١٥ kΩ

E A  G B

R٣ = ٣٢ kΩ
 Rx

 KE١J ٥F‫א‬E٢J ٥F

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 ‫א‬
 WEE٧J ٥FF‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
R1 R x = R 2 R 3

 WRx‫א‬‫א‬
R 2 R 3 15 kΩ ⋅ 32 kΩ
Rx = = = 40 kΩ
R1 12 kΩ

 General solution of Wheatstone Bridge‫א‬‫א‬٢J ١J ٢J ٥

‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬KK ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Vth‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬RG‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،rth‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬

Vth
 IG =  E٨J ٥F
rth + R G

 WrthVth
 VthW 
RG‫א‬F Vth BA‫א‬‫א‬
 KE‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬Vth
 WVthE٣J ٥FK‫א‬

E٩J ٥F       Vth = V1 − V2 = I1 R 1 − I 2 R 2

E E R1 R2
 E١٠J ٥F Vth = R1 − R2 = E ( − )
R1 + R 3 R2 + R4 R1 + R 3 R 2 + R 4

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 rthW 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ rth
 KE٤J ٥FrthBA‫א‬‫א‬

C
I١ I٢ 
V١ V٢
 R٢
R١
E A  Vth B

R٣ R٤
 D

 KVth‫א‬E٣J ٥F


C
 C



≡
R١ R٢ R١ R٢
A B
A B 

R٣ R٤ R٣ R٤

D  D

 Krth‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٤J ٥F

R٣R١‫א‬‫א‬rth‫א‬‫א‬ 
K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬R٤R٢‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 Wrth‫א‬‫א‬

-٨٠-
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


R1 R 3 R R
rth = + 2 4 E١١J ٥F
R1 + R 3 R 2 + R 4
 E٢J ٥F
 KE٥J ٥F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 R٢ = ١٫٦ kΩ
R١ = ١kΩ

RG = ٢٠٠ Ω
E=٦V A 
G B

R٣ = ٣٫٥ kΩ
 R٤ = ٧٫٥ kΩ

 KE٢J ٥F‫א‬E٥J ٥F
 ‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 WE١٠J ٥F‫א‬Vth
R1 R2
Vth = E ( − )
R1 + R 3 R 2 + R 4

⎛ 1kΩ 1.6 kΩ ⎞
Vth = 6 × ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ = 0.278V
⎝ 1 kΩ + 3.5 kΩ 1.6 kΩ + 7.5 kΩ ⎠
 WE١١J ٥F‫א‬rth
R1 R 3 R2 R4
rth = +
R1 + R 3 R 2 + R 4

1 kΩ × 3.5 kΩ 1.6 kΩ × 7.5 kΩ

rth = + = 2.096 kΩ
1 kΩ + 3.5 kΩ 1.6 kΩ + 7.5 kΩ

 WE٨J ٥F‫א‬IG‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Vth 0.278 V
IG = = = 121.4 µA
rth + R G 2.096 × 10 3 Ω + 200 Ω


-٨١-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ١J ٢J ٥
Slightly unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،E٦J ٥F ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٪٥
 W‫א‬‫א‬

R R

E A  Vth B

R R+∆R

 K‫א‬‫א‬E٦J ٥F

 WE١٠J ٥F‫א‬VthW 
⎛ R1 R2 ⎞
Vth = E × ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
⎝ R1 + R 3 R 2 + R 4 ⎠
⎛ R R ⎞ ⎛1 R ⎞
Vth = E × ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ = E × ⎜⎜ − ⎟ E١٢J ٥F
⎝2R 2 R + ∆R ⎠ ⎝2 2 R + ∆R ⎟⎠

⎛ 2 R + ∆R 2×R ⎞
Vth = E × ⎜⎜ − ⎟ E١٣J ٥F
⎝ 2 × (2 R + ∆R ) 2 × (2 R + ∆R ) ⎟⎠

⎛ ∆R ⎞
Vth = E × ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ E١٤J ٥F
⎝ 2 × (2 R + ∆R ) ⎠
،٢R‫א‬،∆R‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
⎛ ∆R ⎞
Vth = E × ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ E١٥J ٥F
⎝4R ⎠

-٨٢-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 WE١١J ٥F‫א‬rthW 

R1 R 3 R2 R4 R ⋅ R R ⋅ (R + ∆R )
rth = + = + E١٦J ٥F
R 1 + R 3 R 2 + R 4 R + R R + R + ∆R
R R ⋅ (R + ∆R )
rth = + E١٧J ٥F
2 2 R + ∆R

 W،‫א‬‫א‬R∆R
R R ⋅ (R ) R R
rth = + = + =R E١٨J ٥F
2 2R 2 2

 E٣J ٥F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٧J ٥F‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬

٥٠٠ Ω ٥٠٠ Ω

١٠ V A

G B
 ١٢٥ Ω
٥٠٠ Ω  ٥٢٥ Ω

 E٣J ٥F‫א‬E٧J ٥F
 ‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬W 
⎛ R1 R2 ⎞
Vth = E × ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
⎝ R1 + R 3 R 2 + R 4 ⎠
⎛ 500 Ω 500 ⎞
Vth = 10 V × ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ = 0.122 V
⎝ 1000 Ω 1025 ⎠
R1 R 3 R2 R4
rth = +
R1 + R 3 R 2 + R 4

-٨٣-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


500 Ω ⋅ 500 Ω 500 Ω ⋅ 525 Ω

rth = + = 506.1 Ω
500 Ω + 500 Ω 500 Ω + 525 Ω

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Vth
IG = 
rth + R G
0.122 V
IG = = 193.3 µA 
506.1 Ω + 125 Ω
 W‫א‬‫א‬W
⎛ ∆R ⎞
Vth = E × ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 4 R ⎠
⎛ 25 Ω ⎞
Vth = 10 V × ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0.125 V
⎝ 4 × 500 Ω ⎠
rth = R = 500 Ω
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Vth 0.125 V
IG = = = 200 µA 
rth + R G 500 Ω + 125 Ω

 Kelvin Bridge٢J ٢J ٥
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٨J ٥F 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K 
 K‫א‬‫א‬

-٨٤-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   




R٢

R١

Ra

E A G B Rlc

Rb
R٣
 Rx

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٨J ٥F
E ‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ERa, RbF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Rlc‫א‬،
 K‫א‬ ١Ω١ µΩ‫א‬
Balance of Kelvin Bridge‫א‬‫א‬١J ٢J ٢J ٥
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
R1 R R
= 2 = a E١٩J ٥F
R3 R4 Rb

 W،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Rx R R
= 3 = b E٢٠J ٥F
R2 R1 R a
R2 × R3 R2 × Rb
Rx = = E٢١J ٥F
R1 Ra

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 E٤J ٥F
 R١=٥Ω،١٠٠٠RbRa‫א‬‫א‬،Rx‫א‬
 K R 1 = 0.5 R 2 
 ‫א‬
 W، R 1 = 0.5 R 2 R١=٥Ω
R1 5Ω
R2 = = = 10 Ω
0 .5 0.5
 W‫א‬‫א‬
Rx R
= b
R2 Ra
 W
R 2 × R b 10 Ω × 1
Rx = = = 0.01 Ω
Ra 1000
Digital readout Bridges‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ٢J ٥
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬KK ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬E٩J ٥FK ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬Amplifier‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   



 

Rb R٢ 
 Logic
E A Amplifier circuits Readout
B EF ‫)دواﺋﺮ‬ 
(‫ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻴﺔ‬

R٣ Rx


 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٩J ٥F

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٤J ٢J ٥
Microprocessor – controlled Bridges
K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
Applications on D.C Bridges‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ٥J ٢J ٥
 Murray Loop‫א‬‫א‬١J ٥J ٢J ٥
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K  ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬E١٠J ٥F

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 
R١ R٢ 
La 
E A G B
 ‫א‬



Lb ‫א‬

Lx 

‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬E١٠J ٥F

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KRx‫א‬ Lx‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Ra‫א‬ La‫א‬
 KRb-Rx‫א‬Lb-Lx‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ 
 ‫א‬R٢‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
 W،‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬

R 2 R a + (R b − R x )
 = E٢٢J ٥F
R1 Rx
 ∴R 2 R x = R1 R a + R1 R b − R1 R x E٢٣J ٥F
∴ R 2 R x + R1 R x = R1 R a + R1 R b E٢٤J ٥F
 ∴ R x (R 1 + R 2 ) = R 1 (R a + R b ) E٢٥J ٥F
-٨٨-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


Rx‫א‬‫א‬
R 1 (R a + R b )
∴ R x = E٢٦J ٥F
(R 1 + R 2 )
 WE٢٦J ٥F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
ρL
QR = E٢٧J ٥F
a
 W
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W ρ
 ‫א‬W L
 ‫א‬W a
ρx Lx R1 ⎛ ρa La ρb L b ⎞
∴ = ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟ E٢٨J ٥F
ax R1 + R 2 a
⎝ a ab ⎠
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
R1 2 R 1L
∴L x = (2 L ) = E٢٩J ٥F
R1 + R1 R1 + R1

 E٥J ٥F

 ‫א‬،E١١J ٥F
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬١٧٦٠ m‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١٠٠ Ω‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،٣٠٠ Ω

-٨٩-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   



١٠٠ Ω ٣٠٠Ω

B ١٧٦٠ m
E A G
 


١٧٦٠ m

Lx 




 KE٥J ٥F‫א‬‫א‬E١١J ٥F

 ‫א‬
2 R 1L 2 ×100 Ω × 1760 m
∴L x = = = 880 m
R1 + R1 100 Ω + 300 Ω

Alternating Current Bridges‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ٥

‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ، ‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K 
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬KEE١٢J ٥F F ‫א‬(detector)
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 .(Filters)‫א‬‫א‬(Amplifiers)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬(Oscillators)
 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
-٩٠-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 a

 Z١ Z٢
a.c
a.c source b  detector c
 Z٣ Z٤

 d
 K‫א‬‫א‬E١٢J ٥F

 Balance of A.C Wheatstone Bridge‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٣J ٥
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،balance
‫א‬K‫א‬  c b‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KE١٣J ٥F‫א‬

a


I١ Z١ I٢ Z٢

a.c source b c

I٣  Z ٣ I٤ Z٤


d 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١٣J ٥F


-٩١-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


‫א‬ ‫א‬cb‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ab‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 W‫א‬،ac‫א‬
 I1 Z1 = I 2 Z 2 E٣٠J ٥F
‫א‬،dc‫א‬‫א‬db‫א‬‫א‬
 W
I3 Z3 = I 4 Z 4 E٣١J ٥F
 W،‫א‬bc‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
I1 = I 3 E٣٢J ٥F
I2 = I4 E٣٣J ٥F
 WE٣١J ٥F‫א‬E٣٠J ٥F‫א‬
I 1 Z1 I 2 Z 2
= E٣٤J ٥F
I 3 Z3 I 4 Z 4
 W،E٣٣J ٥FE٣٢J ٥F
Z1 Z
= 2 E٣٥J ٥F
Z3 Z4
 WE٣٥J ٥F‫א‬
Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3 E٣٦J ٥F
 W‫א‬‫א‬E٣٦J ٥FE٣٥J ٥F‫א‬‫א‬
Z1∠θ1 Z ∠θ
= 2 2 E٣٧J ٥F
Z 3 ∠θ 3 Z 4 ∠θ 4
 
 (Z1∠θ1 ) (Z 4 ∠θ 4 ) = (Z 2 ∠θ 2 ) (Z 3 ∠θ 3 ) E٣٨J ٥F
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٣٨J ٥F‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3 E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F E٣٩J ٥F
 ∠θ1 + ∠θ 4 = ∠θ 2 + ∠θ 3 E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬) E٤٠J ٥F

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 E٦J ٥F
J ٥F
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 WE١٤
Z1 = 300 Ω ∠30°
Z 2 = 150 Ω ∠0°
Z 3 = 250 Ω ∠ − 40°

 KZx‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

a

Z1 = 300 Ω ∠30° Z 2 = 150 Ω ∠0° 
a.c 
a.c source b detector c


Z 3 = 250 Ω ∠ − 40° Z4 = Zx

d

 KE٦J ٥F‫א‬‫א‬E١٤J ٥F

 ‫א‬
 WEE٣٩J ٥F‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3
Z 2 Z 3 150 Ω × 250 Ω
Zx = Z4 = = = 125 Ω
Z1 300 Ω

 WEE٤٠J ٥F‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
∠θ 4 = ∠θ 2 + ∠θ 3 − ∠θ1 = 0° + (−40°) − 30° = − 70°

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Z x = 125 Ω ∠ − 70°

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 W
Z x = 125 Ω ∠ − 70° = 125 cos (−70°) Ω + j125 sin (−70°)
Z x = 42.75 Ω − j117.5

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٤٢{٧٥ Ω‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W، X C = 117.5 Ω
1
X C = 117.5 Ω =
ωC
1
C=
ω × 117.5 Ω

 W‫א‬٦٠ Hz،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
1
C = = 22.58 µ
F
2 × π × 60 × 117.5 Ω

 E٧J ٥F
 KZx‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،E١٥J ٥F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 R٢=٢٠٠Ω
R١=٤٠٠Ω
 L٢=١٥٫٩٢ mH
E=٦ V A  d B
F=١ kHz
R٣=٣٠٠Ω  Zx

C٣=٠٫٤ µF

 KE٧J ٥F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١٥J ٥F


-٩٤-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 ‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
WZ١‫א‬ E١F
Z1 = 400 Ω + j0 = 400 Ω∠0°

WZ٢‫א‬ E٢F
Z 2 = R 2 + j ω L 2 = 200 Ω + j ω × 15.92 × 10 −3

 Wω
ω = 2 π f = 2 × π × 1000 = 6283.19 rad / sec
 WZ٢‫א‬
Z 2 = 200 Ω + j × 6283.19 × 15.92 × 10 −3 = 200 Ω + j 100 Ω
Z 2 = 200 Ω + j 100 Ω = 223.6 Ω ∠26.6°

WZ٣‫א‬ E٣F
1 1
Z3 = R 3 − j = 300 Ω − j Ω
ωC 3 6283.19 × 0.4 × 10 −6
Z 3 = 300 Ω − j 400 Ω = 500 Ω∠ − 53.13°

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،Z٤‫א‬
 W‫א‬W 
Z 2 Z 3 223.6 Ω × 500 Ω
Zx = Z4 = = = 279.5 Ω
Z1 400 Ω

 W‫א‬‫א‬W 
∠θ 4 = ∠θ 2 + ∠θ 3 − ∠θ1 = 26.6° + (−53.13°) − 0° = − 26.53°

 W‫א‬‫א‬Zx‫א‬‫א‬
Z x = 279.5 ∠ − 26.53° = 250 Ω − j124.8 Ω

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢٥٠ Ω‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬،١٢٤{٨ Ω
-٩٥-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


1
X C = 124.8 Ω =
ωC
1
C= = 1.28 µF
6283.19 × 124.8

Similar Angle Bridge‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٣J ٥

‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،E١٦J ٥F
WZ١‫ א‬E١F
Z1 = R 1 E٤١J ٥F
WZ٢‫ א‬E٢F
Z2 = R 2 E٤٢J ٥F
 WZ٣‫ א‬E٣F
Z 3 = R 3 − j X C3 E٤٣J ٥F
WZ٤‫ א‬E٤F
Z 4 = R x − j X Cx E٤٤J ٥F


R١ R٢ 

d

R٣

C٣ Rx 
Cx 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١٦J ٥F
-٩٦-
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   



 WE٣٦J ٥F‫א‬
R 1 (R x − j X Cx ) = R 2 (R 3 − j X C3 ) E٤٥J ٥F
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
R 1 R x − j R 1 X Cx = R 2 R 3 − j R 2 X C3 E٤٦J ٥F
 W‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
R1 R x = R 2 R 3 E٤٧J ٥F
 W
R2 R3
Rx = E٤٨J ٥F
R1
 W‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
− j R 1 X Cx = − j R 2 X C3 E٤٩J ٥F
 W
R 1 X Cx = R 2 X C3 E٥٠J ٥F
 W
R 2 X C3
X Cx = E٥١J ٥F
R1
 W
1 R2
= E٥٢J ٥F
ωC x R 1 ωC 3
 W
R 1C 3
Cx = E٥٣J ٥F
R2

-٩٧-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 E٨J ٥F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،٢ kHz‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 C 3 = 100 µF & R 3 = 100 kΩ ، R 2 = 50 kΩ ، R 1 = 10 kΩ 
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،E٤٨J ٥F‫א‬
R 2 R 3 50 kΩ × 100 kΩ
Rx = = = 500 kΩ
R1 10 kΩ

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،E٥٣J ٥F‫א‬
R 1C 3 10 kΩ × 100 µF
Cx = = = 20 µF
R2 50 kΩ

 Maxwell Bridge٣J ٣J ٥
 K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،E١٧J ٥F

R١
 R٢
C١ 
a.c source d 
R٣ Lx

Rx 

 K‫א‬E١٧J ٥F

-٩٨-
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


WZ١‫א‬ E١F
⎛ j ⎞ jR 1
R 1 ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ −
⎝ ωC 1 ⎠ ωC 1
Z1 = = E٥٤J ٥F
j R 1 ωC 1 − j
R1 −
ωC 1 ωC 1

− jR 1 1
Z1 = = E٥٥J ٥F
R 1ωC1 − j 1
+ jω C 1
R1

 WZ٢‫א‬ E٢F
Z2 = R 2 E٥٦J ٥F
 WZ٣‫א‬ E٣F
Z3 = R 3 E٥٧J ٥F
WZ٤‫א‬ E٤F
Z 4 = R x + j X Lx E٥٨J ٥F
 WE٣٦J ٥F‫א‬
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 1 ⎟ (R + j X ) = R R
⎜ 1 ⎟ x Lx 2 3 E٥٩J ٥F
⎜ + jω C 1 ⎟
⎝ R1 ⎠

⎛R R ⎞
(R x + j X Lx ) = ⎜⎜ 2 3 + j ω R 2 R 3 C1 ⎟⎟ E٦٠J ٥F
⎝ R1 ⎠

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
R2 R3
Rx = E٦١J ٥F
R1

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
j X Lx = j ω R 2 R 3 C1 E٦٢J ٥F

-٩٩-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 W
X Lx = ω R 2 R 3 C1 E٦٣J ٥F
 W
L x = R 2 R 3 C1 E٦٤J ٥F
 E٩J ٥F
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 R 3 = 100 kΩ & R 2 = 5.1 kΩ ، C1 = 0.01 µF ، R 1 = 470 kΩ
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬E٦٤J ٥F‫א‬E٦١J ٥F‫א‬
 WRx‫א‬W 
R 2 R 3 5.1 kΩ × 100 kΩ
Rx = = = 1.085 kΩ
R1 470 kΩ

 WLx‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W 
L x = R 2 R 3 C1 = 5.1 kΩ × 100 kΩ × 0.01 µF = 5.1 H





-١٠٠-
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 ‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬،E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬Rx‫ א‬E١F
 R٣ = ٢ kΩ،R٢ = ٥ kΩ،R١ = ٤٠٠ Ω


R١ = ٤٠٠ Ω R٢ = ٥ kΩ

E

A G B


R٣ = ٢ kΩ
 Rx


 W‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬Rx‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F E٢F
 R٣ = ١٨{٥ kΩ،R٢ = ٦٠ kΩ،R١ = ١٠ kΩ


R١ = ١٠ kΩ R٢ = ٦٠ kΩ 
E 
A G B


R٣ = ١٦٫٥ kΩ
Rx 


 W‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬Rx‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F E٣F
 R٣ = ١٠ Ω،R٢ = ٤٠ kΩ،R١ = ٥ kΩ

-١٠١-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   





R١ = ٥ kΩ R٢ = ٤٠ kΩ

E A G B 

R٣ = ١٠ Ω 
Rx


‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬R٣‫א‬‫ א‬E٤F
K١٠٠ kΩ١ Ω‫א‬‫א‬

R١ = ١ kΩ R٢ = ١٠ kΩ 

E A G B 

R٣ 
Rx


‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E٥F
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


R١ = ١ kΩ R٢ = ١ kΩ

E=٣ V A G B 

R٣=١ kΩ R٤=١٠٥٠ Ω 

-١٠٢-
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


W‫א‬،Rx‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E٦F
 Ig=١٣{٦ µA, Vth= ٢٤ mV


R١ = ١ kΩ R٢ = ١ kΩ

E=٣ V A G B 
Rg=١٠٠ Ω 
R٣=٥ kΩ 
Rx


K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،١٠ mm/µA‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E٧F


R١ = ٥٠٠ Ω
 R٢ = ٥٠٠ Ω

E=٣ V A G B 
Rg = ٥٠٠ Ω 
R٣ = ١ kΩ R٤ = ١٠١٠ Ω 


W‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Rx‫א‬ E٨F
 Ra=١٢٠٠ Ω, Ra=١٦٠٠Rb, R١=٨٠٠Rb & R١=١{٢٥R٢


R٢

R١ 
Ra

E A G B Rlc
Rb 
R٣
Rx

-١٠٣-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E٩F
‫א‬،٠{٠٠٥ Ω/٣٠mb‫א‬٠{١ Ω/٣٠ma‫א‬K‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Lb ‫א‬La‫א‬‫א‬،Lx‫א‬


R١=١٠٠ Ω R٢=٥٠٠
La 
E= ٦ V A G B 

Lb

L

 


‫א‬Zx‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E١٠F
K(R, L or C) 


R٢ = ٢٠٠Ω
R١ = ٢٠٠Ω 
C٢ = ٥ µF

E=٦ A B
d 
F=١ kHz
R٣ = ٥٠٠Ω Zx 
C٣ = ٠٫٢ µF 


W‫א‬،Zx‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E١١F
 Z1 = 400 Ω∠0° , Z 2 = 300 Ω∠ − 40° , Z 3 = 100 Ω∠ − 20°


-١٠٤-
‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   



a 

Z١ Z٢ 
a.c
E= ٦ V b detector c 
f = ١ k HZ

Z٣ Zx

d 


KRx, Cx‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E١٢F



R١= ١٫٦٥ kΩ R٢= ١٥٫٣ kΩ 
E=٦V 
f = ١ kHZ d

R٣= ٢٫٥ kΩ

C٣= ١٠ µF Rx 
Cx

W‫א‬،Rx, Cx‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E١٣F
Z1 = 2000 Ω∠0° , Z 2 = 15000 Ω∠0° , Z 3 = 1000 Ω∠ − 50°


Z١ Z٢
E=٦V

f = ١ kHZ d 
Z٣


Rx

Cx
-١٠٥-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


KLx, Rx‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E١٤F


R١=٦٠٠ Ω 
R٢=١٠٠ Ω
C١=١ µF 
E=٦V d 
f = ١ kHZ
R٣=١ kΩ

Lx

Rx


‫א‬،Lx, Rx‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E١٥F

W
Z1 = 153.8 Ω∠ − 75° , Z 2 = 100 Ω∠0° , Z 3 = 1000 Ω∠0°

Z١ Z٢

E=٦V d
f = ١ kHZ
Z٣
 Lx
Rx

-١٠٦-
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
ã¹]<gè…‚jÖ]æ<ËÖ]<Üé×Ãj×Ö<íÚ^ÃÖ]<퉉ö¹]
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬

٦
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ •

-١٠٧-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   

Introduction١J ٦
‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 KK…‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬، ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
General concepts٢J ٦
 ‫א‬‫א‬١J ٢J ٦
 ،
 ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬ E١F
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E٢F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
 KE١J ٦F،‫א‬‫א‬


  ‫א‬ 






 KE١J ٦F

-١٠٨-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   

 Classification of sensors and transducers‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٢J ٦

، ‫א‬‫א‬، ‫א‬‫א‬
 K،‫א‬،‫א‬
Selection of sensors and transducers‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ٢J ٦
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬ E١F
‫א‬ ‫א‬
 ‫א‬W‫א‬ E٢F
 K   
‫א‬‫א‬W ‫א‬‫א‬ E٣F
 K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬
 ‫א‬W ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E٤F
 K‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬W E٥F
 K‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E٦F
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E٧F
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬
 W ‫א‬‫א‬ E٨F
‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   

Basic types of sensors and transducers‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ٦

Resistive position transducer‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٣J ٦
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
، ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬
 KE٢J ٦F

 
‫א‬

 ‫ﻣﻨﺰﻟﻖ‬



 A W
B

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٢J ٦F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
W‫א‬KE٣J ٦F ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
 .BAW‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


A

R١
VT
 W
R٢
 VO

B

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٣J ٦F

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
VT
I= E١J ٦F
R1 + R 2

 VO = I R 2 E٢J ٦F

VO IR 2 R2
= = E٣J ٦F
VT I(R 1 + R 2 ) R 1 + R 2

‫א‬VO‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KAB‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   

 E١J ٦F
‫א‬،٣ inches‫א‬E٤J ٦F
‫א‬KB٠{٩" ‫א‬VT = ٥ V‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،٥ kΩ
 KVO‫א‬
٣" 

A
٠٫٩ " 
‫ﻣﻨﺰﻟﻖ‬
R١ 
VT = ٥ V
W
٥ kΩ
 R٢
VO

B A W B
٥V 

 KE١J ٦F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٤J ٦F

 WE٣J ٦F‫א‬W‫א‬
VO R2
=
VT R1 + R 2
0 .9
R2 = × 5000 = 1500 Ω
3
VO 1500
=
VT 5000
1500 1500
VO = VT × = 5× = 1.5 volts
5000 5000

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   

Strain guage transducer‫א‬٢J ٣J ٦

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
E٥J ٦F ‫א‬  
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 K‫א‬

‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬
 



‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬E٥J ٦F

F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،E‫א‬
 W‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬،
R = ρL a E٤J ٦F
 W
 ‫א‬‫א‬WR
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Wρ
‫א‬WL
 ‫א‬Wa
 W‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   

 KEF‫א‬‫א‬ E١F
K‫א‬‫א‬ E٢F
 W، G ‫א‬ L ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ∆L ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
∆L
 G = E٥J ٦F
L
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
 W K ‫א‬
∆R R
K= E٦J ٦F
∆L L

 K١‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬(Stress)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 ‫א‬،(Modulus of Elasticity (E))‫א‬(Strain)
 W‫א‬‫א‬
S
 E = E٧J ٦F
G
 W
 ‫א‬WE
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WS
 ‫א‬WG
 W‫א‬S‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
F
S= E٨J ٦F
A
 W
 kg‫א‬WF
 m٢‫א‬WA

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   

، G‫א‬،kg/m٢‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 Kkg/m٢WS‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،K‫א‬،K‫א‬
 K‫א‬EF
 E٢J ٦F
‫א‬ K = 2 
 K ∆R ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬، R 0 = 130 Ω ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬، G = 1 × 10 −6
 ‫א‬
 W‫א‬E٦J ٦F‫א‬
∆R R ∆R R 0 ∆R 130 Ω
K=2= = = 
∆L L G 1 × 10 −6
∆R = 2 × 130 × 1 × 10 −6 = 260 µΩ 

 E٣J ٦F
، 33000 kg ‫א‬، 0.4 m  0.02 m ‫א‬‫א‬
 K ∆L ‫א‬‫א‬، E = 2 × 1010 kg / m 2 ‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 W A ‫א‬
πd 2 π
A= = × (0.02 )2 = 3.14 × 10 −4 m 2
4 4
 WE‫א‬E٧J ٦F‫א‬
S FA F×L
E= = =
G ∆L L A × ∆L
F× L 33000 kg × 0.4 m
∴ ∆L = = −
= 2.1 × 10 −3 m = 2.1 mm
A × E 3.14 × 10 × 2 × 10
4 10

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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬
 ،(Transducer)‫א‬،‫א‬ 
 K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
Vo
 ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬،E
 KE٦J ٦F،‫א‬

R١ R٢

E  Vo

R٣ R٤ = ‫א‬


 K‫א‬E٦J ٦F

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬، ‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬KE٧J ٦F‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬E ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،E ‫א‬HF
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
-١١٦-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   




R١ R٢
 
E 
Vo

 
R٣ R٤




‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬


 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٧J ٦F

Inductive transducer‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ٣J ٦
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
(Tachometer)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٣J ٣J ٦
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٨J ٦F
‫א‬‫א‬
   
(Voltmeter)،(١٠ mV/r.p.m)‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
 K

-١١٧-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   



  
 
North Pole  South Pole



‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٨J ٦F

‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KE٩J ٦F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 N


S


 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٩J ٦F

‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
120 f
 n= E٩J ٦F
P
-١١٨-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   

 W
 (r.p.m.)‫א‬‫א‬Wn
 cycle/sec = Hertz‫א‬Wf
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WP
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٣J ٣J ٦
Electro-magnetic transducer
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬،  ‫א‬‫א‬E١٠J ٦F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K v ‫א‬



N S






 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١٠J ٦F


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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
E=BLv E١٠J ٦F
 W
 (volts)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE
 (Tesla = Weber/m٢)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WB
 (m/sec)L‫א‬Wv
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K٠{٥ siemens/m‫א‬‫א‬E١ foot/secF‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
 E٤J ٦F
‫א‬‫א‬،١{٢٥ cm =،‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬،٢٥ mV=‫א‬،٠{٢ Tesla =‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 WE١٠J ٦F
E=BLv
 Wv‫א‬
E 25 × 10 −3
v= = =10 m / sec
B L 0.2 × 1.25 ×10 −2

Capacitive transducer‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٤J ٣J ٦
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬C‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 W‫א‬E١١J ٦F
kAε 0
C= (Farads) E١١J ٦F
d


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 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


A d



 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١١J ٦F
 W
 (Farad)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WC
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Wk
 (m٢)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WA
 (m)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Wd
،L ‫א‬‫א‬Permittivity‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬Wε٠
  ( ε 0 = 8.854 × 10 −12 Farad / m)
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬

Rotational movement transducer‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٤J ٣J ٦

 ‫א‬‫א‬ 
 
 ‫א‬KE١٢J ٦F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬
 

‫א‬ 
 ‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١٢J ٦F


-١٢١-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   

Linear movement transducer ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٤J ٣J ٦

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 
 
KE١٣J ٦F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬




‫א‬
 ‫א‬


‫א‬ ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١٣J ٦F

Pressure transducer‫א‬٣J ٤J ٣J ٦
‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬KE١٤J ٦F‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬K
 ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬،d‫א‬‫א‬d٠‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


‫א‬

d١


d ٠
 K‫א‬E١٤J ٦F

-١٢٢-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   

 E٥J ٦F
 W‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
  5 × 10 −3 m 2 = ‫א‬‫א‬‫• א‬
1 × 10 −3 m = ‫א‬‫• א‬

 ‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١١J ٦F
kAε 0
C= (Farads)
d
(1) (5 × 10 −3 m 2 ) (8.854 × 10 −12 F / m)
C= −3
= 44.25 × 10 −12 F
1 × 10 m
C = 44.25 pF

 Piezoelectric TransducerE‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬٥J ٣J ٦
ERochelle saltquartz‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،،
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 KE١٥J ٦F‫א‬

‫א‬



 ‫א‬


‫א‬ ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬E١٥J ٦F

-١٢٣-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬٦J ٣J ٦
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KResistance thermometer‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EF
KThermo Couple‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E
F
KThermistor‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E
F
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٦J ٣J ٦
‫א‬ ‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 R = R 0 [1 + α ∆t ] E١٢J ٦F
 W
 ‫א‬t‫א‬‫א‬ W R
 E 20 ° C F‫א‬‫א‬ W R٠
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W ∆t
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W α
‫א‬‫א‬ α ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ ‫א‬ ∆R ‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KE١٦J ٦F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

-١٢٤-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   



R١ R٢

E  Vo

R٣ R٤ = ‫א‬‫א‬


 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١٦J ٦F

Thermo-couple‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٦J ٣J ٦
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬،
K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬Copper‫א‬‫א‬
،‫א‬‫א‬(mV)‫א‬‫א‬،Constantan
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ Operational Amplifier‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 KE١٧J ٦F،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

  H
 
‫א‬ 
 EF



 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١٧J ٦F


-١٢٥-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
E = c (T1 − T2 ) + k (T12 − T22 ) mV E١٣J ٦F
 W
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W E
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Wkc
 E‫א‬F‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W T١
 E‫א‬F‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W T٢
 E٦J ٦F
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ k = 4.5 × 10 −5 ‫א‬ c = 3.75 × 10 −2 ‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬
K T2 = 0°C W
 ‫א‬‫א‬ T1 = 100 °C W
 ‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١٣J ٦F‫א‬
E = c (T1 − T2 ) + k (T12 − T22 ) mV
E = 3.75 ×10 −2 (100 − 0) + 4.5 × 10 −5 (100 2 − 0 2 ) = 4.2 mV

Thermistor‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ٦J ٣J ٦
‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬E١٨J ٦FK
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

-١٢٦-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   

1000000

100000

10000
(‫اﻟﻤﻘﺎوﻣﺔ )أوم‬
1000

100

10

1
-100 100 300 500
(‫درﺟﺔ اﻟﺤﺮارة )درﺟﺔ ﻣﺌﻮﻳﺔ‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١٨J ٦F

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١٩J ٦FK 75 MΩ  0.5 Ω



 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E١٩J ٦F

Photo – Electric Transducers ٧J ٣J ٦
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٧J ٣J ٦
،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K ‫א‬‫א‬(Cathode)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

-١٢٧-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   


 (Electrodes) (Anode)(Photo Cathode)
،‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬(Dynodes)
 KE٢٠J ٦F
+١٠٠  +٣٠٠ +٥٠٠ +٧٠٠ V
‫اﻟﻀﻮء اﻟﺴﺎﻗﻂ‬ 
‫أﻧﻮد‬




‫آﺎﺛﻮد‬ 

٠ +٢٠٠ +٤٠٠ V +٦٠٠

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٢٠J ٦F
 ‫א‬‫א‬
 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E
 F
‫א‬E
 ‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬
 KE١mA١٠٠µAF‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٧J ٣J ٦
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬،EE٢١J ٦F‫א‬F‫א‬
E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬،E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬


 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٢١J ٦F

-١٢٨-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   

‫א‬،E٢٢J ٦F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
، ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬




V





 ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٢٢J ٦F


‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٢٣J ٦F
 K‫א‬

-١٢٩-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   

1000000

100000

(‫ﻣﻘﺎوﻣﺔ اﻟﺨﻠﻴﺔ )أوم‬ 10000

1000

100

10
1 10 100 1000
(ft-c) ‫اﻹﺿﺎءة‬


 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E٢٣J ٦F

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ٧J ٣J ٦
‫א‬EF‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
 KE‫א‬‫א‬F









-١٣٠-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   

 ‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬ EI F
 K‫א‬‫ א‬E١F
‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E٢F
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬E٣F
K‫א‬ E٤F
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬E٥F
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬E٦F
K‫א‬ E٧F
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬E٨F
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E٩F
K‫א‬‫ א‬E١٠F
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E١١F
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬E١٢F
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E١٣F
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E١٤F
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬E١٥F










-١٣١-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   

 ‫ א‬EIIF
‫א‬EF١ inch‫א‬‫א‬ E١F
 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬X‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،١٠ V‫א‬‫א‬
 Vo =٣ V EF
 Vo=٥ V EF
Vo=٨ V EF
١"

A
X ‫ﻣﻨﺰﻟﻖ‬ 
R١
VT W 
R٢

B A W 
١٠ V

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،٥ inches‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ E٢F
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،١٠ V
 Vo = ٢ V EF
 Vo = ٤ V EF
 Vo = ٦ V EF
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،k = ٤‫א‬ E٣F
‫א‬،G = ٢×١٠ ٥‫א‬،R٠ = ١٠٠ Ω‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬K
 ،k = ٤‫א‬ E٤F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،١٠{٢ inches١٠ inches‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،R٠ =١٢٠ Ω‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬
K‫א‬
،R٠ =١٢٠ Ω‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E٥F
K١٪‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،k = ١٢‫א‬

-١٣٢-
 ‫א‬‫א‬  ٢٤٧ ‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬   

،R٠ = ٢٥٠ Ω‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E٦F

‫א‬،G=١{٥×١٠ ٤‫א‬∆R = ٠{١٥ Ω
Kk‫א‬
‫א‬‫א‬،A=٤×١٠ ٣
m٢‫א‬،‫א‬ E٧F
W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،d=٥×١٠ ٤ m
 (k = ١٠٠٠)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EF
 (k = ٤)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E
F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،
 ‫א‬  E٨F
W‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EF
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E
F
K‫א‬‫א‬k‫א‬‫א‬ E
F
‫א‬،٠{٠٢ m 
 ‫א‬ E٩F
‫א‬K٠{٥ m/sec ‫א‬،٠{١ Tesla ‫א‬‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
‫א‬،٠{٠٢ m ‫א‬ E١٠F
‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،٠{٥ Tesla ‫א‬‫א‬
K‫א‬‫א‬K٠{٠٣ V
،T١=٨٠°C‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬E١١F
K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ k = 5 × 10 −5 ‫א‬٠{٠٥ mV/°C‫א‬
‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬E١٢F
‫א‬‫א‬ k = 5 × 10 −5 ‫א‬ c = 4 × 10 −2 ‫א‬
 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬


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‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
  

(References) ‫א‬‫א‬

[١] "Electronic Instruments And Measurements."
Larry D. Jones, A. Foster Chin.
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
A Division of Simon & Schuster
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, ١٩٩١.

[٢] "Electrical Measurements and Calibration: Fundamentals and

Applications."
Lawrence M. Thompson
Instrumentation System & Paperback – June ١٩٩٤.

[٣] "The Measurements, Instrumentation and Sensors Handbook."

J. G. Webster
Spring -Verlag Berlin and Heidelberg GmbH & Co. KG
Hardcover- December ١٩٩٨.

[٤] "Sensors for Measurement and Control."

Peter Elgar
Longman
Paperback – ١٩ January ١٩٩٨.

- ١٣٤ -
‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
  

 ‫א‬
 
‫א‬  ‫א‬
  
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 ١  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٢  ١J ١
 ٢  ٢J ١
 ٣  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ١
 ٣  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٣J ١
 ٤  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ١J ٣J ١
 ٥  ‫א‬‫א‬٤J ١
 ١٠  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٥J ١
 ١٠  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٥J ١
 ١٠  ‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٥J ١
 ١١  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٢J ٥J ١
 ١١  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٢J ٥J ١
 ١٣  ‫א‬‫א‬٦J ١
 ١٤  ‫א‬‫א‬٧J ١
 ١٥  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٨J ١
 ١٦  ‫א‬‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 ١٩  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٢٠  ١J ٢
 ٢٠  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٢
 ٢٠  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٢J ٢
‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
  

 ٢١  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٢J ٢
 ٢١  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ٢J ٢
 ٢١  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٣J ٢J ٢
 ٢٣  ‫א‬‫א‬١J ١J ٣J ٢J ٢
 ٢٨ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ١J ٣J ٢J ٢
 
 ٢٩  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٣J ٢J ٢
 ٣٢ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٢J ٣J ٢J ٢
 
 ٣٤ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ٣J ٢J ٢
 ٣٦  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٤J ٢J ٢
 ٣٦  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٤J ٢J ٢
 ٤٣ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٤J ٢J ٢
 ٤٧  ‫א‬‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 ٥٢  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٥٣  ١J ٣
 ٥٤  ‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٣
 ٥٤  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٢J ٣
  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٢J ٣
 ٦١  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ٢
 ٦٤  ‫א‬‫א‬٦٤
  ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٦٥  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٦٦   ٤J ٤
 ٦٦  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬٥J ٤
 ٦٩  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬٦J ٤
‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
  

 ٦٩  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ١J ٣J ٤
 ٧٠  ‫א‬‫א‬ ٢J ٣J ٤
 ٧١  ‫א‬ ٣J ٣J ٤
 ٧١  ‫א‬ ٤J ٣J ٤
 ٧٥  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 ٧٦  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ٧٧  ١J ٥
 ٧٧  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٥
 ٧٧  ١J ٢J ٥
 ٧٨  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ١J ٢J ٥
 ٧٩  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ١J ٢J ٥
 ٨٢  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ١J ٢J ٥
 ٨٤  ٢J ٢J ٥
 ٨٥  ‫א‬‫א‬١J ٢J ٢J ٥
 ٨٦  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ٢J ٥
 ٨٧  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ٢J ٥
 ٨٧  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٤J ٢J ٥
 ٨٧  ‫א‬‫א‬١J ٤J ٢J ٥
 ٩٠  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ٥
 ٩١  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٣J ٥
 ٩٦  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٣J ٥
 ٩٨  ٣J ٣J ٥
 ١٠١  ‫א‬‫א‬
  ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬
 ١٠٧  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬
 ١٠٨  ١J ٦
‫א‬  ‫ א‬٢٤٧ ‫א‬
  

 ١٠٨  ٢J ٦
 ١٠٨  ‫א‬‫א‬١J ٢J ٦
 ١٠٩  ‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٢J ٦
 ١٠٩  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ٢J ٦
 ١١٠  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ٦
 ١١٠  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٣J ٦
 ١١٣  ‫א‬٢J ٣J ٦
 ١١٧  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ٣J ٦
 ١١٧  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٣J ٣J ٦
 ١١٩  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٣J ٣J ٦
 ١٢٠  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٤J ٣J ٦
 ١٢١  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٤J ٣J ٦
 ١٢٢  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٤J ٣J ٦
 ١٢٣  ‫א‬٣J ٤J ٣J ٦
 ١٢٣  E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬٥J ٣J ٦
 ١٢٤  ‫א‬‫א‬٦J ٣J ٦
 ١٢٤  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٦J ٣J ٦
 ١٢٥  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٦J ٣J ٦
 ١٢٦  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ٦J ٣J ٦
 ١٢٧  ٧J ٣J ٦
 ١٢٧  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬١J ٧J ٣J ٦
 ١٢٨  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٢J ٧J ٣J ٦
 ١٣٠  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬٣J ٧J ٣J ٦
 ١٣١  ‫א‬‫א‬
 ١٣٤  ‫א‬‫א‬
 

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬

GOTEVOT appreciates the financial support provided by BAE SYSTEMS