Electromagnetic ~ Waves and Transmission Linesi Electromagnetic Waves & Transmission Lines ISBN 9788184314946 All rights reserved with Technical Publicotions. No part of this book should be repreduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storoge and retrieval system without prior permission in. writing, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by : Technical Publications Pune” #1, Amit Residency, 412, Shaniwear Peth, Pune « 411 030, Indie. Printer: ‘Ale DTPioters Seno. 10/3,Sinhagad Roud, Pine » 411 041Table of Contents ini PT 1.3 Representation of a Vector... 43.1UnitVector gg 1.4 Vector Algebra .... 414A Scaling of Vector... 1.5 The Coordinate Systems... 1.6 Cartesian Coordinate System 1.8.1 Representing a Point in Rectangular Coordinate System .....sssssssseessessserses 8 1.6.4 Differential Elements in Cartesian Coordinate System 1.7 Cylindrical Coordinate System...... 4.7.2 Differential Elements in Cylindrical Coordinate System. ...........ssseeecesssesees 1.7.3 Relationship Between Cartesian and Cylindrical Systems. 1.8 Spherical Coordinate System... TBA BAS0 VOCS oie tteeeeeteneiinebinttitbibbbiietiiiiitiibiie site eD 1.8.2 Differential Elements in Spherical Coordinate System . 183 between Cartesian and 82.4 Types of Charge Distributions. 244 PointCharge 2.2... 24.2 Line Charge 24.2.1 Method of Finding Qfrom py, - 2.4.3 Surface Charge ............ 2.43.4 Method of Finding Qfromp, . - 2.4.4 Volume Charge 2.4.4.1 Method of Finding Qfromp, . 2.5 Electric Field Intensity Due to Various Charge Distributions. 2.5.1 E Due to Line Charge. 2.5.2 E Due to Surface Chat 2.5.3. E Due to Volume Charge 2.6 Electric Field Due to Infinite Line Charge........essroresnseen 2.7 Electric Field Due to Charged Circular Ring 2.8 Electric Field Due to Infinite Sheet of Charge Examples with Solutions .. 4.2.4 Properties of Flux Lines ...........sesessees esse eee ee esses eee eee 3.3 Electric Flux Density (D)... 3.3.1 Vector Form of Electric Flux Densit 3.4 D Due toa Point Charge Q... 3.5 Relationship Between D and E 3.6 Electric Flux Density for Various Charge Distributions. 3.6.1 Line Charge. 3.6.2 Surface Charge 3.6.3 Volume Charge 3.7 Gauss's Law.... 3.7.1 Mathematical Representation of Gauss's Law. ....-6sesss0ere 3.7.2 Special Gaussian Surfaces 135,3.8 Applications of Gauss's Law....... 3.8.1 Point Charge 3.8.1.1 Use of Gauss's Law to Obtain D and E . 3.8.2 Infinite Line Chargs............. 3.8.3 Coaxial Cable 3.8.4 Infinite Sheet of Charge. 3.8.5 Spherical Shell of Charge . 385.1 Variation of E Against... 3.8.6 Uniformly Charged Sphere .. 386.1 Variation ofE Against. ow 3.9 Gauss's Law Applied to Differential Volume Element. 3.10 Divergence... 3.10.2 The Vector Operator V 3.10.3 Divergence in Different Coordinate Systems. . 3.10.4 Properties of Divergence of Vector Field... 3.11_Maxwell's First Equation. 3.12 Divergence Theorem.. Examples with Solutions Important Results 4.5 Potential Due to Point Charge... 4.5.1 Concept of Absolute Potential 4.5.2 Potential Due to Point Charge Not at 4.5.3 Potential Due to Several Point Charges . . ASA Polen Caletaion When Reerence is Other Than tft... 4.6 Potential Due to a Line Charge .. 4.7 Potential Due to Surface Charge ..4.8 Potential Due to Volume Charge... 4.9 Potential Difference Due to Infinite Line Charge 4.10 Equipotential Surfaces...... 4.122 The Vector Operator V (del) . 4.12.3 Properties of Gradient of a Scalar. 4.13 An Electric Dipole.. 4.13.1. Expression of E due to an Electric Dipole 4.132 Dipole Moment. 4.14 Energy Density in the Electrostatic Fields... 4.14.4. Energy Stored Interms of D and E Examples with Solutions ... Important Results Review QUeSTIONS veto LOF 5.2 Current and Current Density .... 5.2.1 Relation between | and J. 5.2.2 Relation between F and p, 5.3_Continuity Equation 5.3.1 Steady Current. . . 84 CONDUCTS istic’ 5.4.1 Point Form of Ohm's Law 5.4.3 Properties of Conductor. 5.5 Relaxation TMG cece tecetecescseeeessaeeenssssesesses DBO 5.6 Dielectric Materials. 5.6.1 Polarization .... 5.6.2 Mathematical Expression for Polarization - ‘5.6.3 Properties of Dielectric Materials. 5.7 Boundary Condition:5.8 Boundary Conditions between Conductor and Free Space 5.8.1 E atthe Boundary... seein 5.8.2 D,, at the Boundary . . saree 5.8.3 Boundary Conditions between Conductor and Dielectric 5.9 Boundary Conditions Between Two Perfect Dielectrics §.9.1 Refraction of D at the Boundary 5.10 Concept of Capacitance 5.11 Parallel Plate Capacitor. 5.12 Capacitance of a Co-axial Cable. 5.13 Spherical Capacitor... 5.13.1 Capacitance of Single Isolated Sphere 5.13.2 Isolated Sphere Coated With Dielectric 5.14 Composite Parallel Plate Capacitor 5.14.1 Dielectric Boundary Normal to the Plates. 5.15 Energy Stored in a Capacitor 5.15.1 Energy Density Examples with Solutions 6.1. Introduction 6.2 Poisson's and Laplace's Equations... 6.2.1 9? Operation in Different Co-ordinate Systems. 6.3 Uniqueness Theorem.. 6.4 Procedure for Solving Laplace's Equation .. 6.5 Calculating Capacitance using Laplace's Equatior Examples with Solutions Important Results 7.2 Magnetic Field and its Properties. 7.2.1 Magnetic Field due to Current Carrying Conductor...7.2.2 Magnetic Field IMeNSity. o.oo ec e cee eeeeeeeeeeeeeen sees sees 12 38H 7.2.3 Magnetic Flux Density... 7.4 HDue to Infinitely Long Straight Conductor... 7.5_H Due to Straight Conductor of Finite Length 4 Sign Convention forci, andar, .. 7.7 Hon the Axis of a Circular Loo, 7.8 Ampere's Circuital Law... 7.8.1 Proof of Ampere's Circuital Law. 7.8.2 Steps to Apply Ampere's Circui 7.9 Applications of Ampere's Circuital Law 7.9.1 H Due to Infinitely Long Straight Conductor . 7.9.2 H Due toa Co-axial Cable law. 7.10.1 Curl in Various Co-ordinate Systems. 7.10.2 Properties of Curl. . 7.10.3 Physical Sionicance ofa cu. 14 Stoke's Theorem... 7.11.1 Proof of Stoke's Theorem... 7.12_ Magnetic Flux and Flux Density. 7.12.1 Maxwell's Equations for Static Electromagnetic Fields . 7.12.2. Application of Flux Density and Flux to Co-axial Cable. 7.13 Magnetic Scalar and Vector Potentials 7.43.1. Scalar Magnetic Potential. . . 7.13.2 Laplace's Equation for Scalar Magnetic Potential 7.13.3 Vector Magnetic Potential ....... . _ 7.13.4 Poisson's Equation for Magnetic Field... .... 0... 1... .e esses eves e senses 405 7.13.5 A due to Differential Curent Element OS 7.14 Force on a Moving Charge... a7.16 Force Between Differential Current Elements.. 7.17 Magnetic Boundary Conditions ...... 7.17.1 Boundary Conditions for Normal Component . 7.17.2 Boundary Conditions for Tangential Componer 7.18 Inductance and Mutual Inductance 7.18.1 Inductance of a Solenoid.......... 7.18.2 Inductance of a Toroid .... 7.18.3. Inductance of a Co-axial Cable 7.18.4 Mutual Inductance . 7.19 Magnetic Energy Examples with Solutions Important Results. Review Questions 0 sanneneestnmerssniacrstnrnsessitaarssssssne ASS 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Faraday’s Law... 8.3 Modified Ampere's Circuital Law for Time Varying Fields. 8.4 Displacement Current and Displacement Current Density. sees 8.5 General Field Relations for Time Varying Electric and Magnetic Fields -... 8.6 Maxwell's Equations. 8.6.1 Maxwell's Equations for Free Space .. 8.6.2 Maxwell's Equations for Good Conductor 8.6.3 Maxwell's Equations for Harmonically Varying Fields . 8.7 Boundary Conditions for Time Varying Fields. 8.8 Phasor Representation of a Vector... Examples with Solutions Important Results. 9.2 Uniform Plane Wave in Free Space... 9.3 Wave Equations in Phasor Form .9.4 Uniform Plane Wave in Perfect Dielectric . 9.5 Uniform Plane Wave in Lossy Dielectric 9.5.1 Uniform Plane Wave in Practical Dielectric . .. 9.6 Uniform Plane Wave in Good Conductor 9.7 Reflection of Uniform Plane Waves .... 9.7.4 Normal Incidence at Plane Dielectric Boundary 97.2 Normal incidence at Plane Conducting Boundary. 9.7.21 Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) 9.8 Oblique Incidence ... 9.8.1 Direction Cosines. . 98.2 Oblique incidence at ala Pare Coy sno. 9.8.2.1 Horizontal Polarization . . 9.8.22 Vertical Polarization... . . 9.83 Oblique Incidence at a Plane Dielectric Boundary. 9.8.3.1 TotalReflection. 6... eee 98.3.2 ofan Poareaton (PementatarPolaiaton) 9.8.3.3 Vertical Polarization (Parallel Polarization). ©...) 5 tae os $87 9.9.4 Linear Polar 560 9.9.2 Elliptical Polarization... . . webb ees settee ess ast see sesessssesae Tessas be tesees 561 9.9.3 Circular Polarization. 9.10 Surface Impedance... 9.10.1 Surface Impedance of a Good Conductor . Examples with Solutions 10.2 Poynting Vector and Poynting Theorem 10.2.1 Average Power Density (Po) 10.3 Integral and Point Forms of Poynting Theorem ... 10.4 Instantaneous, Average and Complex Poynting Vector.Examples with Solutions .... Important Result Review Questions .. Chapter-i4” “Transmission Line Theoty Ces 6 141A Introduction sesasssnsisiisesiiaasasnitnsisasennsssnlS 11.2 Types of Transmission Lines .... sl 11.3 Transmission Line Parameters 0 11.4 Properties of Symmetrical Networks - Characteristic Impedance and Propagation Constant... ssserssnseneesnes snes O18, 14.4.1 Characteristic Impedance (Zs) . 11.4.2 Propagation Constant (y) ... 11.5 The Infinite Line... 11.5.1 Important Properties of the Infinite Line.................. Bn nnnestanennnansnnnantinansnanensnanennnnnnsensnns Ae? 14.6.1. Determination of Z, for Finite Line Terminated in Z, 11.7 Currents and Voltages Along an Infinite Line. 11.7.1 Attenuation and Phase Constant............ 14.8 Propagation Constant Interms of Z,, and Z. 2.1 T Section Values interms of Z, andy...» 41.9 Wavelength and Velocity. 11.10 Relationship between Primary and Secondary Constants. 11.10.1_ Determination of Z, Interms of Primary Constants ........... 11.10.2 Determination of Interms of Primary Constants . 41.10.3 Determination of. and f Interms of Primary Constants 44.11 General Solution of a Transmission Line 11.12 Physical Significance of General Solution. 11.13 Application of General Solution to the Particular Cases 11.13.1 Finite Line Terminated in Z, 11.13.2 Finite Line Open Circuited at Distant End, * 11.13.4 Determination of, iand Primary Constants .. 654 11.14 Input and Transfer Impedance...11.18 Conditions for Minimum Attenuation 11.15.1 Variable L.. 11.15.2 Variable © 11.16.3 Rand G for Minimum Attenuation 11.16.4 Distortion due to Z, Varying with Frequency .......e.ssecccessssesseeeeseees Of 11.16.2 Frequency Distortion..................es sees eset eee ees 662 11.16.53 Phase Distortion. 11.17 Distortionless Line. 11.18 Telephone Cable... 11.19 Loading of Lines... 11.20 Continuous Loading 666 11.20.41 Propagation Constant of Continuously Loaded Cable . . 667 11.20.2 Advantages. - 668 11.203 Disadvantages . 668 411.21 Lumped Loading 11.2.1 Campbell's Equation. 19.21.2 Advi 14.21.3 Disadvantages . 11.21.4 Practical Formulae for Z, and for Loaded Underground Cable. 11.22 Reflection on a Line not Terminated in Z,, 1.22.1 Reflection Phenomenon... 11.22.2 Disadvantages of Reflection. 11.223 Reflection Coefficient ............. 14.224 Input Impedance Interms of Z, and K. 11.23 Reflection Loss and Reflection Factor .... 676 11.23.1_Retum Loss. 44.24 Insertion LOSS ..ssessssecssssssscascesescannnsenearsnsennansnnnsnansasntasarannancarnansnnninens OBO 11.24.1 Expression for Insertion LOSS... .... 0s. eves eseee eer eeee teense eeeeeeees 686 Examples with Solutions .....12.3 Voltages and Currents on Dissipationless Line. 12.4 Standing Waves... 14, 12.5 Standing Wave Ratio (S).. 14. 12.5.1 Relation between Standing Wave Ratio (S) and Magnitude of Reflection Coefficient (K) 715 12.5.2 Relation between Standing Wave Ratio and Reflection Coefficient ................ MT 12.6 Input Impedance of the Dissipationless Line... 12.7 Input Impedance of Open and Short Circuited Line: 12.7.1 Input Impedance of Short Circuited Line 12.7.2 Input Impedance of Open Circuited Line 12.8 Power and Impedance Measurement on Line 12.9 The Eighth-Wave Line.. 12.10 The Quarter-Wave Line - Impedance Matching... so 12.11 The Half-Wave Lime... ..esssascnsnsnnnnscrsnerstansessansasassssnnansnsnrrsnsee SE 12.12 Single Stub Matching on a Line .... 12.13 Circle Diagram for Dissipationless Line 12.14 The Smith Chart - The Smith Circle Diagrat 12.14.1 Construction ofthe Smith Chatto eee 15M, 12.14.2 Properties of the Smith Chart ...s.sesssecsseseeeeeseesseeee nese enenenenee 12.15 Applications of the Smith Chart..... 12.16 Single Stub Matching using Smith Chart.. 12.17 Double Stub Impedance Matching of a Line... 12.17.41 Double Stub Impedance Matching with Spacing between Two Slubs Equal to 7 12.17.2 Double Stub Impedance Matching with Spacing between Two Stubs Equal 0% ae. 92 Examples with Solutions ... Examples from Univesity Question Papers.... Review Questions s.scecssssssasstssessssscssssssscetssssussscissssssssassisssssssnsssssssses B2013.2 Waves Between Parallel Planes. ........ssssssssssssssssssssssasassssscecssssssnsssnsnsesn B22 13.3 Transverse Electric Wave or H Wave (E, =0) 13.4 Transverse Magnetic Wave or E Wave (H.= 13.6 Transverse Electromagnetic Waves (TEM Waves) .. 13.6.1 Properties of TEM Waves. 13.7 Velocities of Propagation .... 13.8 Attenuation in Parallel Plane Guides. 13.9 Wave impedances .... 13.10 Electric Field and Current Flow within the Conductor Important Results..... Review Questions isa B42,. Electronic mass 1.602 x 10-* 9.109 x 109" . Boltzmann's constant 2 x 104 . Velocity of light 2.998 x 108 5. Acceleration of gravity 9.807 3. Permittivity of free space 8.854 x 107 CopyrightedTrigonometry Signs of the functions : ‘Quadrant ee sin cos tan cot sec cosee ' 0" to 90" + + + + + + it 90° to 180° + - = - - + [180 to 2707] - + + = e Vv |270° to 360°! = + - - + - Values of negative angles : sin (- 8) = -sin@ sec (- 0) = secd cos (-0) = cos, cosec (-@) = - cosec 0 tan (-6) = - tan @, cot (-@) = - cot Important identities : sin?0 + cos?0 = 1, sin @ = ¥1—cos?6 1+ tan?6 = sec? @, cos @ = ¥1=sin?@ 1+ cot? = cosec?6, cos 26 = cos*@ - sin? sin 28 = 2 sin@ cos®, cos 26 = 1-2 sin? @ = 2 cos*8-1 1- cos 28 = 2sin0, 14 cos 20 = 2 cos*@ tan2@ = ooo tan 26 = tet sin (# +B) = sina cosB+cosc sinB cos (448) = cosacosPF sing sinB 2 SET atan (0 £8) = sin A sin B cos A cos B sin A cos B sin(A -B)+sin(A +B)} cos A sinB = 3{ sin(A +B)-sin(A-B)} . Pen Pre? sin @ a cos 8 = z ei? = cos 0+] sing, eri? = cos @-jsin® cosh’9 - sinh*® = 1, sech’9 + tanh@ = 1 coth? @=cosech?@ = 1, sinh 2. = 2 sinh@ cosho cosh 29 = cosh’0+ sinh’, sinh @ = S°>E* e%+e-0 _ be cosho — tanh @ = So sinh (a +B) = sinh a cosh § + cosh a sinh cosh (+B) = cosh c cosh f+ sinh « sinh B sinh'(@) = In[e+ Ve? +1 cosh"40) = In[o+J0?-1] “ 1,,[1+0 tanh“40) = aes “(i tana ttanB T¥ tana tanB K cos(A -B)-cos(A +B)} 4{ cos(A -B)+c0s(A +B)} 1 1 ole iz= dx “dx _ vu'-uv’ ve ve COS x, 4 (oss) =-sinx dx sex, A cows secnageaty sec x tan x, A (cosecx) = — cosecx cot x acosax, (cosax) = ~ asin ax a ae asedax, 2 (sin x) = phe at (hee Nie mr ale) = ae B: 4 coa-lan) = re ee)Jxtdx Jerdx Joinxdx Jranxdx feotxdx Jocexdx Jooseexdx Jain? xax Joos? xdx J(ax+b)" ax dx eee (ax+b)" In sec x = = In cos x In sin x = - In cosec x inf (3-3) ite (SCARS infer) = In (cosec x — cot x) 4} sinxcosx +} sinxcosx wey +b)" 1 ey ar mr arez) -1 * ep a(ax+b)""J dx xva? tx? Jus? Ea? dx dx J x(ax+b) Join ax dx Jsin? ax dx d: Serax Joosax dx eos? ax dx = ‘OTROS Lola a? ta?In(x+dx? ta )} io x ax+b eB L —=cos ax a 2 = L tog (cosec ax~cot ax)dk 1 ax m)id Jaem? plogtan( $+ )= log (sec ax tan ax) sin(a-b) x _sin(a+b) x _sin(a+b)x 2 ab? 2anb) Yarby Shenae? Jasin axsin bx dx = axP eos ax+ nf x™leos ax dx Jxnsinax dx = —— fxncos ax dx fords = ufvax-[[$2fvdx]ax Integration by parts1 Vector Analysis 1.1 Introduction Electromagnetics is a branch of physics or electrical engineering which is used to study the electric and magnetic phenomena. The electric and magnetic fields are closely related to each other. Let us see, what is a field ? Consider a magnet. It has its own effect in a region surrounding it. The effect can be experienced by placing another magnet near the first magnet. Such an effect can be defined by a particular physical function. In the region surrounding the magnet, there exists a particular value for that physical function, at every point, describing the effect of magnet. So field can be defined as the region in which, at each point there exists a corresponding value of some physical function. Thus field is a function that specifies a quantity everywhere in a region or a space. If at each point of a region or space, there is a corresponding value of some physical function then the region is called a field. If the field produced is due to magnetic effects, it is called magnetic field. There are two types of electric charges, positive and negative. Such an electric charge produces a field around it which is called an electric field. Moving charges produce a current and current carrying conductor produces a magnetic field. In such a case, electric and magnetic fields are related to each other. Such a field is called electromagnetic field. The comprehensive study of characteristics of electric, magnetic and combined fields, is nothing but the engineering electromagnetics. Such fields may be time varying or time independent. Itis seen that distribution of a quantity in a space is defined by a field. Hence to quantify the field, three dimensional representation plays an important role. Such a three dimensional representation can be made easy by the use of vector analysis. The problems involving various mathematical operations related to the fields aw2 Vector Analysi: JNTU EMWTL distributed in three dimensional space can be conveniently handled with the help of vector analysis. A complete pictorial representation and clear understanding of the fields and the laws governing such fields, is possible with the help of vector analysis. Thus a good knowledge of vector analysis is an essential prerequisite for the understanding of engineering electromagnetics. The vector analysis is a mathematical shorthand tool with which electromagnetic concepts can be most conveniently expressed. This chapter gives the basic vector analysis required to understand engineering electromagnetics. The notations used in this chapter are follwed throughout this book to explain the subject. 1.2 Scalars and Vectors The various quantities involved in the study of engineering electromagnetics can be classified as, 1. Scalars and 2. Vectors 1.2.1 Scalar The scalar is a quantity whose value may be represented by a single real number, which may be positive or negative. The direction is not at all required in describing a scalar. Thus, ‘A scalar is a quantity which is wholly characterized by its magnitude. The various examples of scalar quantity are temperature, mass, volume, density, speed, electric charge ete. 1.2.2 Vector A quantity which has both, a magnitude and a specific direction in space is called a vector. In electromagnetics vectors defined in two and three dimensional spaces are required but vectors may be defined in n-dimensional space. Thus, A vector is a quantity which is characterized by both, a magnitude and a direction. The various examples of vector quantity are force, velocity, displacement, electric field intensity, magnetic field intensity, acceleration etc. 1.2.3 Scalar Field A field is a region in which a particular physical function has a value at each and every point in that region. The distribution of a scalar quantity with a definiteJNTU EMWTL ae ‘Vector Analysis 3 position in a space is called scalar field. For example the temperature of atmosphere. It has a definite value in the atmosphere but no need of direction to specify it hence it is a scalar field. The height of surface of earth above sea level is a scalar field. Few other examples of scalar field are sound intensity in an auditorium, light intensity in a room, atmospheric pressure in a given region etc. 1.2.4 Vector Field If a quantity which is specified in a region to define a field is a vector then the corresponding field is called a vector field. For example the gravitational force on a mass in a space is a vector field. This force has a value at various points in a space and always has a specific direction. Thé other examples of vector field are the velocity of particles in a moving fluid, wind velocity of atmosphere, voltage gradient in a cable, displacement of a flying bird in a space, magnetic field existing from north to south field etc, 1.3 Representation of a Vector In two dimensions, a vector can be represented by a straight line with an arrow in a plane. This is shown in the Fig. 1.1. The length of the segment is the magnitude of a vector while the arrow indicates the direction of the vector in a given co-ordinate system. The vector shown in the Fig. 1.1 is symbolically denoted as OA. The point O is its starting point while A is its terminating point. Its length is called its magnitude, which is R for the vector OA shown. It is represented as [OA|=R It is the distance between the starting point and Fig. 1.4 Representation of a vector terminating point of a vector. Key Point: The vector hereafter will be indicated by bold letter with a bar over it. 1.3.1 Unit Vector A unit vector has a function to indicate the direction. Its magnitude is always unity, irrespective of the direction which it indicates and the co-ordinate system under consideration. Thus for any vector, to indicate its direction a unit vector can be used. Consider a unit vector 3g, in the direction of OA as shown in the Fig.12. This vector indicates the direction of OA but its magnitude is unity. Fig. 1.2 Unit vector4 ‘Vector Analysis JNTU.EMWTL So vector OA can be represented completely as its magnitude R and the direction as indicated by unit vector along its direction. A = [OA] 30a =Roa where Zoa = Unit vector along the direction OA and fao,|=1 Key Point: Herenfter, letter a is used to indicate the unit vector and its suffix indicates the direction of the unit vector. Thus 3, indicates the unit vector along x axis direction. Incase if a vector is known then the unit vector along that vector can be obtained by dividing the vector by its magnitude. Thus unit vector can be expressed as, The idea and use of unit vector will be more clear at the time of discussion of various co-ordinate systems, later in the chapter. 1.4 Vector Algebra The various mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication ete. can be performed with the vectors. In this section the following mathematical operations with the vectors are discussed. 1. Scaling 2. Addition 3. Subtraction 1.4.1 Scaling of Vector This is nothing but, multiplication by a scalar to a vector. Such a multiplication changes the magnitude (length) of a vector but not its direction, when the scalar is positive. Let a = scalar with which vector is to be multiplied Then if a>1 then the magnitude of a vector increases but direction remains same, when multiplied. This is shown in the Fig. 1.3 (a). If a<1 then the magnitude of a vector decreases but direction remains same, when multiplied. This is shown in the Fig. 1.3 (b). Ifa =-1 then the magnitude remains same but direction of the vector reverses, when multiplied. This is shown in the Fig. 1.3 (c).JNTU EMWTL Vector Analysis 5 a a z — —- —— —_——_—. ak “A -K fa)a>t (bja<4 {b)a=-4 Fig. 1.3 Multiplication by a scalar Key Point: Thus if a is negative, the magnitude of vector changes by a times while the direction becomes exactly opposite to the original vector, after multiplication. 1.4.2 Addition of Vectors Consider two coplanar vectors as shown in the Fig. 1.4. The vectors which lie in the same plane are called coplanar vectors. Let us find the sum of these two vectors XK and B, shown in the Fig. 1.4 >I The procedure is to move one of the two vectors parallel to itself at the tip of the other vector. Thus move A , parallel to itself at the tip of B. Then join tip of A moved, to the origin. This vector represents resultant which is the addition of the two vectors A and B. This is shown in the Fig. 15. Let us denote this resultant as € then C=A+B It must be remembered that the direction of € is from origin © to the tip of the vector moved. Fig. 1.5 Addition of vectors Another point which can be noticed that if B is moved parallel to itself at the tip of A, we get the same resultant © Thus, the order of the addition is not important. The addition of vectors obeys the commutative law ie. A+B=B +A.6 Vector Analysis JNTU EMWTL Afothér ifiethod of performing the addition of vectors is the parallelogram rule. Complete the parallelogram as shown in the Fig. 1.6. Then the diagonal of the parallelogram represents the addition of the two vectors. Resultant By using any of these two methods not only two but any number of vectors can be added to obtain the resultant, For example, consider four vectors as shown in the Fig. 1.7 (a). These can be added by shifting these vectors one by one to the tip of other vectors to complete the polygon. The vector joining origin O to the tip of the last shifted vector represents the sum, as shown in the Fig, 1.7 (b). This method is called head to tail rule of addition of vectors. —_ f— - Resultant fs f R NN (a) Four vectors: (b) Sum of the four vectors Fig. 1.6 Parallelogram rule for addition or oR Fig. 1.7 Once the co-ordinate systems are defined, then the vectors can be expressed in terms of the components along the axes of the co-ordinate system. Then by adding the corresponding components of the vectors, the components of the resultant vector which is the addition of the vectors, can be obtained. This method is explained after the co-ordinate systems are discussed. The following basic laws of algebra are obeyed by the vectors A, B and C: Law Addition Multiplication by scalar Commutative K+B=5+K ak=Ka Associative Ks(Bs = (K+ +E B(aX) = (Ba)K Distributive «( Table 1.1 In this table a and f are the scalars i.e. constants.JNTU EMWTL ee Vector Analysis 7 1.4.3 Subtraction of Vectors The subtraction of vectors can be obtained from the rules of addition. If B is to be subtracted from A then based on addition it can be represented as, c = K+(-B) Thus reverse the sign of B i.e. reverse its direction by multiplying it with -1 and then add it to A to obtain the subtraction. This is shown in the Fig. 1.8 (a) and (b). of = = 5 B Oo 5 (0) Vectors {b) Subtraction of vectors Fig. 1.8 143.1 Identical Vectors Two vectors are said to be identical if there difference is zero. Thus A and B are identical if A-B=0 i.e, A = B. Such two vectors are also called equal vectors. 1.5 The Coordinate Systems. To describe a vector accurately and to express a vector in terms of its components, it is necessary to have some reference directions. Such directions are represented in terms of various coordinate systems. There are various coordinate systems available in mathematics, out of which three coordinate systems are used in this book, which are 1. Cartesian or rectangular coordinate system 2. Cylindrical coordinate system 3, Spherical coordinate system Let us discuss these systems in detail. 1.6 Cartesian Coordinate System This is also called rectangular coordinate system. This system has three coordinate axes represented as x, y and z which are mutually at right angles to eachJNTU EMWTL Vector Analysis 11 Now the three components of this position vector Top are three vectors oriented along the three coordinate axes with the magnitudes x;, y, and z;. Thus the position vector of point P can be represented as, The magnitude of this vector interms of three mutually perpendicular components is given by, Htor| = Vos)? +01)? (a)? (2) Thus if point P has coordinates (1,2,3) then its position vector is, For = 18, +2 a, +3 &, and |or| =)? +@)? +@) = Vid = 37416 . Many a times the position vector is denoted by the vector representing that point itself ive. for point P the position vector is P, for point Q it is G and so on. The same method is used hereafter a¥ez2) | in this book. Note the difference y between a point and a position vector. PO yz) Now consider the two points in a cartesian coordinate system, P and Q with the coordinates (x,yi,z1) and (x2, ¥2,22) respectively. The points are shown in the Fig. 1.14. The individual position vectors of the-points are, Fig. 1.14 Distance vector P= may +y1ay +713, O = max ty2ay +224: Then the distance or the displacement from P to Q is represented by a distance vector PO and is given by, PQ = Q-P =x: -m] a +Ly2 - yi ay + [er - 21] » Q) This is also called separation vector. The magnitude of this vector is given by, |PO| = JG: —m)? #(y2 -yiy #@ —2)? w= 4)12 Vector Analysis JNTU EMWTL This is nothing but the length of the vector PQ. The equation (4) is called distance formula which gives the distance between the two points representing tips of the vectors. Using the basic concept of unit vector, we can find unit vector along the direction PQ as, - @) pg = Unit vector along PQ = Once the position vectors are known then various mathematical operations can be easily performed interms of the components of the various vectors. Let us summarize procedure to obtain distance vector and unit vector. Step 1; Identify the direction of distance vector i.e. starting point (x1,y1,21) and terminating point (x2, y 2,22). Step 2: Subtract the respective coordinates of starting point from terminating point. These are three components of distance vector ie, (x2 — x1) Ax+ (y2 -y1) ay and (22-21) az Step 3: Adding the three components distance vector can be obtained. Step 4: Calculate the magnitude of the distance vector using equation (4). Step 5: Unit vector along the distance vector can be obtained by using equation ©. Ex. 1.1 Obiain the unit vector in the direction from the origin towards the point P(3,-3,-2) Sol.: The origin O (0, 0, 0) while P (3, - 3, - 2) hence the distance vector OP is, OP = (3-O)ay +(-3-O)ay +(-2- ay = 3a, -3ay -2a, o |OP| = 1O?+C9" +(-2)° = 4.6904 Hence the unit vector along the direction OP is, | OP| 4.6904 = 0.6396 4, — 0.6396 ay - 0.4264 a, Ex.12 Two points A(2,2,1) and B(3,-4,2) are given in the cartesian system. Obtain the vector from A to B and a unit vector directed from A to B. Sol.: The starting point is A and terminating point is B.JNTU EMWTL Vector Analysis 13 Now A = 2a, +2ay +a, and B=3a, -4ay +2a, B (3-2). +(-4 -2ay +(2-1)a, AB = 8, -6ay +a, This is the vector directed from A to B. Now |AB| = /(1)’ +(-6)* +()° Thus unit vector directed from A to B is, 6.1644 AB x -6a, +4, aap = jab] 6aGH = 0.1622 a, - 0.9733 ay + 0.1622 a, It can be cross checked that magnitude of this unit vector is unity i.e. (0.1622)? +(- 0.9733)" +(0.1622)* = 1. 1.6.4 Differential Elements in Cartesian Coordinate System Consider a point P(x, y, z) in the rectangular coordinate system. Let us increase each coordinate by a differential amount, A new point P’ will be obtained having coordinates (x+dx, y + dy, z+dz). Thus, dx = Differential length in x direction dy = Differential length in y direction dz = Differential length in z direction Hence differential vector length also called elementary vector length can be represented as, di = dx a, +dy ay +dz 4, (6) ‘This is the vector joining original point P to new point P’. Now point P is the intersection of three planes while point P’ is the intersection of three new planes which are slightly displaced from original three planes. These six planes together define a differential volume which Is a rectangular parallelepiped as shown in the Fig. 1.15. The diagonal of this parallelepiped is the differential vector length. Please refer Fig. 1.15 on next page.14 Vector Analysis JNTU EMWTL Fig. 1.15 Differential elements and different length in cartesian system ‘he distance of P" from P is given by magnitude of the differential vector length, |di| = y(dx)* +(dy)* +(dz)? 7) Huzce the differential volume of the rectangular parallelepiped is given by, dv = dx dy dz s+ (8) Note that d7 is a vector but dv is a scalar. Let us define differential surface areas. The differential surface element dS is represented as, dS = dSa, . 9) where dS = Differential surface area of the element a, = Unit vector normal to the surface dS Thus various differential surface elements in cartesian coordinate system are shown in the Fig, 1.16. Fig. 1.16 Differential surface elements in cartesian systeJNTU EMWTL, Vector Analysis 15 The vector representation of these elements is given as, dSx = Differential vector surface’ area normal to x direction = dydz a, on (10) a3, = Differential vector surface area normal to y direction = dxdz ay ay) dS, = Differential vector surface area normal to z direction = dxdy a, v (12) The differential elements play very important role in the study of engineering electromagnetics. Ex.1.3 Given three points in cartesian coordinate system as A(3,~2,1), B(~3,~3,5) C(2,6,-4). Find : i) The vector from A to C, ii) The unit vector from B to A. iti) The distance from B to C. iv) The vector from A to the midpoint of the straight line joining B to C. Sol.: The position vectors for the given points are, A=38, -2ay+a,, B 3a, -3ay +5a,, C=2ay +6ay 4a, i) The vector from A to C is, AC = C-A=[2-3]ax +[6-(-2)] ay +4 -1] a, = ~a, +83, -5a, ii) For unit vector from B to A, obtain distance vector BA first. o BA = A-B_...as starting is B and terminating is A = B-C3Re +[(-2) -(O)] a +S = 68, +4, -44, (6)? +(1)7 +(-4)? = 7.2801 = 0.8241 a, + 0.1373 a, - 0.5494 a, iii) For distance between B and C, obtain BC BC = C-B=[2-(-3)] ax +[6-(-3)]ay +[(-4) -@] & = 58, +98y -98,16 Vector Analysis JNTU EMWTL Distance BC = (5)? +(9)? +1 iv) Let B(x1,y1,21) and C(x2,y2,Z2) then the coordinates of midpoint of BC meee Yity2 z4z2 are (P2, $22, .. Midpoint of BC (22. 36, A) 05, 15,05) Hence the vector from A to this midpoint is = [-05-3]a, +[15-(-2)] a, +[05-1] a, = -3.5 ay +35 ay -0.5 a, 1.7 Cylindrical Coordinate System The circular cylindrical coordinate system is the three dimensional version of polar coordinate system. The surfaces used to define the cylindrical coordinate system are, 1. Plane of constant 2 which is parallel to xy plane. 2. A cylinder of radius r with z axis as the axis of the cylinder. 3. A half plane perpendicular to xy plane and at an angle } with respect to xz plane. The angle ¢ is called azimuthal angle. The ranges of the variables are, Osrsa we (1) O0<6 < 2n on Q) -» direction (7) Hence the differential vector length in spherical coordinate system is given by, al = dr a, +1d0 ao +rsind db ae » 8) the magnitude of the differential length vector is given by, [at] = \(ar)* +(140)’ +(rsino do)* ~O Hence the differential volume of the differential element formed, in spherical coordinate system is given by, dv = 1? sinddr dodo wo» (10) The differential surface areas in the three directions are shown in the Fig. 1.31. z sino do sind db a or &, & &, Fig. 1.31 Differential surface elements in spherical coordinate system The vector representation of these differential surface areas are given by, dS, = Differential vector surface area normal to r direction = rsinddadd a) dS» = Differential vector surface area normal to 0 direction = rsinO dr dp o» (12) a5, = Differential vector surface area normal to > direction = rdrd8 w= (13) 1.8.3 Relationship between Cartesian and Spherical Systems Consider a point P whose cartesian coordinates are x, y and z while the spherical coordinates are r, @ and 6 as shown in the Fig. 1.32.28 Vector Analysis: JNTU EMWTL = P(r.0.6) Fig. 1.32 Relationship between cartesian and spherical systems Looking at the xy plane we can write, x = rsin@cosp and y=rsinOsing While z = reos® Hence the transformation from spherical to cartesian can be obtained from the equations, x=rsin@cos$, y=rsinOsing and z=rcos0 vn (14) Now r can be expressed as, x24 y? +2? = r2sin?@ cos? @ +1? sin? @sin? g +r? cos? 8 = 1? sin? 6[sin? } +cos? 6] +1? cos? 0 = 1?[sin? 0+ cos? 6] =1? rs fxtsy 2422 White tang =~ and cos 8 = Z As r is known, 9 can be obtained. Thus the transformation from cartesian to spherical coordinate system can be obtained from the equations, ++ (15) r= \xaytez?, 0 =cos a = tan) % [ine] eetJNTU EMWTL Vector Analysis 29 Remember that r is positive and varies from 0 to , 8 varies from 0 to = radians ie. 0° to 180° and 6 varies from 0 to 27 radians ie. 0° to 360° Key Point: While using above formulae, care must be taken to place the angtes © and in the correct quadrants according to the signs of x, y and z. Ex.16 Calculate the volume of a sphere of radius R using integration. Sol.: The differential volume of a sphere is, dv = r2sin@drdo dp The limits for r are 0 to R, as sphere is of radius R. The 6 varies from 0 to t while varies from 0 to 2. J J = sinoarao dg 0 v 00 2 5 2 = fis] sino do dp =F f [cose de oo 0 “oO = E freose- (cost) f dE L--Co]” R = x22 3 3 Ex. 1.7 Calculate the surface area of a sphere of radius R, by integration. Sol.: | Consider the differential surface area normal to the r direction which is, RS ds, = r?sin@ dé do Now the limits of $ are 0 to 27 while @ varies from 0 to x S; = tf r? sind dddo 0% But note that radius of sphere is constant, given as r=R ae Sr = R®Y [ sind do do=R? [cosa]; [6E 0% = R? x[-cosx-(~cos0)] x 2n=R? [-(-1)-(-1)] 27 = 4nR? Ex. 1.8 Use spherical coordinates and integrate to find the area of the region 0S Sa on the spherical shell of radius a, What is the area if a = 2x? Sol.: Consider the spherical shell of radius a hence r=a is constant.30 Consider differential surface area normal to r direction which is radially outward. dS, = r? sin@d0dp=a? sinOdédd ..asr=a But is varying between 0 to « while for spherical shell 9 varies from 0 to x “ 5 = af | sind dodp =°[-cos0]f [4]? a4 = a®-[-cosn-(-cos0)]a =2a7a So area of the region is 2a?a. If a =2n, the area of the region becomes 4na2, as the shell becomes complete sphere of radius a when 6 varies from 0 to 2% 1.9 Vector Multiplication Uptill now the addition, subtraction and multiplication by scalar to a vector is discussed. Let us discuss the multiplication of two or more vectors, The knowledge of vector multiplication allows us to transform the vectors from one coordinate system to other. . Consider two vectors A and B. There are two types of products existing depending upon the result of the multiplication. These two types of products are, 1. Scalar or Dot, product 2. Vector or Cross product Let us discuss the characteristics of these two products. 1.10 Scalar or Dot Product of Vectors The scalar or dot of the two vectors A and B is denoted as A+B and defined as the product of the magnitude of A, the magnitude of B and the cosine of the smaller angle between them. It also can be defined as the product of magnitude of B and the projection of A onto B or viceversa. Fig, 1.33,UNTU EMWTL Vector Analysis 34 5 expressed as, KB | cos Oan wl) The result of such a dot product is sealar hence it is also called sealar product. Mathematically it 1.10.1 Properties of Det Product The various properties of the dot product are, 1. If the two vectors are parallel to each other i.e. 6=0° then cos O,g =1 thus A+B = JA] {Bl for parallel vectors a» 2) 2. If the two vectors are perpendicular to each other i.e. @=90° then cos Oa =0 thus A+B = 0 for perpendicular vectors «. 3) In other words, if dot product of the two vectors is zero, the two vectors are perpendicular to each other. 3. The dot product obeys commutative law, B= BEA : a» (4) 4, The dot product obeys distributive law, Ke(B+C) = A-B+A-C ~ @) 5. If the dot product of vector with itself is performed, the result is square of the magnitude of that vector. A+K = |A| [Al cos0’=|A|? ~- (6) 6. Consider the unit vectors ax, 3y and %, in cartesian coordinate system. All these vectors are mutually perpendicular to each other. Hence the dot product of different unit vectors is zero. By eBy = By Hy =3, 05, =3, 3, =Fy oH, =3, +3y = 0 (7) 7. Any unit vector dotted with itself is unity, By eB, = By 04, =3, 03, =1 -~ 8) 8. Consider two vectors in cartesian coordinate system, Aa Aca, +Ay dy +Ara, and B= Byay +By ay +B, a, Now A+B = (Axa +Ay ay +A, a2) + (Bude + By ay +Bz ax)32 Vector Analysis JNTU-EMWTL t This product has nine scalar terms as dot product obeys distributive law. But from the equation (7), six terms out of nine will be zero involving the dot products of different unit vectors. While the remaining three terms involve the unit vector dotted with itself, the result of which is unity. AcB = Ay By (ax dy) +Ay By (dy dy) + Az Ba (ae +z) A+B = A,B, +Ay By +A,B, -» (9) 1.10.2 Applications of Dot Product The applications of dot product are, 1. To determine the angle between the two vectors. The angle can be determined as, 2. To find the component of a vector in a given direction. Consider a vector P and a unit vector @ as shown in the Fig. 1.34. The component of vector P in the direction of unit vector @ is P+. This is a scalar quantity. This is shown in the Fig. 1.34 (a). Fig. 1.34 (a & b) F. [P| [al cos 0=|Pjcos @ The sign of this component is positive if 0<0<90° while the sign of this component is negative if 90°< 6 < 180°. If the component vector of A in the direction of unit vector 4 is required then multiply the component obtained by that unit vector, as shown in the Fig. 1.34 (b). Thus (P-a) a is the component vector of P in the direction of a.JNTU EMWTL Vector An: Thus component of P in the direction of a, is P+a, ie. P, while the component vector of P in the direction of a, is P, ax. This is the geometrical meaning of dot product, to find projection of P in the direction of unit vector a. If the projection of P on other vector © is to be obtained then it is necessary to find unit vector in the direction of G first i.e. Tg. Fig. 1.34 (c) Then the projection of P on Q is given by P+ ag. As ag = ei then the projection of B on @ can be expressed as, 3. Physically, work done by a constant force can be expressed as a dot procut of two vectors. Consider a constant force F acting on a body and it causes the displacement d of that body. Then the work done W is the product of the force and the component of the displacement in the direction of force which can be expressed as, W = [Eldcos 0=F+d But if the force applied varies along the path then the total work done is to be calculated by the integration of a dot product as, w = [ Fedl Ex. 1.9 Given the two vectors, A=2a, -5a, -4 a, and B=3a, +54, +23, Find the dot product and the angle between the twvo vectors. Sol.: The dot product is, A+B = Ay By+Ay By +A; Bz=(2%3)+(-5)(5)+(-4(2) = 6-25-8=-27JNTU -EMWTL Vector Analysis 37 a, %, = ay ' 9) But if the order of unit vectors is reversed, the result is negative of the remaining third unit vector. Thus, aXe if a» (10) This can be remembered by a circle indicating cyclic permutations of cross products of unit vectors as shown in the Fig. 1.38. ay XA, = -B,, 4, *3y , — Anticlockwise (a) Positive result (b) Negative resutt Fig. 1.38 While as cross product of vector with itself is zero we can write, a, xa, = ay xa, = 3,xa, =0 (11) The result is applicable for the unit vectors in the remaining two coordinate systems. (a) Gytindrical system (b) Spherical system Fig. 1.39 From the Fig. 1.39 we can write, 3, x3, = ,, 3x44 =a, and so on.38 JNTU - EMWTL Key Point: The clockwise direction gives negative result. 8. Cross product in determinant form : Consider the two vectors in the cartesian system as, A = Aya, +Ay ay Aza, and B=B, a, +By ay +B. a, Then the cross product of the two vectors is, AXxB = Ay By (ix x dx) +Ax By (de xdy ) +Ax Bz (ay xz) +Ay By. (ay xax) + Ay By (ay x dy )+Ax Bz(ay x42) +Az By (@z 8x) +Az By (42 x8y ) +Ax Br (@r x32) = OFA, By dy ~Ax Bray ~Ay Bede +0+Ay Bray +A, By iy —A; By a, +0 = (Ay Br-Az By Jax +(Az Br—Ax Br)ay +(Ax By —Ay Bx) a This result can be expressed in determinant form as, a, ay a, AxB = {Ax Ay Ay =» (12(a)) B, By By If A and B are in cylindrical system then a 3) AxB=/A, Ay Az +» (12(b)) By By Bz If A and B are in spherical system then a ae a AxB=/A, Ao Ay (12) Br Bo Bg 1.11.2 Applications of Cross Product The different applications of cross product are, 1. The cross product is the replacement to the right hand rule used in electrical engineering to determine the direction of force experienced by current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field.JNTU - EMWTL ‘Vector Analysis 39 Thus if 1 is the current flowing through conduttor while L is che vector length considered to indicate the direction of current through the conductor. The uniform magnetic flux density is denoted by vector B. Then the force experienced by conductor is given by, ¥F = ILxB 2. Another physical quantity which can be represented by cross product is moment of a force. The moment of a force (or torque) acting on a rigid body, which can rotate about an axis perpendicular to a plane containing the force is defined to be the magnitude of the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance from the force to the axis. This is shown in the Fig. 1.40. The moment of force F about a point O is M. Its magnitude is [F| |7] sind where |f| sin@ is the perpendicular distance of F from O i.e. OQ. oM = &xF = |?| [F| sin ay where ay is the unit vector indicating direction of M which is perpendicular to the plane ie. paper and coming out of paper according to right hand screw rule. Fig. 140 Ex. 1.11 Given the two coplanar vectors Az 3a, +4a, -5a, and B=-6a, +24, +44, Obtain the unit vector normal to the plane containing the vectors. A and B. Sol.: Note that the unit vector normal to the plane containing the vectors A and Bis the unit vector in the direction of cross product of A and B. ax ay a, Now AxB=|3 4 5 6 2 4 = Wa, +18a, +308, AxB 26a, -18a, +308, an = [AxB] (26? + (18)? +(30)" = 0.5964 a, + 0.4129 a, + 0.6882 a, This is the unit vector normal to the plane containing A and B.40 Vector Analysis UNTU - EMWTL 1.12 Products of Three Vectors Let A,B and © are the three given vectors. Then the product of these three vectors is classified in two ways called, 1. Scalar triple product 2. Vector triple product 1.12.1 Scalar Triple Product The scalar triple product of the three vectors A,B and C is mathematically defined as, B v (1) Thus if, A = Aya tAy ay tAz ay B = Bya, +By ay +Bz az € = Cray + Cy ay + Cray then the scalar triple product is obtained by the determinant, Ax Ay Ai Ae(BxC) = |B, By BL = @ Gy Gye Gs ‘The result of this product is a scalar and hence the product is called scalar triple product. The cyclic order a b ¢ is important. 1424.4 Characteristics of Scalar Triple Product 1. The scalar triple product represents the volume of the parallelepiped with edges A,B and © drawn from the same origin, as shown in the Fig. 1.41. 2. The scalar triple product depends only on the cyclic order ‘abc’ and not on the position of the « and X in the product. If the cyclic order is broken by permuting two of the vectors, the sign is reversed. Fig. 1.41 K.(Bx€) = -B.(Ax0)JNTU - EMWTL Vector Analysis 41 3. If two of the three vectors are equal then the result of the scalar triple product is zero. K-(Ax®) = 0 4. The scalar triple product is distributive. 1.12.2 Vector Triple Product The vector triple product of the three vectors A,B and C is mathematically deiined as, & « Q) The rule can be remembered as 'bac-cab' rule. The above rule can be easily proved by writing the cartensian components of each term in the equation. The Position of the brackets is very important. 1.42.24 Characteristics of Vector Triple Product 1. It must be noted that in the vector triple product, (A-B)t + (BC) but (A-B)T = C(A-B) This is because A+B is a scalar and multiplication by scalar to a vector is commutative. . 2. From the basic definition we can write, Bx(CxA) = O(B-A)-A(B-C) wo (4) Cx(AxB) = A(C-B)-B(C-A) ~) But dot product is commutative hence €-A = A+ € and so on. Hence addition of (3), (4) and (5) is zero. 2 Rx(BxC)+Bx (Cx A)+Cx(AxB) =0 6) The result of the vector triple product is a vector. Ex. 112 The three fields are given by, A=2a, -a,, B=2a,-a, +2a,, C=2a, -3a, +7, Find the scalar and vector triple product. Sol.: The scalar triple product is, 20 -4 Ae(BxT) = |2 a 2/514 231Vector Analysis JNTU - EMWTL ‘The vector triple product is, Ax (BxC) = B(A+T)-C(A+B) Ase = (2)(2)+()(-3)+(-1)() = 3 RB = QQ+OC)+-0@=2 Ax(BxC) = 3B-2C = 3[2a, —a, +2a,]-2[24, —3ay +4,] >I = 2ay +3ay +442 1.13 Transformation of Vectors Getting familiar with the dot product and cross product, it is possible now to transform the vectors from one cordinate system to other coordinate system. 1.13.1 Transformation of Vectors from Cartesian to Cylindrical Consider a vector A in cartesian coordinate system as, A = Aca, +Ay ay +ALL ‘ a (I) While the same vector in cylindrical coordinate system can be represented as, A = A,a, +Agay +A, a, ww (2) From the dot product it is known that the component of vector in the direction of any unit vector is its dot product with that unit vector. Hence the component of Kin the direction &; is the dot product of A with a,. This component is nothing but Ay. A, = [Kea] a)) Ay = [Ayax tAy ay tAzaz] +a, A, = Asay ed, +Aydy 6 +A, 0, dy = @) The magnitudes of all unit vectors is unity hence it is necessary to find angle between the unit vectors to obtain the various dot products. The Fig. 1.42 (a) shows three dimensional view of various unit vectors. Consider a xy plane in which the angles between the unit vectors are shown, as in the Fig. 1.42 (b). The angle between ay and a; is $. The angle between ay and a, is 90-$. The angle between ay and ae is 90+.JNTU -EMWTL Vector Analysis 43 Fig. 1.42 Transformation of vectors The angle between ay and Hy is. = (I)(1)cos($) = cos = (1)(1)cos (90+) = -sing = (1)()cos (90-4) = sing = (A)()cos(¢) = cose &, +3, = 0 as &, is perpendicular to, and ay Pio op and a, «3, and ar * 4, r a a, a a 7 ay Substituting in (4) we get, Similarly finding A, as [A«a,] and A, as[A +a, ] we get, Ar = Axcosh+Ay sing Ag = -Axsing+Ay cosd | and A, = Az ‘ The results of dot product are summarized in the tabular form as, | Dot operator © % a a i i 00s -sing 0 3, sing cos o | a ° ° 1 Table 1.2 we (8) = (6) = (8) Q) .. (10) we AD) vw (12) (13)44 Vector Analysis JNTU - EMWTL The results of transformations can be expressed in the matrix form as, Ay cosp sing Of Ax Ag| = |-sind cose 0|/Ay Az o 0 1}fA. 1.13.2 Transformation of Vectors from Cylindrical to Cartesian Now it is necessary to find the transformation from cylindrical to cartesian hence assume J is known in cylindrical system. Thus component of A in a, direction is given by, = [A-a)=~Ara +Ag ay +A, az] oy Ax = Arde ed +Ag ig ex tAx az Fx w= (14) As dot product is commutative &, +4, = 3, +%, =cos@ and so on. Hence referring Table 1.2 we can write the results directly as, Ay = Ay cosé-Ay sing -- (15) Ay = Arsing +A,cosd (16) A, = Az . .- (17) The result can be summarized in the matrix form as, Ax cosh -sind O|fAy Ay| = |sing cosé 0//A, A; o o ala, Ex. 1.13 Transform the vector field W =10a, - 8a, +62: to cylindrical coardinate system, at point P(10,— 8,6). Sol.: From the given field W, Wy = 10, Wy =-8 and. W, =6 Now W, = Wea, =[10a, -8ay +64, ] + a, = 108, +3, -88y + 3, +68, 3, 10 (cos¢) -8(sind) +6(0) . Refer Table 1.2 For point P, x= 10 and y=-8 = tant d . Relation between cartesian and cylindrical fan! BF —38,6598°JNTU - EMWTL Vector Analysis As y is negative and x is positive, is in fourth quadrant. Hence $ calculated is correct. cosh = Wr = Now We = And W. = We 0.7808 and sing = - 0.6246 10% (0.7808) ~ 8x (- 0.6246) = 12.804 W. a, =108, - 3, -83, ay +68, + ay 10(-sing) - 8cosd +0 = 0 W.a, =10a, «8, -8ay 10x 0-8x0+6x1=6 12.804 4, +64, in cylindrical system. Ex. 114 Give the cartesian coordinates of the vector field H = 207, -107» +37, at point P(x=5,y =2 1), Sol.: The given vector is in cylindrical system. Hy = At point P, x =5, y Now e= cos 6 = Hy = Then Hy = And H, = H- 1.13.3. Transformation Hedy = 208, + @y -10dy + ay 43a, + By 20cos@ ~10(-sind) +0 ... Refer Table 1.2 =2 and z=-1 tan 2 = tan“) 3 =21.8014° 0.9284 and sing = 0.3714 20x (0.9284) + 10x 0.3714 = 22.282 Hedy = 208, « dy —10ay way +3a, way 20sing -10cosd +0 20(0.3714) -10 x (0.9284) = - 1.856 ii. 2 = 208, +B, 108, dy +30, 0 Be 20x0-10«043x1=3 22,282 3, - 1.856 Zy +34, in cartesian system. of Vectors from Cartesian to Spherical Let the vector A expressed in the cartesian system as, K-= Aya +Ay ay +A, a,46 Vector Analysis JNTU - EMWTL It is required to’ transform it into spherical system. The component of A in 4; direction is given by, Ar = Avay=[Axdc+Ay ay +Aza:] «ar = Agiiy ey +Ay dy op tA za: oy ww (18) Note : Though the radius representation r used in cylindrical and spherical systems is same, the directions a, in both the systems are different. Infact many times r is represented as p in cylindrical system. But p is used to represent other quantity in this book hence r is used in cylindrical system. Hence 3, «4, will be different when 3, is of spherical system than the 3, of cylindrical system and so on. While Ao = Aedo=[Acdet+Ay ay tArar]. ao = Agdy edo tAy Ty 0¥y AL ae © And Ao = Aeiy= = Aydy oBy tAy ay oa, + ALE, ay w+ (20) Axx tAy By tAzae] The dot products can be obtained by first taking the projection of spherical unit vector on the xy plane and then taking the projection onto the desired axis. Thus for Ay ea, project a, on the xy plane which is sin@ and then project on the x axis which is sin 8 cos. a @x +d, = Geax = sinOcoso In the similar fashion the other dot products can be obtained. The results of the dot products are summarized in the Table 1.3. eo y os 0 cos @ = sing 0s @ sin 08 # = sino 9 Table 1.3, Using the results of Table 1.3, the results of vector transformation from cartesian to spherical can be summarized in the matrix form as, Ar sin@cos} sin@sing cos® ][Ax Ao| = |cosdcos$ cosdsing -sine||Ay Ay sing cos 0 JlAzJNTU - EMWTL Veetor Analysis 47 1.13.4 Transformation of Vectors from Spherical to Cartesian To find the reverse transformation, assume that the A is known in spherical system as, A = Arar +Anan t+Ag ay Hence component of A in a,,ay and a, are given by A+a,, Asay and A+, respectively. Thus we get the results as, Ag = Asie ody tAg To ety + AG ay ody (21) Ay = Ay iy ely +Aq Rp +By +g By By (22) Az = Ardy dz +Aode ed, +Ag ay oar w+ (23) Using the Table 1.3, the results can be expressed in the matrix form as, Ax sin@cos@ cos@cosd -sind][Ar] Ay| =|sin@sing cosOsing cosd el Ar cos? sind 0 Ag 4.43.5 Distances in all Coordinate Systems Consider two points A and B with the position vectors as, Az=x ax ty1ay +28, and B=x2 ay + y2ay +224, then the distance d between the two points in all the three coordinate systems are given by, d= \(e -m)? #(y2 -yi) #@2- 21) » Cartesian d= yr? +12 -2n rz cos(b2 91) +(22 -21)° .. Cylindrical d= fr} +1? -2 1 cosO2 cos®; = 2m rp sinO» sin®, cos(2—61) _.. Spherical These results may be used directly in electromagnetics wherever required. Ex, 115 Obtain the spherical coordinates of 10 ay at the point P(x=-3,y =2,2=4). Sol.: Given vector is in cartesian system say F=10a,. Then Fy = Fea, =10a, +a, = 10 sin 8 cos 6 »» Refer Table 1.3 At point P, x=-3, y=2, z=448 Vector Analysis JNTU - EMWTL Using the relationship between cartesian and spherical, x=rsin@cos# y=rsinOsing z=rcosd 33.699 o= tant ¥ tant 2 But x is negative and y is posi add 180° to the 6 to get correct 4. re hence @ must be between +90° and +180°. So $= -33.69°4180°= + 146.31° cos} = ~ 0.832 and sin} = 0.5547 And @ = cost 2 = e081 2 _. PO ee = cost 4 = 42.0811 (3° + +4)? cos@ = 0.7428 and sin 6 = 0.6695 F, = 10x 0.6695 x (— 0.832) = - 5.5702 Fy = Feag =108, & =10cosdcosd = 10x 0.7428 x (~ 0.832) = - 6.18 Fy = Fea, =10a, 4, =10(-sing) = 10x(- 0.5547) =~ 5.547 - 5.5702 &, ~ 6.18 a» - 5.547 a, in spherical system. @,+sinOay in the cartesian coordinates. Hence obtain B at Sol.: Given B is in spherical system as there is sin@ in it and its cartesian coordinates are to be obtained, Referring Table 1.3, ‘ By = Bea, =12 a, ody tind By Be = 1 sin@cosd +sin6(=sing) a» (a) Then By = Beay =r? 4, «dy +sin0 a, ay = 1? sinOsing +sin0 cos sa (b) And B, = B.a, =r? 4, «a, +sin a «a, u 1? cos0 + sin@(0) = ¥? cos 0 -- (©)JNTU - EMWTL Vector Analysis 49 Now it is known that, ra fPaFTeF, patent and On cos 2 Fig. 1.43 From Fig. 1.43, x x? ty? xP +y? sing = — 2 _., cos¢ sing = 2°72" and cosa =2 r y yxtey?! T Using in (a), (b) and (c) we get, p= piety x vey? (iy a Very? (9 Le fF aye ()-—_ Nh? + y? +22 ys y r feey? r fe ey? x x = (ry) tla fx? +y? +27 (y) + (yltiaye ty ®) Jayna? B, 2y 2 (2)=feryi oe Bx Za(e2)= xt ty? 4a (2) Ve B = Bray + By dy +B, a, Thus B at P (1, 2, 3) is, B= 3.207 a, + 7.7504 ay + 11.2248 a,50 Vector Analysis JNTU - EMWTL Examples with Solutions Ex. 117 Given A=5a, and B=4i, +Byay then find By such that angle between A and B is 45°. If B also has a term By @:, what relationship must exist between By and B.? [M.U. May-99] Sol: A=5a, and B=4a, +By ay, Onn =45° Now = Ax By +Ay By +A, B, = (x4)+(}+(Q=20 But = |A] [B|cosOas 20 = 6)? x(a)? +(By x cos45° = 5.6568 By = 16 By = +4 Now B = 4a, +By ay +B,a, Still A-B = 20 20 = (6)? (ay? +(By)? + (Bz)? «cos 45? /i6+B3 +B? = 5.6568 Bz +B2 = 16 This is the required relation between By and B,. Ex. 1.18 Find the unit vector directed towards the point (x1,y1,21) from an arbitrary point in the plane y= =5. (M.U. May-2000] Sol.; The plane y = ~ 5 is parallel to xz plane as shown in the Fig. 1.44. The coordinates of point P are (x, ~ 5,2) as y = — 5 is constant. While Q is arbitrary point having coordinates (x1-y1-21). To find unit vector along f the direction PQ. ( OG 2) iro Fig, 1,44JNTU - EMWTL Vector Analysis, 54 PQ = (x -x)ax +(y1 -(-5))ay +(as - 2) ae IPQ] = ex -%)? +(y1 +8)" +(21 -2)" ag = CUM ER + (yi +5)ay +(z1 -Z)ae (x1 = x)? +(y1 #5)? #(z1 - 2)? Ex. L19 Use the cylindrical coordinate system to find the area of the curved surface of a right circular cylinder where r = 20 m, h = 5m and 30°< $120 (M.U. May-2000) Sol.: The cylinder is shown in the Fig. 1.45. 2 It can be seen that the radius r=20m is constant. The curved surface area is normal to the unit vector radially coming outward which is a;. The differential surface area normal to 2, is r db dz. The $ varies from 30° to 120° while z varies from 0 to 5m, hd S=[ [ rdpdz om Note : @ must be used in radians while calculating area. Fig. 1.45 dr = 302% rad and $2 =120%= 32 rad ania S Ss. j 20d dz=20 [6], [z]5 = 50 nm? = 157.0796 m? Ex. 1.20 Use spherical coordinates to write the differential surface areas dS, and dS, as shown and integrate to obtain the surfaces areas A and B as shown in the Fig. 1.46,52 Vector Analysis JNTU - EMWTL. Fig. 1.46 Sol.: Consider differential surface area dS). The unit vector perpendicular to it is in the direction of increasing 6 i.e. a5. Hence d5; is d54. dS, = rdrd@ a, A = ff cdrdo Now r is changing from 0 to 1 while @ is changing from 0 to 90°. (Note that @ is measured from z axis.). As Tfre#-[], ph” But for areas angles must be taken in radians. The differential surface area dS is on the curved surface of sphere, the direction normal to it is from origin radially going outward i.e. 3, dS, = 1? sindd0doa,(JNTU - EMWTL Vector Analysis 53 Now r is constant as 1m. The © varies from 0 to 90° i.e. 0 to x/2 rad while @ is varying from 30° to 90° ie. n/6 rad to x/2 rad. n2x/2 x2 J [ ©? sinadodg = [ [-cosof” do wi 0 x16 -(- 72h RR [9-CQ] Bhis=3-g-3™ Ex. 121 Given points P(r =5,6 =60°,z=2) and Q(r=2,h =110°,z==1) in cylindrical coordinate system. Find i) Unit vector in cartesian coordinates at P directed towards Q ii) Unit vector in cylindrical coordinates at P directed towards Q. Sol.; Let us obtain the cartesian coordinates of P and Q. B It is known that x=rcos$, y=rsin@ and 2=z :. P (25, 4.33, 2) and Q (- 0.684, 1.8793, - 1) i) The unit vector from P to Q is, apg = FO _O-F store B and Dare position vectors PQ| |PQ| 0.684 ~2.5)ai, + (1.8793 -4.33)ay +(-1-2)a, [FQ] ~ Fpq = - 0.6349 4, ~ 0.4887 a, - 0.5983 4, ii) The vector PQ = - 3.184 a, - 2.4507 ay -3a, .» as obtained earlier. Let us transform this into cylindrical coordinates. (PQ), = PQ-a, =~ 3.1844, -3, — 2.45074, -3, —33, «3, = 3.184 cos $ - 2.4507 (-sind) +0 w Refer Table 1.2 At point P, 6 = 60° * (PQ), = 3.184 0.5 -2.4507(- 0,866) = 0.5303 (PQ), = PQea, = - 3.184 a, oa, ~ 2.4507 ay «8, -3a. oy = — 3.184 (-sing) - 2.4507 cos ¢54 Vector Analysis. JNTU - EMWTL. (PQ), = 3.184 (- 0.866) - 2.4507 x 05 = 1.5319 and (PQ), = PQ+a, =-3 PQ = 05303 4, + 1.5319 3, -33, + PO __ 0.53034, +1.5319a, -3a, “ro * TPO] (0.5303)? +(1.5319)" +(-3)? = 0.155 a, + 0.449 ay — 0.88 a, Point P (x, y, 2) Unit vectors Gx, B and Gr Position vector of point, B = xy + yy +2 Be Magnitude of B= yxts yie a? Unit vector in the direction of a= a IPI Distanca between the two points = (x2 m1)' + (y2— yi) + (a2 - 21) Different ingihs are dy dy, de Differential vector length di = dx 8, + dy 8, + dz &, Differentiol surface orea 3, = dy dt , = dk dea, 5, = dk dy Differential volume dy = dx dy dz oe Cylindrical coordinate system Point P ir, 4,2) Unit vectors & Ge, Ss ‘The limits of variobles = «0 < rem Os ¢<2n Vector of o point, P=PGr+ Pest Ge Differential lengths ore dr, rg, dz Differential vector length di = dr Gy + rp Gy+ dr GyJNTU - EW & Transmission Line Vector Analysis 55 surface areas d5, = dp dr @, =drdray = ride dpe Differential volume dy = rd rd 6 de Spherical coordinate system Point P (c, 6,6) Unit vectors iy, Ge, By The limits of voriobles = 0 sr cw Os Spherical Spherical > Cortesion ee xara eens = ton ¥ Y= Fein On 6 cor 8 [Note : The value of 6 must be obtained by verifying the signs of x and y.Vector Analysis JNTU - EMWTL - Scalar or Dot product + AT ... Distributive Vector or Cross product AXB =| A} | B [sin ee whore Gin = Unit vector perpendicular to the plano of A ond B ight hand screw rule 81a = Smoller angle between A and the direction decided by Rx (@+O)-5 For parallal vectors, cress product Is rere, AxR=0 Bu xB = By xB, = Gy xT, =OJNTU - EMWTL Vector Analysis OG Anticlockwise positive result Clockwise negative result ax =8, a, a,5- a, Applicable in all the three coordinate systems Fig. 1.48 a 3, a Ay Ay Ag) a By Br Note : The result can be used in ail coordinate systems by proper replacement of unit vee~ tors and components. Product of three vectors Scalar triple product is, As Ay Ay Ae(BxC)=/B, 8, 8, Ic. cy C, RxE = c+ In cartesian co ‘Oe role Cartesian to cylindrical, A= Ay & +A,5, + Ax Se % ApaAe dy,Vector Analysis cos} sing Ae ing 0] [Ax Ay|=|-sing cose || A, AL o 0 lA, ApsRe ew 2 eylindeec to cartesian, R= Ay H+ Ayiy+ Axi, Ar] [cose -sing 0] [Ar Ay]=|sing cose 0] Ay ad [0 0 a \A 3. Cartesian to spherical, AsdatAy By +A, By JNTU - EMWTL A =Ae&, AgsAs &, AyoAe B Dot operator «| a, ay a sind cosh £058 cos = sing 5, sind sing c0s0 sing cosh a cos) = sind o Ac] [sine cosd sindsing eos] [A] As| = ]eos8 cos cos Osind -sind] | A, Al | -sing cosh 0 LAL 4, Spherleal to carteslon, A=0, &+Aode+A 43, Avo Re B,, Apahe Gy, AoA &, As] [sin cos eosdeos > -sin4][A, Ay] =|sinO sin § cosdsind cos || Av Ay. coro -sino oo LA, Note : If vector P is transformed from one coordinate system to other and “ Pix yz) = Pr, 6,2) = Pr, 0.6) then [PG y.2)1 = 1P(.4 2)] = 1P9.4)1 [This can be used to check the correctness of transformation. Review Questions 1. What isa scalar and scalar field ? Give tooo examples. What is a vector and vector field ? Give two examples. 3. What is a unit vector ? What és its significance in the vector representation ? How to find unit vector along a particular vector ? 1. Explain cartesian coordinate system and differential elements in cartesian coordinate system. Explain cylindrical coordinate system and differential elements in cylindrical coordinate system. 5. Explain spherical coordinate system and differential elements in spherical coordinate system.JNTU = EMWTL Vector Analysis. 59 7. What ia a dot product ? Explain its significance and applications. 8 What is a eross product ? Explain its properties and applications. 10. 11. 13, 14, 15, 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Explain the relationship between cartesian and cylindrical as well as cartesian and spherical systems. How fo transform the vectors front one coordinate system to other ? Given to points A (5, 4, 3) and B (2, 3, 4). Find: A+B i) A+B it) Oan iv) AXB v) Unit vector normal to the plane containing A and B. vi) Area of parallelogrant of which A and B are adjacent sides. (Ans, 173, +78y +742, 34, 26.7627, O41 a, -O.82a, +0412, 17.1464) (Hint, s For area |A| |B] sin qn =[A xB]] If two positions vectors given are, A = -2@, -5ay—4a, and B=22, +32, +52, then find, i) AB ii) Hq iti) Hp iv) Tag v) Unit vector in the direction from C to A where C is G58). . [Ans : 4a, +8ay +982, - 0.2982, - 0.745 ay ~ 0.5964, ,— 0.3244, + 0.4864, -0811a,, 03153, + 0.634, + 0.712,,-0.304a, -0.61ay -0.7323,] Find the value of B such that the angle between the vectors A=2a, +i, +40, and B =-2a, a, + Bae is 45°, _ — _ _ _fAns. 7.9] For the vectors, A =2a,-2a, +2, and B=3i,+5ay-2a, find A«B , AxB and show that AXB =-(BXA (Ans. :-6,-a, +78, +168.) Show that A =4a, -2a, ix +4 iy 47, are mutually perpendicular vectors. (Hint. : Show A+B = 0] Find the angle between the vectors, @,+42,-2, and B=3a,+6a,-42, using dot product and cross product. _ (Ans, : 18.21°] Consider two vectors P = 40, +108, and @ =2i + 3%, Find the projection of P and Q, [Ans. 3.328} 19=-50°,2= 2), find the distance of Given the points A ¢x = 2, y = = and 3 A and B from the origin. Also find distance A to [Ans. 23.74, 4.47, 6.78) Given the two points A (r = 2, y = 3, z = - 1) and Br =4,8=25°, 6=120°) Find the spherical coordinates of A, cartesian coordinates of B and distance AB. (Ans.: A (3.74, 105.5%, 56.319, B (- 0.845, 1.46, 3.627, 5.64) 1 Transform the vector 5 i, at Q(x = 3, y = 4, z= ~2) to the cylindrical coordinates. [Ans.:3%- 451 Q0g02 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity 2.1. Introduction Electrostatics is a very important step in the study of engineering electromagnetics. Electrostatics is a science related to the electric charges which are static ie. are at rest. An electric charge has its effect in a region or a space around it. This region is called an electric field of that charge. Such an electric field produced due to stationary electric charge does not vary with time. It is time invariant and called static electric field. The study of such time invariant electric fields in a space or vacuum, produced by various types of static charge distributions is called electrostatics. A very common example of such a field is a field used in cathode ray tube for focusing and deflecting a beam. Electrostatics plays a very important role in our day to day life. Most of the computer peripheral devices like keyboards, touch pads, liquid crystal displays etc. work on the principle of electrostatics. A variety of machines such as X-ray machine and medical instruments used for electrocardiograms, scanning etc. use the principle of electrostatics. Many industrial processes like spray painting, electrodeposition etc. also use the principle of electrostatics. Electrostatics is also used in the agricultural activities like sorting seeds, spraying to plants ete. Many components such as resistors, capacitors etc. and the devices such as bipolar transistors, field effect transistors function based on electrostatics. Hence this chapter introduces the basic concepts of electrostatics. 2.2 Coulomb's Law The study of electrostatics starts with the study of the results of the experiements performed by an engineer from the French Army Engineers, Colonel ‘Charles Coulomb. The experiments are related to the force exerted between the two point charges, which are placed near each other. The force exerted is due to the electric fields produced by the point charges. (60)62 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity JNTU EMWTL where k = Constant of proportionality 22.1.4 Constant of Proportionality (K) The constant of proportionality takes into account the effect of medium, in which charges are located. In the International System of Units (SI), the charges Q: and Q2 are expressed in Coulombs (C), the distance R in metres (m) and the force F in newtons (N). Then to satisfy Coulomb's law, the constant of proportionality is defined as, ~ @) where «= Permittivity of the medium in which charges are located The units of ¢ are farads/metre (F/m). In general c is expressed as, & = fof a» (4) where eo = Permittivity of the free space of vacuum &, = Relative permittivity or dielectric constant of the medium with respect to free space £ = Absolue permittivity For the free space or vacuum, the relative permittivity ¢, =1, hence B= 8 9 -° The value of permittivity of free space £0 is, = ghex107 = 885410" F/m » 6) ks te 98 109 9x10 M/F. (7) Treg ” Gnv 6.654 x10JNTU EMWTL Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity 63 Hence the Coulomb's law can be expressed as, This is the force between the two point charges located in free Space or vacuum. Key Point: As Q is measured in Coulomb, R in metre and F in newton, the units of co are, , ~_ 00 _@ Unit of 0 = A ey Nom ~ Cl * Nem" m ce . . But Wom = Farad which is practical unit of capacitance Unit of eo = F/m 2.2.2. Vector Form of Coulomb's Law The force exerted between the two point charges has a fixed direction which is a straight line joining the two charges. Hence the force exerted between the two charges can be expressed in a vector form. ‘Consider the two point charges Qi and Qz located at the points having position vectors % and % as shown in the Fig. 2.2. Then the force exerted by Q; on Q: acts along the direction Ri2 where Zi2 is unit vector along Riz. Hence the force in the vector form can be expressed as, 2 a -@) Vector tn = Uni long Riz = Vector _ where Tia_= Unit vector along Riz = 7 inde of vector Fig. 2.2 Vector form of Coulomb's law Ru .R-h_ B-h Ms iz = [ito] Tk Thon] ww (10) where |Ru| = R = distance between the two charges64 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field intensity JNTU EMWTL The following observations are important : 1. As shown in the Fig. 2.3, the force R, is the force exerted on Qi due to Qo. It can be expressed as, FH = iQ: TnegR3, = _Q1Q: Grea, “Ta-8] «= (11) a But a-® = -[h-a] au = -an Hence substituting in (11), F QQ. (5 A= = A ‘1 TaeoR3, ¢ ai s+ (12) Hence force exerted by the two charges on each other is equal but opposite in direction. 2. The like charges repel each other while the unlike charges attract each other. This is shown in the Fig. 2.3. These are experiement conclusions though not reflected in the mathematical expression. Fig. 2.3 3. It is necessary that the two charges are the point charges and stationary in nature. 4, The two point charges may be positive or negative, Hence their signs must be considered while using equation (9) to calculate the force exerted. 5. The Coulomb's law is linear which shows that if any one charge is increased ‘n' times then the force exerted also increass by n times. Fr = -Fi then nF2 =-nFt where n = scalarCoulomb's Law and Electric Fi 2.2.3 Force Due to n Number of Charges If there are mor than two point charges, then each will exert force on the other, then the net force on any charge can be obtained by the principle of superposition. Consider a point charge Q surrounded by three other point charges Q1, Q2 and Qs, as shown in the Fig. 24. The total force on Q in such a case is vector sum of all the forces exerted on Q due to each of the other point charges Q,Q2 and Qs- Consider force exerted on Q due to Qy. At this time, according to principle of superposition effects of Q2 and Q3 are to be suppressed. ANTU EMWTL si: Intensity 65 + (13) w (14) where And force exerted due to Q3 on Q is, ww (15) where66 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity JNTU 5 EMWTL Hence the total force on Q is, Fo = Foo +Fo.0 +Fo,0 to— In general if there are n other charges then force exerted on Q due to all other n charges is, (7) w= (18) 2.2.4 Steps to Solve Problems on Coulomb's Law Step 1: Obtain the position vectors of the points where the charges are located. Step 2; Obtain the unit vector along the straight line joining the charges. The direction is towards the charge on which the force exerted is to be calculated. Step 3: Using Coulomb's law, express the force exerted in the vector form. Step 4: If there are more charges, repeat steps 1 to 3 for each charge exerting a force on the charge under consideration. Step 5: Using the principle of superposition, the vector sum of all the forces calculated earlier is the resultant force, exerted on the charge under consideration. Ex.21 A charge Qi: =-20uC is located at P (- 6, 4, 6) and a charge Qz =50pC is located at R (5, 8, ~ 2) in a free space, Find the force exerted on Q by Qi in vector form, The distances given are in metres. Sol.: From the co-ordinates of P and R , the respective position vectors are - P= -68, +43, +63, and R= 5a, +8ay -2a, The force on Q2 is given by, Fe = 2102 Fe FreqRh an Ru = Rex [5-(-6)] ax +(8-4) ay +[-2-()ax] =11%, +4¥y ~ 8a, Vn? +)? +8? =14.1774 2 "JNTU EMWTL, Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity 67 z ROa, 68-2) Fig. 28 118, +43, -83, TA74 art = 0.7758 3, +0.2821 ay - 0.5642 a, . Fi = — 20x 10°6 x 50 x 10-6 [2] ~ Anx 8.854 «10 x(14.774)2 = — 0.0447 [0.7758 a, +0,2821 ay - 0.5642 a, ] ww fA) = -0.0346 3, -0.01261 a, + 0.02522 a, N wo (B) This is the required force exerted on Qz by Qu. The magnitude of the force is, |F2| = /(0.0346)* + (0.01261)* +(- 0.02522)" = 44.634 mN Key Point: Note that as the two charges are of opposite polarity, the force F2 is attractive in nature, As shown in the Fig. 2.5, it acts ir opposite direction to 32, as indicated by _ negative sign in the equation (A). Ex.22 Four point charges each of 10 wC are placed in free space at the points (2, 0, 0), (-1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and (0, ~ 1, 0) m respectively. Determine the force on a point charge of 30 uC located at a point (0, 0, 1) m. QNTU-June 2002) Sol.: Use the principle of superposition as there are four charges exerting a force on the fifth charge. The locations of charges are shown in the Fig. 2.6.68 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field intensity JNTWEMWTL D Q, (01,0) Fig. 2.6 The position vectors of four points at which the charges Q, to Q, are located can be obtained as, Aza,, B=-a,, C=ay and D=-ay while position vector of point P where charge of 30 uC is situated is, P= a ‘Consider force on Q due to Q; alone, z QQ QQ: Rie Fi = —— ~—iio= GnegRig '° FneR¥q [Ria] where Rie = @.-a, and |Rig|=V1? +1? = V2 = 30x 10-6 x 10x 10-6 [= #| Fi = : 4x 8.854 «10-2 x(Y2) L v2 a 0.9533 [a, =a, ] = (1) It can be seen from the Fig. 2.6 that due to symmetry, [Roo] = [Rea] = foo] = Real = v2 Now Rog = =3,45,, Inq = 5, +8, /V2 Rg = =8,-ay, Ags ~ay /2 Rig = = H.+¥y, Fag = 5, +ay /V2JNTU-EMWTL | Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity 69 Force on Q due to Qz = 222 ag FrooRiy ml " a " Force on Q due to Q3 = Fa = Force on Q due to Qs = 7 QQ2 _ _QQ3 QQs 3010 x 10x 10* AncoRIg — AncaRig AreoRig aux 8.854 x10"? x(/3)" = 13481 ® Eta, Jus c Fr = 13481 = 0.9533 (a, +ay Q : [B32 ]-09m0@. +8) @ = ay [Bey et F3 = 13481 =0.9533 (a, =ay) au) B a, +4, Fy = 13481 F st |-0988 +8y) » Hence the total force F, exerted on Q due to all four charges is vector sum of the individual forces exerted on Q, by the charges. 4 Fo-R+h+Kh+R 0.9533 [a; — a, +, +8, +8, = 38133, N 2.3 Electric Field Intensity Consider a point charge Q as shown in Fig. 2.7 (a). ly +z + ay] Fe te) Fig. 2.7 Electric field70 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity JNTU EMWTL If any other similar charge Q2 is brought near it, Q2 experiences a force. Infact if Qz is moved around Q,, still Qx experiences a force as shown in the Fig. 2.7 (a). ‘Thus there exists a region around a charge in which it exerts a force on any other charge. This region where a particular charge exerts a force on any other charge located in that region is called electric field of that charge. The electric field of Q; is shown in the Fig. 2.7 (b). The force experienced by the charge Q2 due to Q1 is given by Coulomb's law as, F = 2:02 3, 4ncoRi, Thus force per unit charge can be written as, Fr Qs B- wig = (l) This force exerted per unit charge is called electric field intensity or electric field strength. It is a vector quantity and is directed along a segment from the charge Q; to the position of any other charge. It is denoted as E. w= (2) where P = position of any other charge around Q The equation (2) is the electric field intensity due to a single point charge Q, in a free space or vacuum. Another definition of electric field intensity is the force experienced by a unit positive test charge i.e. Qz = 1C. Consider a charge Qi as shown in the Fig. 28. The unit positive charge Q2 = IC is placed at a distance R from Qi. Then the force acting on Q2 due to Qy is along the unit vector 3p. As the charge Q2 is unit charge, the force exerted on Qz is nothing but electric field intensity E of Q; at the point where unit charge is placed. Fig. 2.8JNTU EMWTL: Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity 71 -- B) Reo If a charge Q; is located at the center of the spherical coordinate system then unit vector 4p in the equation (3) becomes the radial unit vector 3, coming radially outwards from Qi. And the distance R is the radius of the sphere r. E- 2 Ancor = @; in spherical system -- (4) 2.3.1 Units of E The definition of electric field intensity is, Force (N) Newtons Unitcharge (©) Coulomb Hence units of E is N/C. But the electric potential has units J/C ie. Nm/C and hence E is also measured in units V/m (volts per metre). This unit is used practically to express E. 2.3.2. Method of Obtaining E in Cartesian System Consider a charge Q: located at point A(x1,y1,21) as shown in the Fig. 2.9. It is required to obtain E at any point B(x,y,z) in the cartesian system. Then E at point B can be obtained using following steps : Step 1: Obtain the position vectors of points A and B. * i, = A while their coordinates Fig. 2.9 E In cartesian system « A=maytyiay+za, and B = xa, + yay +24. Step 2: Find the distance vector R directed from A to B. R= B-K=(x-m)ae H(y-yi)ay +(2-21) 3 Step 3; Find the unit vector ag along the direction from A to B. m= RBH R= IR] [B-A]JNTU EMWTL Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity 75 Fig. 2.13, Ey is field at P due to Q,, and will act along Sar. Ep is field at P due to Q2 and will act along apr. E Qa o5 2 a E, = “13 ‘Treo Rp Trey Rip |P Ey = —22__ ayp-_@_x Treo Ry" “Taco Ry [PB] 1_|Q: PA ,Q: P-B Treo | Rip [P-A] “Re, [P= B| :. Eat P= E, +Ep 1[-ax +2ay +22] _Q2 [Sax +2ay +242] Te OO +e CATE +O +" 4 a 2 | ~ Freo @ 70.0927 The y component of E must be zero. 2Q2 _ a a * 7007 = ° : _ 270.0927 __ t Q: = - ox OO" .-2596 ¢ This is the required charge Q2 to be placed at (-2,0,0) which will make y component of E zero at point P.76 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity JNTU EMWTL, 2.4 Types of Charge Distributions Uptill now the forces and electric fields due to only point charges are considered. In addition to the point charges, there is possibility of continuous charge distributions along a line, on a surface or in a volume. Thus there are four types of charge distributions which are, 1. Point charge 2. Line charge 3. Surface charge 4. Volume charge 2.4.1 Point Charge It is seen that if the dimensions of a surface carrying charge are very very small compared to region surrounding it then the surface can be treated to be a point. The corresponding charge is called point charge. The point charge has a position but not the dimensions. This is shown in the Fig. 2.14 (a). The point charge can be positive or negative. 2.4.2 Line Charge It is possible that the charge may be spreaded all along a line, which may be finite or infinite. Such a charge uniformly distributed along a line is called a line charge. This is shown in the Fig. 2.14 (b). st a, ae + foe Q, g - aoe (a) Point charges {b) Line charges Fig. 2.14 Charge distributions The charge density of the line charge is denoted as py, and defined as charge per unit length. . py. = otal charge in coulomb (@ ,.) Thus px is measured in C/m. The p. is constant all along the length L of the line carrying the charge.78 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity JNTU EMWTL Ps (C/m Total area in square metres Thus ps is expressed in C / m?. The ps is constant over the surface carrying the charge. 2.4.3.1 Method of Finding Q from ps In case of surface charge distribution, it is necessary to find the total charge Q by considering elementary surface area dS, The charge dQ on this differential area is given by ps dS. Then integrating this dQ over the given surface, the total charge Q is to be obtained. Such an integral is called a surface integral and mathematically given by, Qs f dQ=f ps dS ~ @) s s The plate of a charged parallel plate capacitor is an example of surface charge distribution. If the dimensions of the sheet of charge are very large compared to the distance at which the effects of charge are to be considered then the distribution is called infinite sheet of charge. 2.4.4 Volume Charge If the charge distributed uniformly in a volume then it is called volume charge. The volume charge is shown in the Fig. 2.16. Fig. 2.16 Volume charge distribution The volume charge density is denoted as p, and defined as the charge per unit volume, Total charge in coulomb (_C Total volume in cubic metres m Thus py is expressed in C/m>.JNTU EMWTL. Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity 79 24.4.1 Method of Finding Q fram py In case of volume charge distribution, consider the differential volume dv as shown in the Fig, 2.16, Then the charge dQ possessed by the differential volume is pvdv. Then the total charge within the finite given volume is to be obtained by integrating the dQ throughout that volume. Such an integral is called volume integral. Mathematically it is given by, w 4) The charged cloud is an example of volume charge. Key Point: In alt the integrals tine, surface and volume a single integral sign is used but practically for surface integral it becomes double integration while to integrate throughout the volume it becomes triple integration. Similarly ps and py can be functions of the co-ordinates of the system used e.g. ps = 4xy Ci’, py = 202 & Y Cin? ete. Ex.26 Find the total charge inside a volume having volume charge density as 102? e~9lx sin zy C / m3. The volume is defined between -2< x<2,0Sy<1 and 38284. Sol.: Given py =10z? e~™'*sinzy C/m? Consider differential volume in cartesian system as, dv = dx dy dz dQ = py dv =10z% e-%sinny dx dy dz Q= Joa vol But now it becomes triple integration 412 Q= f Jf f were xsiney dx dy dz BB yaOxe-2 41 enone J J 1022 sinay | | dy dz =01 int yoo la 1 j 1022 [-S22] [ a3 m 0 3} fa OST = COs! = lS] [ c zest) 4.0267 z z " = 316.162 C80 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity JNTU.EMWTL 2.5 Electric Field Intensity Due to Various Charge Distributions It is known that the electric field intensity due to a point charge Q is given by, E Q =~ aa QnegR? * Let us consider various charge distributions. 2.5.4 E Due to Line Charge Consider a line charge distribution having a charge density pi as shown in the Fig. 2.17. The charge dQ on the differential length dl is, dQ = px dl Hence the differential electric field dE at point P due to dQ is given by, Fig, 2.17 xg - 92 ,,_ prd!l . dE = Treg Rt ® = GnegR?o® =) Hence the total E at a point P due to line charge can be obtained by integrating dE over the length of the charge. Bej pid! 5. 2) _ ane R? The ax and dl is to be obtained depending upon the coordinate system used. 2.5.2 E Due to Surface Charge Consider a surface charge distribution having a charge density ps as shown in the Fig, 2.18. The charge dQ on the differential surface area dS is, dQ =ps as Fig. 2.1882 ‘Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity JNTU EMWTL , where Ep,E,,Es and Ey are the field intensities due to point, line, surface and volume charge distributions respectively. Let us discuss and learn the method of obtaining electric field intensities under widely varying charge distributions. 2.6 Electric Field Due to Infinite Line Charge Consider an infinitely long straight line carrying uniform line charge having density p, C/m. Let this line lies along z-axis from —o to « and hence called infinite line charge. Let point P is on y axis at which electric field intensity is to be determined. The distance of point P from the origin is ‘r’ as shown in the Fig. 2.20. Fig. 2.20 Field due to infinite line charge Consider a small differential length di carrying a charge dQ, along the line as shown in the Fig. 2.20, It is along z axis hence di = dz. dQ = p. di =p, dz = (I) The coordinates of dQ are (0, 0, z) while the coordinates of point P are (0, r, 0). ‘Hence the distance vector R can be written as, ray -23,] 2)JNTU EMWTL Coulomb's Law and Electric Field intensity 83 pide 4nco( Vr? +27 ) dE - —#0_5, - rey R ' a ' (El = [Eat Equal and opposite hence cancel Now by integrating dE over the z axis from = to point P. PL rdzay ‘neo(e? + es aye Note : For such an integration, use the substitution z= rtand ie repte dz = rsec0 do Here r is not the variable of integration. For z=-«, 6 =tan!(-«) =—n/2=-90° For z=+@, 05 tan! (0) = 2/2 =+90° ray -2a, —easlel Note : For every charge on positive z axis there is equal charge present on negative z axis. Hence the % component of electric field intensities produced by such charges at point P will cancell each other. Hence effectively there will not be any z component of E at P. This is shown in the Fig. 2.21. Hence the equation of dE be written by elliminating 4, component, can 4) © we can obtain total E at } changing the limits84 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity JNTU EMWTL a2 E PL oeraa 40 [r? +r? tan? 0]? ms " rx rsec?@ dO ay pr "2 12sec? odo pe “{ —tsect odes y Ameo _Jyr3[1+tan20] But 1+tan?6 = E= = ro : i cos8 d0ay sec O=— 0 pu fe = = Pt |sin 5 —sin| Treo SiN By #,[ 2 Teer BOOS = FG? E PL wea Vim 2 (5) Key Point : If without considering symmetry of charges and without cancelling = component from dE, if integration is carried aut, it gives the same answer, The integration results the z component of Eto be mathematically zero, The result of equation (5) which is specifically in cartesian system can be generalized. The a is unit vector along the distance r which is perpendicular distance of point P from the line charge. Thus in general Sy = ay. Hence the result of E can be expressed as, ~- (6) where r = Perpendicular distance of point P from the line charge = Unit vector in the direction of the perpendicular distance of point P from the line charge Very important notes : 1. The field intensity E at any point has no component in the direction parallel to the line along which the charge is located and the charge is infinite. For example if line charge is parallel to z axis, E can not have a, component, if line charge is parallel to y axis, E can not have ay component. This makes the integration calculations easy.JNTU EMWTL Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity 85 2. The above equation consists r and a, which do not have meanings of cylindrical coordinate system. The distance r is to be obtained by distance formula while 3, is unit vector in the direction of ®. Key Point: This result can be used as a standard result for solving other problems. 2.7 Electric Field Due to Charged Circular Ring Consider a charged circular ring of radius r placed in xy plane with centre at origin, carrying a charge uniformly along its circumference. The charge density is py, C/m. The point P is at a perpendicular distance '2' from the ring as shown in the Fig. 2.22. Consider a small differential length dl on this ring. The charge on it is dQ. dQ = pi dl _ pid! - ae Treoke ® ~ M) Fig. 222 where R = Distance of point P from di Consider the cylindrical coordinate system. For dl we are moving in 4 direction where dl = r dg. s dl = edo = Q) Now RE = rt 422 .. ftom Fig. 2.22 While R can be obtained from its two components, in cylindrical system as shown in the Fig. 2.23(a). The two components are, 1) distance r in the direction of -a,, radially inwards ie. -ray. 2) distance z in the direction of ay ie. z a, o R= -ra, +za, 3) Key Point: This method can be used conveniently to obtain R by identifying its components in the direction of unit vectors in the co-ordinate system considered. Fig. 2.23(a)86 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity JNTU EMWTL, [Ry = Sno Vee A) . ra, +24, iki Ve a pidl | dnc (Va) _ pi (rd) © 4neo(r? +22) a) Note : The radial components of E at point P will be symmetrically placed in the plane parallel to xy plane and are going to cancel each other. This is shown in the Fig. 2.23 (b). Hence neglecting 4, component from dE we get, ee maneyTm Radial components ‘are symmetrical ds canceling Es purdg va each other Ee et goo 4meo (1? +z?) _ pur ax "Tre ye 2 Bb 4neo(t? +22) .. Integration wart. } (8) Fig. 2.23 (b) where r = Radius of the ring 2 = Perpendicular distance of point P from the ring along the axis of the ring This is the electric field at a point P (0, 0, z) due to the circular ring of radius r placed in xy plane. Ex.2.7 Prove that the electric field intensity at a point P located at a distance r from an infinite line charge with uniform charge density of py, Cfm is, E=sP&— a, in REQ cylindrical coordinate system. Sol.: Consider that the line charge is located along z axis as shown in the Fig, 2.24.JNTU EMWTL Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity 87 Consider the —_ differential length dl carrying the charge dQ. Now di = dz_... along z axis *. dQ = pr dl =p, dz In cylindrical coordinate system the distance vector R has two components as shown in the Fig. 2.24 (a) Fig, 2.24 (b). 1) The component along negative z direction i.e. — 2 a, 2) The component along ay which is r a,. (Radial component). R = ra,-za, 2 IRl= {@’ +@y? =v +2? . = R Lrie-za, Fig. 2.24 (b) IR] Vr +22 aE = att | 4 nee (SPP ree y vr? +2 Hence E can be obtained by integrating dE along z axis from —s to «. It can be noted that due to symmetry z component will cancell in E but let us prove it mathematically. rea Ee pu dz, = rt - 28, pee 460 (1? +22)" 1 _ pile tdz oF 2dz _ . . * Treo) J atte] atte] -- Separating variablesJNTU EMWTL 88 » Goulomb's Law and Electric Field intensity . z Put ze=rtan@ = ie Tao dz = r sec? do =- =tan-l(-0) == _ For 2=—«, 0 =tan“l(-m) =—5 = —90° _- Change of limits For 2=+0, 0=tanI(s) =+ Ord x rsectodda, **? rtanOrsec? 0d0 az Taimatop® |! Tavtuatay= r? +r? tan?) 2 (#7 +r? tan? @) bas? 19 gee? in 2 ede x PL | 1? sec? 60a, rtan@rsec? 040 } sum o-sate * Tae one TSO yy 1 sec3 8 onsie ont yg _ pL 1 - 1sind 1 ~ = aneo { |, Teed 49% A Lr coso seco 4 One Onn 4 1 = PL J = cos0d0 4, - J =sin0d0a,} .. —— = cos0 Jot secd = Bi Foie, } =f we 5) [cos $-(-con-2) = Pe} sf -(-)] a -[0]} us dneor —Fcoso ft, a, a + Proved. E- = PLOa “ebr Note : Mathematically also 2 component is getting cancelled. Hence looking at the symmetry and cancelling the terms, makes the mathematical exercise much more easier.JNTU EMWTL Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity 89 Ex. 2.8 A uniform line charge pp = 25 nC/m lies on the line x= -3 m and y=4m in free space. Find the electric field intensity at a point (2, 3, 15) m. {V.T.1U. Aug-2000] Sol.: The line is shown in the Fig. 2.25. The line with x = - 3 constant and y = 4 Paai5) constant is a line parallel to z axis as 2 can take any value. The E at P (2, 3, 15) is to be calculated. The charge is infinite line charge hence E can be obtained by standard result, E PL Ee Seer To find ¢, consider two points, one on the line which is (-3, 4, z) while P (2, 3, 15). But as line is parallel to z axi not have component in @, direction hence z need not be considered while calculating ® Ecan ¥ = [2-(-3)]a, +[3-4]a, =5a, ~ay ~- Z not considered l#] = (6)? +(-1)? =V26 a, = E58 ay IF V6 a ee 5a, = } __25x10° [5a 2neo J26| V26 2x 8.854 x 10-2 x 26 = 86.42 a, - 17.284 a, V/m 2.8 Electric Field Due to Infinite Sheet of Charge Consider an infinite sheet of charge having uniform charge density ps C/m?, placed in xy plane as z=0,xyplane | shown in the Fig. 2.26. Let us use cylindrical coordinates. The point P at which E to be calculated is on z axis. Consider the differential surface area dS carrying a charge dQ. The Fig. 2.26JNTU EMWTL Coulomb's Law and Electric Field intensity 91 Hence while integrating dE there is no need to consider a, component. Though if considered, after integration procedure, it will get mathematically cancelled. psrdrdg 4neo(F? #2?) 920 r=0 Put r24+2? =u? hence 2r dr = 2u du For r=0, u=z and r=0, u=o ... changing limits Freq 29 V/m «» For points above xy plane Now @, is direction normal to differential surface area dS considered, Hence in general if 4, is direction normal to the surface containing charge, the above result can be generalized as, E 6) where a, = Direction normal to the surface charge Thus for the points below xy plane, 3n =~ Hz hence, E= a7 a, V/m .. For points below xy plane. EO Note : The equation (6) is standard result and can be used directly to solve the problems. Key Point: Thus electric field due to infinite sheet of charge is everyohere normal to the surface and its magnitude is independent of the distance of a point from the plane containing the sheet of charge.92 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity JNTU EMWTL Important Observations : 1. E duc to infinite sheet of charge at a point is not dependent on the distance of that point from the plane containing the charge. 2. The direction of E is perpendicular to the infinite charge plane. 3. The n ssnitude of E is constant every where and given by |E| =ps / 2¢0. Ex.29 Charge lies in y = ~ 5m plane in the fornt of an infinite square sheet with a uniform charge density of ps =20 nC/n?, Determine E at all the points. Sol.: The plane y = = 5 m constant is parallel to xz plane as shown in the Fig. 2.29 Plane ys-5 * Fig. 2.29 For y >= 5, the E component will be along +4, as normal direction to the plane =-5 mis ay. ain = ay E = £84, =f2 4 e co" 2e9 7 = 1129.43 ay V/m For y < = 5, the E component will be along ~ay direction, with same magnitude. = FE (ay) =~ 112943. 3, Vim At any point to the left or right of the plane, |E| is constant and acts normal to the plane.JNTU EMWTL. Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity 93 Fx. 210 Find E at P (1, 5, 2) m in free space if a point charge of 6 WC is located at (0,0,1), the uniform line charge densiiy py, = 180 nC/m along x axis and uniform sheet of charge with ps =25 nC/m’ over the plane z=—1. Sol: Case 1: Point charge Q; = 6 pC at A (0, 9, 1) and P (1, 5, 2) = Pe: ee 4ncy Rip 4nco Rip || Rael Rar = (1-0)a, +(-O)ay +(2-1)a, =a, +5ay +a, 1Rael = (1)? +)? +()* =v27 6x10 Fe i 4x 8.854101? x(V27)" v27 E, = 384.375 a, + 1921.879 ay + 364.375 a, V/m Case 2 : Line charge px along x axis. It is infinite hence using standard result, wy Pb = ge — PL Pl B= Secor * Incor [z] Consider any point on line charge ie. (x, 0, 0) while P (1, 5, 2). But as line is along x axis, no component of E will be along a, direction. Hence while calculating ¥and 4, do not consider x co-ordinates of the points. -. ¥ = (5-O)ay +(2-O)a, =5ay +24, It] = {6 +@ =/3 Ey = —2L__ [Bay +282] _ 180%10-9[55, +285] 2neyxJ29| 29 ‘2nx 8.354 x 10-2 x29 = 957.859 a, + 223.1443, V/m Case 3 : Surface charge ps over the plane z = - 1. The =PU1.6.2) plane is parallel to xy plane and normal direction to the plane is am = az, as point P is above the plane. At all the points above 2 = - 1 plane the E is constant along a, direction. Fig. 2.30JNTU EMWTL ‘Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity 35, = — = en = 49 1a, 13%] | vr+9 | on (ees dt can be seen that due to symmetry about z axis, all radial components will cancell each other. Hence there will not be any component of E along a,. So in integration a, need not be considered 4 40 4dr dh storsa 4¢0(12 +9)°/* E = (3a) As there is no r dr in the numerator, use r = 3tan@, dr=3 sec?@ do For r=0, 0, =0 ) j .. Change of limits For r=4, 0) = tan'4/3 * % 10-4 3sec2@ dO dp E= 3.) gro q a0 4800 [9tan2 8.49] 2% 209.5914 x 103 sec? 040 dh _ B= — a By #20 eo" [i +tan2 op?” ae 3 - jf [ Be ages, #20920" an J J 299.5914 «109 do d9 [cosO]ay $0 0 299.5914 «103 [9 ]," [sinO[ g a. Separating variables 1.8823 x 108 sin 02 az ~ sin 0 = 0 Now 0; = tant 4 ie. tan: =496 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity JNTU EMWTL sin®2 E = 1.8823 106 x 0.84, 1.5059 x 10° a, V/m = 1.5059 a, MV/m Fig. 2.33 Examples with Solutions Ex. 212 Q and Qo are the point charges located at (0,-4,3) and (0,1,1). If Qy is 2nC, find Qa such that the force on a test charge at (0,~3,4) has no = component. Sol: The charges are shown in the Fig. 2.34. The position vectors of the points A, B and C are, K = -4ay +3a, ‘B= ay +8, C = -34, +44, . Re =t ay +3, and Rag = ay +3, [Ril = "+0 = v2 and [Ro] = 4) +@? =5 Fla. 2.94 K, = Force on Q due to Q: “teak Fig and Ih = Force on Q due to Q, = —QQ2_ Trey Aig R = a [ronx10- (ay +2) +22 (43, +332 )|JNTU EMWTL Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity 97 :. Total 2 component of F; is, = 2 10 5 3Q2 = Teo ams +558 |B To have this component zero, 7.071x 10 +3 =0 as Qis lest charge and can not be zero. Q2. = ~ 29.462 nC Ex. 213 In a Millikan oil drop experiment, the weight of a 1.6x10-™ kg drop is exactly balanced by the electric force in vertically directed 200 kV/m field. Calculate the charge on the drop in units of the electronic charge (¢ =1.6% 10" C). IM.U. May-20021 7.071109 «125 3 Sol.: Given E=200kV/m, m = 1.6 x10°™ kg = [Fl rey = 8 [FI 200x103 = — * Q |F] = 200x10°Q N ww (1) This is balanced by the weight mg |F| = mg =1.6x10-# x9.81 = 15696 x 10-8 N ~» (2) Equating (1) and (2), 200x108 Q = 1.5696 x 10-13 . Q = 7.848 x 10-9 C .. Charge on drop Now e=1.6x10- C hence Q in terms of ¢ is, 848 10-19 1.6x1 = 4905e C Ex.214 In a free space, [et Qy = 10 nC be at P,(0,-4,0) and Q2 = 20 nC be at Pz (0,0,4). Where should be a 40 nC point charge be located so that E = 0 at the origin, Sol.: The charges Q; and Q; are shown in the Fig. 2.35. Let us find E at the origin due to Q; and Q2.98 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity 4 and |Rnol=4 Qs, ,__@ 40 Rho 4ne0R3, 6 ay = 1x10". fg] 20x10? 4 me 9 x4? Aneox(4)° = 5.6173 ay - 11.2346 a, V/m Now let Q3 = 40 nC is at point P; (x,y,z). o Ps = xa, +yay+za, and Ryo = yx? ty? +2? The field intensity due to Q3 at the origin is, E, = —%_ a, Qs - Xa —y By — 23, = o- Frog "°” neoRRg ety? ze The total E has to be zero with E, added to E, and Es. E, +E, +E; = 0 In Ey +E», there is no x component and to have x component of E with Es zero, x20. The y component of E3 must cancel y component of Ey + Ez. oo = - 5.6173 Anta RE, yx? by? +22 Now [Resol = yxy? ve? yQs = 56173 neo (x2 +y? +22) oe ey? ezJNTU EMWTL Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity 99 YL SITKA RG _ 569 = 40 nc “(erytezy? q0x10? ° Qa " But x = 0 hence, = 0.01562 oa) —_y___ (Pe) Similarly 2 component of E; must cancel z component of E; + E2. ~2Q3 4neo Rio [x2 ay? +2? Substituting Q3,Rpo and x = 0 we get, 11.2346 Zz Guay? = - 0.03124 - (b) From (a), (y? +22)*? = —Y__. = 64.0204 y TOISE a Zz _. Putting in ©), Saspry = ~ 003124 z=-2y (6) Using (c) in (a), —_¥___ = 0.01562 3/2 “ [y?+@y)7] oY __, = 001562 [y? +42]? yo. suays = 001562 y? = 5.7261 y = £23929 and z = F 4.7858 But y must be positive and z must be negative in P;, to get E=0 Hence Q; must be located at (0, + 2.3929, ~ 4.7858) to have E zero at origin.100 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity JNTU EMWTL Ex.215 The charge is distributed along the z axis from z = - 5m to -c and z=45m to +c with a charge density of 20 nC/m. Find E at (2,0,0) m. Also express the answer in cylindrical coordinates. IP.U. Dec-8, 2000, M.U. Dee-2001] Sol.: The charge is shown as in the Fig. 2.36. Key Point : If pu is not distributed all along the length then standard result can not be used, The basic procedure is to be used. As charge is not infinite, let us use basic procedure of considering differential charge. Consider the differential element df in the z direction hence, dl = dz vdQ = p, di=p, da dQ py, dz . de = —8Q_5,-_% 5 Trey R? “" “GnegR? -* Any point on z axis is (0, 0, z) while point P at which E to be calculated is (2,0,0). R = (2-0)a, +(0-z)a, =28, - 2a, IR] = (@?+Ca* = Jie ~ R _ 2a, -23, = ee IRI Ja4z? ag = —fud2__ [ 4nco(vVa+z") Paz = StS (05-28, 4neo(4422)°7 ‘ ) Now there is no charge between - 5 to 5 hence to find E, dE to be integrated in two zones - to 5 and 5 to » in z direction. 5S 2 E = f dE+/ dE = 5JNTU EMWTL. ‘Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity 101 Looking at the symmetry it can be observed that z component of E produced by charge between 5 to « will cancel the z component of E produced by charge between — 5 to —«. Hence for integration 3, component from dE can be neglected. E FPL dz(2ay) 2 Pr dz(2a) neg(4+z2)? 5 dato (4422) Put z = 2tan6 dz = 2 sec?6d0 m2, For 2=-5, @= tan! - 68.19° 2 For z=+0, O=+n/2, For 2=+5, O=tan“l 3- 68.19° pe 2Pu de |” i 2soctOdo TT 2sec? odo ARCO | g.ton (444tan2 0)? o.cgig (4 +4 tan? ay? 8-90" _ 20, a, [°F * 2800? ado 2sec? 040 Tree | J, FP eecO | aE seek © Freo(P7)] 4 Jog SECO 5 dg, S808 __2P1, ax (2) Pa we 25| PLa, ‘ 68.19" ps r = Bane {lino + [sin of. } 20x 10-9 ay, SOB ASE SE {sin(- 68.199) — sin(— 90°) + sin(90°)— sin 68.199} = 12.87 a, = 13 a V/m To find cylindrical coordinates find the dot product of E with a,,a, and @,, at point P, referring table of dot products of unit vectors. E, = Bea, = 138,63, =13 cosh Ey = Ee ay = 13a" a) =-13 sing \ + E, = Esa, =13a,+8, = At point P, x = 2, y= 0,2=0102 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity JNTU EMWTL jxtty? cos$ = 1 and sing =0 Ep = 13, Ey=0, Ep=0 r 2 and ¢ = tant D = tant o=0° Hence the cylindrical coordinate systems E is, E = E, a, +E, 3) +E, 3, E = 13a, V/m Ex. 2.16 A uniform line charge with charge density 4 =5 wC/m lies along x axis. Show that E at (3, 2, 1) is given by, 356 (= + eo IM.U. May-97] Sol.: The line charge is shown in the Fig. 2.37. As the charge is infinite line charge, the field E can be obtained by standard result. z Plog © 2ieer Now the line charge is along x axis hence E will not have any component along 3, direction. Hence while finding F and @,, x coordinate should not be considered. Fig. 2.37 ¥ = (2-O)ay +(1-0)a, =2 ay +4, .» X not considered lt] = W242 = V5 . = Hl o a= PL = A = SpC/m 5x10 — [2ay +3, Be ml 5 = 0.356 [28 +32 ~ t0 W5 3.558% 10-7 [24y +3, to V5 ] nV/m »- ProvedJNTU EMWTL. Coulomb's Law and Electric Field intensity 103 Ex. 217 A line charge density P, = 24 nC/m is located in free space on the line y=1 and za2m. a) Find E at the point P (6, -1, 3). b) What point charge Q4 should be located at A (~3, 4, 1) to make y component of total E zero at point P. Sol.: a) The line charge is shown in the Fig, 2.38, It is parallel to the x axis as y = 1 constant and z = 2 constant. The line charge is infinite hence using the standard result, = PL a, 2neor To find 4,, consider a point on the line charge (x, 1, 2) while P (6, -1, 3). Fig 238 As the line charge is parallel to x axis, do not consider x coordinate while finding a,. = (-1-1)5, +(3-2)3, =-28, +3, \t] = 4-2? +0? =s5 24 x10°° (-2ay +4, ) "2x 8.854 «10-2 x5 = - 172.564 ay + 86.282 a, V/m b) Consider a point charge Qa at A (-3, 4, 1). The electric field due to Qa at P (6, -1, 3) is, = —Qa_ = Sar Ameo Rip [6-(3)] a +[-1-4]8y +B -1]8, =98, -5ay +28, (9)? +(-5)? +(2)° = 10.4888. Rap _ 98x —5ay +23, [Rar] 10.4888 Ea Rar | Rar| Sar104 ‘Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity JNTU EMWTL mh « Qa 9ay —Say 7] * © “ameo x(10.4888)" | 104888 The total field at P is now, E, = E+E, The y component of total E, is to be made zero. -172,564-5@a__|5, = 9 4 ne «(10.4888) 5Qx Se 72.564 4 ney *(10.4888) 172.564 x 4 nx 8.854 x 10-!? x (10.4888)° 5 Qa = -44311 wc Ex.2.18 A circular ring of charge with radius 5 m lies in 2 = 0 plane with centze at origin. If the pz = 10 nChn, find the point charge Q placed at the origin which will produce same E at the point (0, 0, 5) m. Sol.: The ring is shown in the Fig. 239 (@), in z = 0 ie. xy plane. The point P (0, & 5) m. Consider the differential length di of the ring. It is in the > direction hence dl = r di. The charge on dl is dQ=Prdl dQ = pi rdo dQ. dE = Seg _ Purdd _ Fig. 2.39 (a) * GneoR? “* Now ar = i and R can be resolved into two components as shown in the Fig. 2.39 (b).JNTU EMWTL Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity 105 The two components in cylindrical coordinate system are, 1. Along -3, direction ie. -ra, 2, And z component in 3, direction Le. za,. (rt)? +22 ra, +23, IR] vr? +z? Fig. 2.39 (b) dp 4neg (vr? +27) Note : The E at P will have two components, in radial direction and z direction but radial components are symmetrical about z axis, from alJ the points of the ring and hence will cancel each other. So there is no need to consider 3, component in integration. Though if considered, mathematically will get cancelled. a2 E= Purdp 235 imit for § = 0 to 2x g=0 Anco (1? 422) Purz 3 = — + | J dela wt = 5m, z = 5m mata! | Purz = 10x10 x5x5x2n 8 = ae (28) he = 4neg (1? +22) 4 nx 8.854x 10-1 x [25425] E = 39.9314 a, V/m (1) Let Q be the point charge at the origin. From Q to point P, the distance vector R=5a:. ap E Q . p= E due to Q at Ta where ar =106 ‘Coulomb's Law and Electiic Field Intensity JNTU EMWTL z Q © Edue t it P= a, wn 2) lue to Qa ima@?™ @ Equating (1) and (2), qs. Frey X25 39.9314 Q = 11071 nc Ex. 219 A line charge density P, is uniformly distributed over a length of 2a with centre 3 origin along x axis. Find Eat a point P which is on the z axis at a distance d. IP.U, May-2000} Sol.: The line charge is shown in the Fig. 240. As the charge distribution is not uniform, let us use the basic method of differential length. Consider differential length di along the line charge. As it is along x axis, dl = dx. dQ = Pp, di = Pi dx dQ Now dE = oeoRF ar Prdx _ Fk = tO ig. 2.40 TnepR? * To find R, consider any point on the line charge which is say (x, 0, 0). And point P (0, 0, d). os R = (0->)a, +(d—0)a, =-xa, +da, & [R| = Jere ay = RB rei tds PR fet +a? dE = i | Ano vit ed)" vx? +d? But as charge is along x axis, E at P can not have any component in the direction of ax. Hence 3x component need not be considered in integration.110, Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity JNTU EMWTL The line charge P,, is to be located along y = 0, z = 0 line ie. x axis. For z = - 5 plane, the normal direction is m1 = % as the plane is parallel to xy plane. For y = = 5 plane, the normal direction is 32 = dy as the plane is parallel to xz plane. and +3,] V/m oo (1) Consider line charge along x axis. As it is infinite, Pug 2 Pk 2neot' 2neor||t] For f, consider a point on the line charge (x, 0, 0) while P (4, 2, 2). But as line charge is along x axis, E will not have component in a, :direction so the x coordinate should not be considered while calculating 7. ‘ F = (2-O)ay +(2-0)a, =2ay +23, IF] = YQ? +)? =W8 ‘ 2a, +24, neti) v8 | PL Bre [a, #a2] V/m ~ Q To have same E at P (4, 2, 2) equate (1) and (2) Ps PL 2e Bre PL = an = 0666 nC/m This is the required line charge density. Ex. 2.22 A line charge P, = 50 nC/m is located along the line x = 2, y = 5 in free space. a) Find E at P (1, 3,-4) b) If the surface x = 4 contains a uniform surface charge density, Ps =18NC / m2, at what point in the z = 0 plane is total E =0?116 ‘Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity JNTU EMWTL While Ey and E, are zero as 3 . E = 0.14244, V/m Ex. 2.26 Ten identical charges of 500 wC each are spaced equally around a circle of radius 2m. Find the force on a charge of -20 wC focated on the axis, 2m from the plane of the circle. IV.T.U. March-99] Sol: Consider the circle consisting of charges placed in xy plane and charge of -20pC is on z axis, 2m from the plane of the circle. This is shown in the Fig. 2.50. say and a, «2, are zero for @=90° and $ = 0° Fig, 2.80 The charges are placed cqually i.e, at an interval of 360°/10 = 36° between each other, Five pairs of charges which are dimetrically opposite to each other, exists on the circumference of a circle, Consider a pair A and B. The field Eq due to Q at A, at point P is shown in the Fig, 2,50. 1(0Q) =2m, | (OP) = 2m ZPAO = 45° - y component of Ey i.e, Hyy =B, cos 45° Similarly 1 (QB) = 2m, 1 (QP) = 2m 2PBO = 45° ‘: ¥ component of Ea i.e: Bay = Bp cos45? But Bay is in -y direction while Bay is in ay direction. From symmetry of the arrangement [Bay |=[Epy | Hence they cancell each other.JNTU EMWTL Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity 7 While z components of E, and Ex help each other as both are in 4, direction. Ear = Enz =(Ea orEp) sin45°a, Similarly there are 4 more pairs of charges which will behave identically and their y components are going to cancell while z components are going to add. Thus total z component of E at P is, Erota = (E due to any charge) «10x sin45°a, Q So: = Tepe tOxsin ga where R= {oe +(2)° =18 . Eos = 2004107 10 xsin 45°3, 4 ne x(V8) = 3.972106, V/m Qp E ota =-20% 10° x 3.972x 10° a, = -7944 (a) N This is the force on the charge at P. In general, force acts normal to the plane in which circle is kept, ie. = 79.44 4, where a, is unit vector normal to the plane containing the circle. Ex. 2.27 A metallic sphere of 1m diameter is immersed in oil of relative permittivity 2.5 and dielectric strength of 810° V/m.'Calculate maximuin amount of charge that can be held on the sphere. IP.U. May-98] Sol.: The dielectric strength means | E| = 810° V/m which indicates maximum {E| which can exist in the dielectric without breakdown. For any |E| more than this, the dielectric will breakdown. -_2 = Now IE] = gay and oy = 25 where R = $21.05 m and e=eoe, ee x g 4 Amx 8.854 x 10°! x 2.5x (0.5) Q = 55631 pC The sphere can hold maximum of 556.31 4C without breakdown.118 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity JNTU EMWTL Ex.2.28 A 5 nC point charge is tocated at A (2, ~ 1, 3) in free space. a) Find E at origin. 4) Plot |E (x,0,0)| aunt 3,-1082510 m. c) What A E(%,0,0)| a, [P.U. Dec-90, Dec.-2003] Sol. :" a) A (2,-1,3) and P 0, 0, 0) E Qs, p= _2_ Eat Grea Far Now far = (0-2) a, +[0-(1)] ay +[0-3]ae 12)" +? + E = ——_5x107 ea 4 mx 8.854 10? x(/TH)" via = - 1.715 3, + 0.857 ay - 2573 3, V/m b) Let point P is now (x, 0, 0). G2) a, + ay -38_ ww * Ta Ye OC ap Q By +4, -3a, 4nea[(x-2)° =a {e297 +149 | az [x-2)ae + ay -3a,] —— 4neo[(x-2)* +10] 44.938 = ar [- 0 x +8y - 382] [o@-2? +10)" 1B = ei x3 + O ] x2)? + 44.938, * [nay +10] 2? +0] To find x at which |E] is maximum,JNTU EMWTiL Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity 119 lel _ dx ° s4oag |_720"2)_| _ 9 [G97 +10] (x-2) = 0 x=2 where | E] is maxium. The graph of |B against x is shown in the Fig. 2.51. [Elin vim, Fig. 2.54 ¢) Hence |Elmax is at x = 2, n 1Elowx = sat = 4.4938 V/m Important Results Coulomb's law kQr@: F-S k= Ae for tres space or vacuvm ey = 8.854 x 10-7 F/m Qa a QQ: Arco Ra Saco Rie [Ra — This Is force exerted by Qi on Q3. [Fa] but F--F, H there aren charges Q; fo Qn then the resultant force on the chorge Q is, F=S 729 aie & Treo keJNTU EMWTL Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity 123 2. 24, 6. 27. 28. 29. 30. On the line x = 4 and_y = — 4, there is a uniform charge distribution with density P, =25 nCfm. Determine E at (~2, -1, 4) m. (Ans, :- 59.92, + 23.96% Vim] The infinite line charge parallel to z axis is at x = 6, y = 10. Find E at the general point P(x,y,2) in cartesian system, (Ans. : [(=- 6) +(y —10)ay] V/ ml 2neg[(x— mF +(y-10)"] . Find E at (10, 0, 0) due to a charge of 10 nC which is distributed uniformly along x axis between x = ~ 5 to + 5m in free space. [Ans.: 1.8, V/ml A line charge density 24 nC/m is located in free space on the line y = 1, 2 = 2. a) Find E at P (6, -1, 3). b) What point charge Qa should be located at (-3, 4, 1) to cause y component of E to be zero at P? TAns. :~ 172.56 a, + 86.28 a, Vim, 443 xC] Find E at P (0, 0, 2) m due to the infinite sheet of charge in xy plane with density 10nC / m?. tans. : 564.712, W/m] Two infinite sheets of charge each with density Ps are located at x= +2 m. Determine E in all directions. TAns. : For x <-2: fig, For—2 2:P8 a, in Vim) & Four infinite sheets of charges with uniform charge densities 20 pC/m®, - 8 pCin?, 6 pCin® and -18 pChn? are located at y = 6, y = 2, y = - 2 and y =~ 5 respectively. Find E at a) (2, 5-6) b) (0, 0, 0) ) (- 1, - 2.1, 6) d) (105,10%, 107). [Ans, :-2.26 ay Vim, - 1,358 ay Vin, 2.03 4, Vim, 0 Vim] A sheet of charge with Ps=2nC / 2 is in the plane x = 2 in free space and a line charge PL = 20 nChin is located at x = 1, z= 4. a) Find E at P (0, 0,0). b) Eat (4, 5, 6). ©) What és the force per unit length on the line charge ? (Ans. : = 134%, - 853, Vim, 1967, + 55.312, Vim,— 2.26%, 1 Nim] Q003 Electric Flux Density and Gauss's Law 3.1 Introduction Uptill now Coulomb's law and electric field intensity are discussed. The various possible charge distributioris and corresponding electric field intensities are also discussed in the last chapter. Another important concept in electrostatics is electric flux. If a unit test charge is placed near a point charge, it experiences a force. The direction of this force can be represented by the lines, radially coming outward from a positive charge. These lines are called streamlines or flux lines. Thus the electric field due to a charge can be imagined to be present around it interms of a quantity called electric flux. The flux lines give the pictorial representation of distribution of electric flux around a charge. This chapter explains the concept of electric flux, electric flux density, Gauss's law, applications of Gauss’s law and the divergence theorem. 3.2 Electric Flux Tn 1837, Michael Faraday performed the experiment on electric field. He showed that the electric field around a charge can be imagined in terms of presence of the lines of force around it. He suggested that the electric field should be assumed to be coomposed of very small bunches containing a fixed number of electric lines of force. Such a bunch or closed area is called a tube of flux. The total number of tubes of flux in any particular electric field is called as the electric flux. Key Point: Thus the total number of lines of force in any particular electric field és called the electric flux, It is represented by the symbol y. Similar to the charge, unit of electric flux is also coulomb C. 3.2.1 Properties of Flux Lines The electric flux is nothing but the lines of force, around a charge. Such electric flux lines have following properties, (124)JNTU EMWTL Electric Flux Density and Gauss's Law 125 1. The flux lines start from positive charge and terminate on the negative charge as shown in the Fig. 3.1. 2. If the negative charge is absent, then the flux lines terminate at infinity as shown in the Fig. 3.2. (a). While in absence of positive charge, the electric flux terminates on the negative charge from infinity. This is shown in the Fig. 3.2 (b). Flux tines Fig. 3.4 Flux lines MA NO. 4\N ZN 3. There are more number of lines ie. crowding of lines if electric field is stronger. 4, These lines are paralle) and never cross each other. 5, The lines are independent of the medium in which charges are placed. 6, The lines always enter or leave the charged surface, normally, 7, If the charge on a body is + Q coulombs, then the total number of lines: originating or terminating on it is also Q, But the total number of lines is nothing but a flux, Blectric flux y = Q coulombs (numerically) This is according to SI units. Hence if Q is large then flux w is mare surrounding the charge and viceversa. The electric flux is also called displacement flux. ‘The flux is a scalar field. Let us define now a vector field associated with the flux called electric flux density.126 Electric Flux Density and Gauss's Law JNTU EMWTL 3.3 Electric Flux Density (D) Consider the two point charges as shown in the Fig. 3.3. The flux lines originating from positive charge and terminating at negative charge are shown in the form of tubes. Uni surface area Fig. 3.3 Concept of electric flux density Consider a unit surface area as shown in the Fig. 3.3. The number of flux lines are passing through this surface area. The net flux passing normal through the unit surface area is called the electric flux density. It is denoted as D. It has a specific direction which is normal to the surface area under consideration hence it is a vector field. Consider a sphere with a charge Q placed at its centre. There are no other charges present around. The total flux distributes radially around the charge is y =Q. This flux distributes uniformly over the surface of the sphere. Now, w = total flux While, S = total surface area of sphere then electric flux density is defined as, » @)132 Electric Flux Density and Gauss's Law JNTU EMWTL Fig. 3.7 Ex. 32 A point charge of 6 wC is located at the origin, a uniform Hine charge density of 180 C/m lies along x-axis and uniform sheet of charge equal to 25 nC/m? ties in te z = 0 plane. Find i) D at A (0, 0, 4), ii) D at B (1, 2, 4) and iit) Total electric flux leaving the surface of the sphere of 4 m radius centered at the origin. [M.U. May-98, May-2000, P.U, Dec-89] Sol.: i) Case 1: Point charge Q = 6 uC at P (0, 0, 0). While D to be obtained at A (0, 0, 4). t = (4-a, =4ay, |t|=/@? =4, nee B= Q = 6x10 ai 8 2 Ba = Gari ayes 298x108 a Cm Case 2: Line Charge py = 180 nC/m along x-axis. So any point P on the charge is (x, 0, 0), while A (0, 0, 4). As charge is along x-axis, no component of D is along x-axis. So do not consider x co-ordinate while obtaining F. = (4-08, = 45,, [tf] = 4, a, = As charge is infinite, a 10-9 FS DB: = fea = =7:161%10-? a, C/m? Case 3 : Uniform sheet of charge lies in z = 0 plane. So the direction normal to it is z direction as plane is xy plane. Hence a, = a, and ps = 25 nC/m?.JNTU EMWTL 133 As sheet is -9 a2 a, =125x10-% a, C/m? D = Di +D2+Ds =49.501x10-9a, C/m? ii) The point at which D is to be obtained is now B (1, 2, 4). Case 1: Point charge Q = 6 uC at P (0, 0, 0). = (1-O)ay +(2-0) ay #4 -O a, = ay +28, 448, lt] = JO? +@? +4)? = 27 a, +2ay +4a, fa = Q . __ 6x10" [F: +2ay a) Di = oa, An? 4nxQ21? | 20 = 4961x109 a, +9923x10-° ay +1.9845x 10-8 a, C/m? Case 2 : Line charge : The point on the charge is (x, 0, 0). As charge is along x-axis, do not consider x co-ordinate. re = (2-O)ay +(4-0) a, =2ay +48, .. as B (1, 2, 4) VQ)? +4? = 20 2ay +44, 2.8647 x 10-9 ay +5.7295 x 10-9 a, C/m? Case 3 : Infinite sheet of charge in z = 0 plane. The point B (1, 2, 4) is above z = 0 plane hence 3, =3, and Ds remains same as before. = 9 Ds = San =a =12.5x10-9 a, C/m? D = Di+D2+Ds146 Electric Flux Density and Gauss's Law JNTU EMWTL Consider a rectangular box as a Gaussian surface which is cut by the sheet of chaige to give dS = dx dy. D acts normal to the plane ie. 2) = 3, and -4, = —4, direction. Hence B = 0 in x and y directions. Hence the charge enclosed can be written as, Q = fD-dS= § D-dS+fD-dS+ f Dead 5 sides top bottom But § D-dS = 0 as Dhas no component in x and y directions sides Now D = D,a, for top surface and dS = dxdya, DedS = Dzdxdy (a, +a: )=Dz dx dy and D = D.(-a) for bottom surface. and dS = dxdy(-a) D-d5 = D,dxdy(a, +a,)=D, dxdy Q = fD,dxdy+ f D,dxdy top bottom: Now — fidxdy =f dxdy = A = Area of surface ep toitom Q = 2D,A But Q = psx A as ps = Surface charge density ps = 2D, = PS B= 4 n D = D,a, = a, C/m »» (11) ¢ . Dos ~ E> 2-755 V/m w= (12) The results are same as obtained by the Coulomb's law for the infinite sheet of charge.JNTU EMWTL Electric Flux Density and Gauss’s Law 147 3.8.5 Spherical Shell of Charge Consider an imaginary spherical shell of radius ‘a’. The charge is uniformly distributed over its surface with a density ps C/m?. Let us find E at a point P located at a distance r from the centre such that r > a and ra, using Gauss's law. The shell is shown in the Fig, 3.14. Case 1: Point P outside the shell. (r> a) Consider a point P at a distance r from the origin such that r > a. The Gaussian surface passing through point P is a concentric sphere of radius r. Due to spherical Gaussian surface, Saco the flux lines are directed radially outwards and are normal to the Fig. 3.14 Spherical shell of charge surface. Hence electric flux density B is also directed radially outwards at point P and has component only in i, direction, Consider a differential surface area at P normal to 3, direction hence dS=r?sin dé dé in spherical system. dy = D+d5=[D,3, }-[#?sino do dg ar] = Dy r?sind do de ann y = § Dy rtsind do dg=D,r? ff sine do do 3 #20020 ” y = Det L-coseh [o];* =4ar?D, ++ (13) But y=Q ~- Gauss's law o Q D, * w= (14) And .. (15)148 Electric Flux Density and Gauss's Law JNTU EMWTL ‘Thus for r > a, the field E is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the origin. If the surface charge density is ps C/m? then Q = ps x Surface area of shell Q = psx dna? w= (16) and . (17) Case 2 : Point P is on the shell ( On the shell, r=a The Gaussian surface is same as the shell itself and E can be obtained using r=a in the equation (15). = Freqa? V/m we (18) Case 3 : Point P inside the shell (r < a) The Gaussian surface, passing through the point P is again a spherical surface with radius rea, But it can be seen that the entire charge is ‘on the surface and no charge is enclosed by the spherical shell. And when the Gaussian surface is such that no charge is enclosed, irrespective of any charges present outside, the total charge enclosed is zero. Fig. 3.15 v= Q=$D-dS-0 ... As per Gauss's law 5s as Now fdS = [ f rtsine do do = 4nr? s #0000 Thus fd5 +0JNTU EMWTL Electric Flux Density and Gauss‘s Law 149 Hence to satisfy that total charge enclosed is zero, inside the spherical shell. D=0 and w» (19) Thus electric flux density and electric field at any point inside a spherical shell is zero. 3.8.5.1 Variation of E Against r The variation of E against the radial distance r measured from the origin is shown in the Fig. 3.16. For r a, Fig. 3.16 Variation of | E| against r After r = a, the E is inversely proportional to the square of the radial distance of a point from the origin. The variation of |D| against r is also similar, For the medium other than the free space, £9 must be replaced by e=e08;. 3.8.6 Uniformly Gharged Sphere Consider a sphere of radius ‘a’ with a uniform charge density of py C/m?. Let | Gronged us find E at a point P located at a radial | sphere” distance r from centre of the sphere such that rsa and r > a, using Gauss's law. The sphere is shown in the Fig. 3.17. or Case 1; The point P is outside the sphere (r > a). oaatien _The Gaussian surface passing through "=> 7 gauormy charged sphere point P is a spherical surface of radius r. ‘The flux lines and D are directed radially outwords along a direction. The differential area dS is considered at point P which is normal to a, direction. dS = 1? sinO dd dp150 Electric Flux Density and Gauss’s Law JNTU EMWTL dy = D-d5 = Dya, +r? sind dé dd a, = D, 1? sin@ d@ do (He #3 =1) “ v = Q=§ DedS -j J Dextsine do dy 5 eno eno D, 1? eos0]y [6 §" =D, r? 4x - 2 Dee Gat -2 D = Bear C/mt ~ 20) D__Q_ E= ae" Treg? — a, V/m w=» (21) The total charge enclosed can be obtained as, Q= Jevav= j j J ps #sino drd0 dg $2000 120 s = pv [$] [-cos0f [o8* 0 = sna = 5x2. C (22) tay 3 z-3 a2 Pes . ES Gato “Zegrt ~ 23) 3 While D = (fa, ws (24) 3r? These are the expressions for D and E outside the uniformly charged sphere. Case 2: The point P on the sphere (r = a). The Gaussian surface is same as the surface of the charged sphere. Hence results can be obtained directly substituting r = a in the equation (23) and (21). apy Pva ar = a w+ (25) 3eoa? 3e0 °' (25)JNTU EMWTL, Electric Flux Density and Gauss's Law 151 and (26) Case 3: The piont P is inside the sphere (r < a) the Gaussian surface is a spherical surface of radius r where r [Elin vim a the E is inversely proportional to square of the distance while for r < a it is directly proportional to the distance x. At r= a, |E|=$5° depends on the radius of the charged sphere. For r > a, the graph of |E| against r is parabolic while for r 3 1378 D = Di+D2 = ByC/m? forr>3 3.10 Divergence Applying Gauss's law to the differential volume element, we have obtained the relation, = (20x Dy aD: Q - (Be a Pav (1) This is the charge enclosed in the volume Av. But Q = § DedS by Gauss's law o Q) 5 To apply Gauss’s law, we have assumed a differential volume element as the Gaussian surface, over which D is constant. Hence equations (1) and (2) can be equated in limiting case as Av + 0. aD. . aD, , BDy 22D. ) av $ D-dS = lim ns (RE 55 ~- @) Thus in general if A is any vector ‘say force, velocity, temperature gradient etc. then, aA § A-ds aAy Ay OAr_ b Ox By S32 7 ty av ~@ This mathematical operation on A is called a divergence. It is denoted as div A. Hence mathematically divergence is given by, ~ ©)JNTU EMWTL Electric Flux Density and Gauss's Law 164 3.10.1 Physical Meaning of Divergence From the equation (5), the physical meaning of divergence can be obtained. Let K be the flux density vector then, the divergence of the vector flux density A is the outflow of flux from a small closed surface per unit volume as the volume shrinks to zero. Hence the divergence of A at a given point is a measure of how much the field represented by A diverges or converges from that point. If the field is diverging at point P of vector field A as shown in the Fig. 3.23 (a), then divergence of A at point P is positive. The field is spreading out from point P. If the field is converging at the point P as shown in the Fig. 3.23 (b), then the divergence of A at the point P is negative. It is practically a convergence ie. negative of divergence. If the field at point P is as shown in the Fig. 3.23 (0), so whatever field is converging, same is diverging then the divergence of A at point P is zero. \Iy 0 N\Iy TTT ZINN TTY Fig. 3.23 Divergence at P Practically consider a tube of a vehicle in which air is filled at a pressure. If it is punctured, then air inside tries to rush out from a tube through a small hole. Thus the velocity of air at the hole is greatest while away from the hole it is less. If now any closed surface is considered inside the tube, at one end velocity field is less while from other end it has higher value, as air rushes towards the hole. Hence the divergence of such velocity inside is positive. This is shown in the Fig. 3.24 (a) and (b). As seen from the Fig: 3.24 (b), the air velocity is a function of distance and hence divergence of velocity is positive. The density of lines near hole is high showing higher air velocity. The source of such velocity lines is throughout the tube and hence anywhere inside the tube, at any point the divergence is positive. If there is a hollow tube open from both ends then air enters from one end and passes through the tube and leaves from other end. This is shown in the Fig. 3.24 (c). The velocity of air is constant everywhere inside the tube. In such a case the divergence of the velocity field is zero, inside the tube.162 Electric Flux Density and Gauss's Law JNTU EMWTL Hole i tie Tse < 1 ‘More air Less ait velocity vetoory (a) Tube (b) Punctured tube (c) Hollow tube Fig. 3.24 Concept of divergence A positive divergence for any vector quantity indicates a source of that vector quantity, at that point. A negative divergence for any vector quantity indicates a sink of that vector quantity at that point. A zeto divergence indicates there is no source or sink exists at that point. In short, if more lines enter a small volume than the lines leaving it, there is positive divergence. If more lines leave a small volume than the lines entering it, there is negative divergence. If the same number of lines enter and leave a small volume, the field has zero divergence. Note that the volume must be infinitesimally small, shrinking to zero at that point, where divergence is obtained. As the result of divergence of a vector field is a scalar, the divergence indicates how much flux lines are leaving a small volume, per unit yolume and there is no direction associated with the divergence. 3.10.2 The Vector Operator V The divergence of the vector field A is given by, OAx Ay OA, ax ay az div A = The divergence of a vector is a scalar quantity. The divergence operation can be represented by the use of mathematical operator called del operator V which is a vector operator. It is given by, a, ad. a Vee — - RE tay) tah o (6) Now the A is a vector field and V is also a vector. The result of divergence is a scalar. Thus to get the scalar from the two vectors, it is necessary to take dot product of the two.JNTU EMWTL Electric Flux Density and Gauss's Law 163 If A = Ayay+Ay ay +A, 4, then -K=[23,4+2 o VR = [tay hy +R] [ate Ay 8 Am] Now ax efi =ay edly = 3, -Hp = 1 While other dot products such as a, «iy etc. are zero. veK= Ad, Ar), O(Az) dAx OAy ,dAz “on Ox Oy oz VA = divA (7) Note the following observations regarding V : 1, V is a mathematical operator and need not be involved always in the dot product. 2. It may be operated on a scalar field to obtain vector result. Thus if m is a scalar field then, os x m= (a= dards 3. The V operator does not have any other specific form in different coordinate systems. Whatever may be the coordinate system in which A is represented, V+ A represents a divergence of A. _Om_ jdm, am_ tat ox a: tye tae 3.10.3 Divergence in Different Coordinate Systems In a cartesian system, the differential volume unit is given by dv = dx dy dz while in cylindrical system it is given by dv = r dr dp dz. In the spherical system it is given by dv = r? sinddrdOdg. Thus the expressions for divergence in different coordinate systems are different. ‘These expressions of divergence, in different coordinate systems are given by, wo» Cartesian .~- Cylindrical oA - veA=dwA=4 Z(t a.)jetg 5 iners)+ tg “Fa ~ Spherical The relations are frequently required in the engineering electromagnetics.164 Electric Flux Density and Gauss's Law JNTU EMWTL 3.10.4 Properties of Divergence of Vector Field The various properties of divergence of a vector field are, 1. The divergence produces a scalar field as the dot product is involved in the operation. The result does not have direction associated with it. 2. The divergence of a scalar has no meaning. Thus if m is a scalar field then V-m has no meaning. Note that V operator can operate on scalar field but dot product ie. divergence of a scalar has no meaning. 3. V+(A+B)= V-A+¥-B 3.11 Maxwell's First Equation The divergence of electric flux density D is given by, § Dead aw D = im ay ~@ = OD, , ADy , OD, ox Oy bz According to Gause's law, it is known that v = Q=f Dds «= Q) 5 Expressing Gauss's law per unit volume basis f D-dS zs =a -. Q) Taking lim Av > 0.e. volume shrinks to zero, f Deas yay = dm ag “0 But fim 2. = p, at that point 6) The equation (5) gives the volume charge density at the point where divergence is obtained. Equating (1) and (5), div D = py - ..6) ie. VoD = py166 Electric Flux Density and Gauss’s Law JNTU EMWTL Be 3.8 Let D=Sr2a, mCi? for r < 0.08 m and B= St a, mChn? for r > 0.08 m. 7 i) Find charge density for r = 0.06 m. ii) Find charge density for r = 0.1 m. IV.T.U, Aug-2001] Sol: Assuming given D is in spherical coordinate system. From the Gauss's law in point form, v°D = py =_128 1 aD p-12@ aD, and VoD = yal dt want 36 75 (iN0 Do) + sind 06 i) For r<008, D=5r2 a, mC/m? D,=5r?, Do=0, Late D5 14 2 v-D= 5 Lo (ese = ar 9g Ort) = ae = Wr=wy At r= 0.06 m, py =20x (0.06) = 1.2 mC/m? it) For r> 008, D=2ta, mC/m? 01 D, = yr Do=0, Dy=0 = _1@f5 01) 12a a veD = see era B)- FZ 1-0-0 “ py =O at r=01m 3.12 Divergence Theorem From the Gauss's law we can write, Q = fF Deas ~() 5 While the charge enclosed in a volume is given by, Q= Jo dv ane (2) ¥ But according to Gauss's law in the point form, v-D = py » Q) Using in (2), Q =f (¥-D) dv ow (4) ¥ Equating (1) and (4), [eV B) av a]JNTU EMWTL Electric Flux Density and Gauss's Law 167 The equation (5) is called divergence theorem. It is also called the Gauss - Ostrogradsky theorem. The theorem can be stated as, The integral of the normal component of any vector field over a closed surface is equal to the integral of the divergence of this vector field throughout the volume enclosed by that closed surface. The theorem can be applied to any vector field but partial derivatives of that vector field must exist. The equation (5) is the divergence theorem as applied to the flux density. Both sides of the divergence theorem give the net charge enclosed by the closed surface i.e. net flux crossing the closed surface. With the help of the divergence theorem, the surface integral can be converted into a volume integral, provided that the closed surface encloses certain volume. Thus volume integral on right hand side of the theorem must be calculated over a volume which must be enclosed by the closed surface on left handside. The theorem is applicable only under this condition. Points to remember while solving problems. 1. Draw the sketch of the surface enclosed by the given conditions. 2. D acts within the region bounded by given conditions towards the various surfaces. Thus note the direction of surface with respect to region in which D is given to give proper sign to the unit vector while defining dS. For example, consider the region bounded by two planes as shown in the Fig. 3.25. For surface 1, with respect to D in the region, dS is in -ay direction. While for surface 2, with respect to D in the region, dS is in +a, direction. Fig. 3.25168 Electric Flux Density and Gauss's Law JNTU EMWTL 3. Then evaluate § B+ dS over all the possible surfaces. 5 4. Evaluate f (V+) dw to verify the divergence theorem. Take care of variables in the partial derivatives. Ex.3.9 Given that A =30e~ a, -22 a, in the cylindrical coordinates. Evaluate both sides of the divergence theorem for the volume enclosed by r = 2, = = 0 and z = 5. IM.U. Dec-99, May-2002] Sol.: The divergence theorem states that f A-d8 = [ (v-A)dv 3 v Now fAedS =i f+fr § Jess 5 side top boitom, Consider d5 normal to a, direction which is for the side surface. dS = rdbdza, K-dS = (30e-"a, -228,)- do dea, = 30re~ (a +a, )dodz =30 re do dz ” f A-dS = j J sore dg az with site s-0%0 = 30x 2xe7? x[p]5* x [2] = 255.1 The dB on top has direction 3, hence for top surface, dS = rdr doa, ‘ KedS = (30eE, -228,)+ redo a, = -2zrdrdd ww» (Gs Fe =1) me 2 fAedS = f f -2zrdrd¢ with 2=5 & eon " 2 25x [3] «[6R* =-402 foJNTU EMWTL, Electric Flux Density and Gauss's Law 169 While d5 for bottom has direction —a, hence for bottom surface, dS = rdrdo (-a,) (30 e- a, - 228, )> rde dd (-3,) = 2zrdrdb > a a But z = 0 for the bottom surface, as shown in the Fig. 3.26. . f AedS = 2551-40 n+0 s = 129.4363 This is the left hand side of divergence theorem. Now evaluate [ (V+) dv 16 yl oho +2An gets tet and Ay = 300, Ay =0, A,=-2z 2 Gores)+0+ 2 (29) = 2 f20c(-er) +20e (+E = 3001 +50 or 2 f(veaja = fF j(-96 + Dera) edrap ae z= 0ps0r=0 = ij ic 30re*+30e7-2r) dr dp dz za Ohe0r=0 [ms] enfseom[S BS tee170 Electric Flux Density and Gauss’s Law JNTU EMWTL Obtained using integration by parts. = [B0re-F +30 e -30 et —r?]? B][2a] 0 [60e2 - 22] [10x] = 129.437 This is same as obtained from the left hand side. 2 + @,C / m2. Evaluate both the sides of divergence theorem for the volume enclosed by r = 4m and Q= WA. IP.U. May-2000, May-2001] Sol.: The given D is in spherical coordinates. The volume enclosed is shown in the Fig. 3.37. Ex. 3:10 Given that D=® According to divergence theorem, f D-a5 = { (v-D) : dv The given D has only radial : component as given. Hence D, =55 while Dp = Dg =0. Hence D has a value only on the surface r = 4m. EB Consider dS normal to the 4; direction i. r? sindd6do Ee dS = r2sinade dé a, x Ded5 = (7? singatag)(SF-)-3 +t sin8 dddo (Hy +8, =1) eg § Dead = j J qr sing dodo 8 $50050 = Fr! Ecosoh/[h" and r= 4m = £0 [-00 = 588.896 C f (w-0) a tent ff § @nCe sinoardoaey $=00=0r=0 sz} [-cose],” fo" sxAtx [-cos§ ~(-c080) x28 = 588.896 C Ex. 311 Find the total charge in a volume defined by the six planes for which 1x32, 2sys3,3szs4if, D=4x ay +3y? my +223 a C/ im. [V.T.U. Aug-2000] Sol: The volume bounded by the given planes is a cube. To evaluate total charge use Gauss's law. Q = fF Dds 8 But to evaluate D-d&, it is necessary to consider all six faces of the cube. Let us find d5 for each surface. 1) Front surface (x = 2), dS = dy dz, direction = ay, d5 = dy dz a, 2) Back surface ( x = 1), dS = dy dz, direction = -4,, d5 = - dy dz &y 3) Right side (y = 3), dS = dx dz, direction = 4, dS = dx dz Hy 4) Left side (y = 2), dS = dx dz, direction = By, dB = - dx dz By 5) Top side (2 = 4), dS = dx dy, direction = 3,, dS = dx dy a, 6) Bottom side (z = 3), dS = dx dy, direction = - a,, d5 = - dx dy a,INT EMWIL lectric Flux Density and Gauss's Law 175 As the plane is infinite, half the total flux originating from charge will pass through the plane. lo w= 222-125 uc alAswe = Olan Ex. 3.43 Ina certain region of space, D=2xy ay +3yzdy +4zxit,. Evaluate the amount of electric flux that passes through the portion bounded by -1 5. a) How much electric flux leaves the circular region r < 5,2 = 2? b) How much electric flux crosses the z = 0 plane in -a, direction ? Sol.: a) The flux leaving is charge enclosed. + Sr =Q= fosas= ff feoreo #1 rdrdo The dS = r dr d@_ as the ps is in plane z = 2, to which the normal direction is ,, as shown in the Fig. 3.33.178 Electric Flux Density and'Gauss’s Law JNTU EMWTL Fig. 3.33 : ve Laie wow fates File om (Hi) see [f-Cam en, ye = 5x2nx[5-tan-15] = 113.932 nC .-. use radian mode b) Half of the flux leaves in 4, direction while other half leaves in -%, direction. = 56.966 nC ¥ leaving in ~3, direction = 119.982 Ex.3.16 If D=12x? a, -329 a, —9yz?@,C / m? in free space, specify the point within the cube 1S x,y,2S2 at which the following quantity is maximum and give that maximum value. 2)|D] ¥)|po| © pe IP-U. Dec-91] Sol.: a) From given D |B] = (22) +32) +Coyzy = Jia $925 +81 y? 28 The |D| is maximum, when x, y and z are maximum in the given region. x=ysze2 ... maximum valuesJNTU! \ Electric Flux Density and Gauss's Law 179 < At P@, 2, 2),[B| will be maximum. [Bl = Vi44x 4 49x26 48x22 x24 =898 C/m? b) According to Gauss's law in point form, VeD = py . _ 9D, ,@Dy aD, _ eo veD = ox *3y tae = 24x +0-18 yz 5 Py = Wx-18 yz |pv| will be maximum when x is minimum and yz are maximum. i.e. x = +1 and y = z= 2. [Pvlmax = |24%(H) -18x 2x2] =|+24-72| = 48 C/ m3 ©) pe is maximum when x is maximum ie. 2 and y, z are minimum i.e. y =z = 1. Thus py is maximum at P (2, 1, 1). Py max = 24x2-18x1x(+1) = 30C/ m3 Ex. 3.17 Determine the net flux of the vector field D(x,y,z)=2x2y@, +2iy +y@e emerging from the unit cube 0s x,y,z 1. [M.U. May-2002] Sol.: The x, y and z coordinates are all positive for the cube. Hence the cube is as shown in the Fig. 3.34.JNTU EMWTL Electric Flux Density and Gauss's Law 183 Case II : Uniform line charge For a uniform line charge, the flux density D in a cylindrical coordinate system is given by, = oe De fea Thus for r> 0, D, = £4 and Dy=D, =0 nr : pel : VeD = 55 (rD,)+0+0 a or o[r ou) .t 2 ( BL or 13 aie = .. 2. is constant Qn Thus everywhere except at r = 0, the divergence of flux density due to uniform line charge is zero. Key Point:As D =cE and e is a constant, the divergence of E due to point charge and uniform line charge is also zero everywhere except 1 =0 where it is indeterminate. Ex. 3.21 Let D=10xyzax +(6x? z+5yz)@y +(6x7y+4y?)a,C/ m? then find the incremental amount of charge in a volume of 10-* m> located at, @) (0, 0, 0) b) (4, 2, -3) c) (4, y, - 3) ) At what location in the cubical region 0< x,y,z<3 should the small volume be located to contain a maximum charge ? Find the maximum charge. ° Sol.: The volume is incremental so dv = 10-* m?> According to divergence theorem, Qs J @-D)av dQ = (V+D) dv = Incremental charge in dv . aD, aDy aD; VD = erat rate lye Se +0 = yz +52 a) At P(0,0,0), V-D=0 & dQ = Oxdv =0C b) At P (4, 2, - 3), V+D = 10x2x(-3)+5x(-3) = - 75 dQ = -75x10% = - 0.75 uC184 Electric Flux Density and Gause's Law JNTU EMWTL c) At P (4, y,- 3), V+ D = 10 y (-3)+(6)(-3)=-30y - 15 = (-30y -15)x 10° =-(03 y +0.15) pC d) dQ will be maximum when V+ D is maximum. For this, y and z must be maximum. For given region Os x, y, 2 $3, the maximum values of y and z are 3. Hence at point (x, 3, 3) the dQ is at its maximum, x can take any value. 4Q (max) = V+ DB), xdv =[(10x3x3)+Gx3)] dv = 105x107 = 1.05 uC Ex, 322 A charge configuration is given by, po =5re-™ (C/m) Find D using Gauss’s law. [M.U. May-99] Sol.: Assume given py is in cylindrical coordinates. Let the Gaussian surface be a right circular cylinder of length L and radius r, with z axis as its axis, as shown in the Fig. 3.35. The charge density is a function of r alone hence flux is in radial direction and D also is directed radially outwards. = Da, Consider the differential surface area dS normal to , direction. aS = rd dza, Fig. 3.35 “ D-d5 = D, rdo dz oa Q= go. +d5= i fo, rdgdz = D, r[zh5 eR z= 0 ¢=0 Q=Dr2aL = Let us find charge enclosed by right circular cylinder of length L. dv = rdr do dz Lom f Q=fovdv=[ ff Sre* rdrdgdz ¥ za0 a0 10 : S{zl @" f ret ar ... Use integration by parts 0JNTU EMWTL Electric Flux Density and Gauss's Law 185 Now =f uvdx = uf vdx-[ uf vdx dx J Petr = Pf etdr—f arf ede dr = Pf em def af ae fe 1 re ar Agaii Sit] re ~ Again by parts = -frtet arf e dr-f if e* drdr 1 evr em = len ap om Lye et u(y Ge Vinge lien aT = [-Aeer—lren le 3 z ae" |, = -}e ew trex -terst .~. Putting limits = a1 ya ge lig Leen 1 Q Sxant{ Fret fret tem et » @) Equating (1) and (0), D, = B= Ex 823° Given that the field B=22B0C298 gc J m2, Find a) Volume charge density b) The total cleric fu leaving the surface of the spherical volume of radius 2m. [P.U. Dec-2001] Sol.: a) For py, use Gauss's law in point form. v-D = Given D in spherical coordinates and Ds =D, =0 h vsD = £2, x AS |186 Electric Flux Density and Gauss's Law JNTU EMWTL _ Ssin@cosd O(r) or_. - 2 “ar “Or Ssindcosd ¢ ; 3 “ Pu = b) Surface of cylindrical volume r = 2m. Using divergence theorem, w = f DedS=f (vB) av 5 v dv = r?sin@drdOd@ in spherical system ae j 5sin@cosp Sex? sinOdr dog < u $40 G0 ra0 5[t -sinoh* x f sin? 0 do 0-0 » = 5x2x0x J sin? 0d0 =0C 0-0 Students cain verify the result by divergence theorem. Ex. 3.24 Determine the flux crossing I mm by 1 mm area on the surface of the cylindrical sheet at r= 10 m, z= 2m, 6 = 53.2° if, D=2xa, +2(1-y)a, +420, C /m?. [M.U. May-2000, Dec-2000] Sol: The given B is in gartesian coordinates hence converting point P(10, 53.2°, 2) to cartesian, x = rcosg = 10 cos 532°=6 y = rsing = 10 sin 53.2°= 8 andz=2 -. P (6, 8, 2) in cartesian system. Now D = 124, -14%, +82, C/m? at point P. Substituting x = 6, y = 8 and z=2in D. ‘The given area 1 mm x Imm = 10% m? is very very small ie. differential dS compared to the large radius of the cylinder. dS = dSa, where 3, = Normal unit vector to dS and dS = Magnitude of area = 10 m?JNTU EMWTL Electric Flux Density and Gauss's Law 187 According to Gauss's law, dy = D-dS and there is no need to integrate it as the arca itself is differential hence flux crossing it is also dy. But Ded is required as that component of D which is in same direction as 3, and will decide the amount of flux. Hence obtain a, and find Ded. It is not just multiplication of magnitude of D at point P and area at point P. To find a, consider the cylinder as shown in the Fig. 3.36. Fig. 338 The normal 3, is Z, in the cylindrical coordinates to dS. But to obtain 3, in cartesian coordinates, the point P is radially extended to meet axis of cylinder at A. Now A is (0, 0, 2). The vector AP is now in radial direction at P and represents direction of 3, to dS at P. _ (6-0)%, +(8-0)3, +(2-2)3, 63, +83, (6-0)? +(8-0)? +(2-2)7 : a = 06 a, + 08 ay ” dS = dSa, =10- (06a, +08a,] dy = D-dS at P = (12a, -144, +841)-10~ [0.6a, +0.8a,] 10 {12x 0.6)(, +H.) ~(14)(08)(a, «4, )} All other dot products are zero. = 10 (7.2 - 11.2} = 10 (-4} =~ 4 pC Ex. 3.25 The spherical region, Oa a) Calculate the total charge Q. b) Find E outside the charge distribution. ©) Find E for r a. b) The total charge enclosed by the sphere can be assumed to be point charge placed at the centre of the sphere as per Gauss's law. ea B- 2.5, at r>a ar ++ Outside the charge distribution i.e. > a, 8x |B] = —2 2150? _ 2 poa? 1 4mcor? = 4xeor? 15 & 1? . = 2ooat 1, ea Es iB to ie W/m Thus E varies with 1, outside the charge distribution. ©) For r

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