7/30/2019

History of Communications

Data
Communications
BY: ENGR. JOMAR B. CALAUOD

History of Communications Data Communications

Data – information, knowledge, or intelligence stored in

digital form.

Communication – transmission, reception and processing

of information.

Data Communications – the electronic transmission of

encoded information to, from, or between computers.

Data Communications Fundamental Characteristics

Digital Transmission – the transmittal of digital
The effectiveness of a data communication

pulses between two or more points in a system depend on four fundamental
communications system. characteristics:
1. Delivery – deliver data to the correct destination.

Digital Radio – the transmittal of digitally 2. Accuracy – deliver the data accurately.
modulated analog carrier between two or more 3. Timeliness – deliver data in a timely manner.
points in a communications system. 4. Jitter – the variation in the packet arrival time.

1
 7/30/2019

Characteristics of a Reliable Networrk Digital Signals Advantages

1. Fault Tolerance – limits the impact of a failure
Easier to multiplex

2. Scalability – can expand quickly and easily to
Easier to integrate with other digital equipment
support new users and applications

Noise immunity
3. Quality of Service (QoS) – ensure reliable
delivery of content for all users
Easy to encode, decode, encrypt, and
4. Security – encompasses hardware and scramble
software security. Three goals of security:
Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability.

Digital Signals Disadvantages Data Representations

1. Morse Code – encodes text characters as standardized sequences of two

different signal durations called dots and dashes, or dits and dahs

Large bandwidth
2. Baudot Code – each character in the alphabet is represented by a series of

Need for synchronization five bits, sent over a communication channel such as a telegraph wire or a
radio signal. Also known as International Telegraph Alphabet (ITA) #2.

Need for additional equipment 3. ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) – employs a 7-bit
coding scheme supporting 128 characters. Also known as International
Telegraph Alphabet (ITA) #5.

Need for AD/DA conversion
4. EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) – involves an 8-
bit coding scheme, yielding 28 (256) possible combinations
5. Unicode (Universal Code) – used to standardize longer and more complex
coding schemes used to accommodate more complex languages such as
Japanese and Chinese

Data Representations Modes of Data Flow

1. Simplex (SX) – transmissions can occur only in one

1. Images – a distributed amplitude of direction
colors 2. Half-Duplex (HDX) – transmissions can occur in both
directions, but not at the same time
2. Audio – refers to the recording or
3. Full-Duplex (FDX) – Transmissions can occur in both
broadcasting of sound or music directions at the same time
3. Video – refers to the recording or 4. Full Full-Duplex (F/FDX) – transmit and receive
simultaneously, but not necessary between the same
broadcasting of a picture or movie. two stations

2
 7/30/2019

Modes of Data Flow Network Key Issues

1. Performance

Transit Time – amount of time required for a message to
Simplex travel from one device to another device

Response Time – elapsed time between an inquiry and a
response

Networking metrics:
Half-Duplex
Throughput – actual data transfer rate between two
computers

Delay – how long it takes for an entire message to
completely arrive at the destination from the time the
Full-Duplex first bit is sent out from the source.

Network Key Issues Types of Connection

2. Security 1. Point-to-Point

include protecting data from unauthorized access,
provides a dedicated link between two devices
protecting data from damage and development, and
implementing policies and procedures for recovery from
the entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission
breaches and data losses. between those two devices

3. Reliability 2. Multipoint

measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a
also called multidrop connection
link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness
more than two specific devices share a single link
in a catastrophe.

spatially-shared - several devices can use the link simultaneously

time-shared - users must take turns

Network Topology Physical Topology

defines the way hosts are connected to the network

1. Physical Topology – is an arrangement of the nodes
and the physical connections between them.
2. Logical Topology – is the way a network transfers
frames from one node to the next. This arrangement
consists of virtual connections between the nodes of
a network independent of their physical layout.

3
 7/30/2019

Logical Topology Network Topology

1. Bus – all the nodes are connected to a single

cable

2. Ring – each node connects to exactly two

other nodes

Network Topology Network Topology

3. Star – every host is connected to a central hub 5. Tree – arranged like the branches of a tree
From https://bit.ly/2OhJ8Hy
5. Daisy Chain – one network node is attached to the
4. Mesh – each node is connected to every other node in next in a line or chain
the network. 6. Self-Healing Ring – a ring with a redundancy
From https://bit.ly/2ZbeCA2

From https://bit.ly/2LFzyvL

Types of Network Types of Network

1. Local Area Network (LAN) – usually privately owned and
links the devices in a single office, building, or campus
2. Wide Area Network (WAN) – provides long-distance
transmission of data, image, audio, and video information
over large geographic areas that may comprise a
country, a continent, or even the whole world
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) – a network with a size
between a LAN and a WAN. It normally covers the area
inside a town or a city
4. Wireless LAN (WLAN) – wireless distribution method for two
or more devices that use high-frequency radio waves and
often include an access point to the Internet
5. Personal-Area Network (PAN) – short-range wireless
network that is set up automatically between two or more
devices such as laptop computers, peripheral devices, or
cell phones
6. Storage Area Network (SAN) – provides users on the
network access to massive data files stored in mass
memory units

4
 7/30/2019

Types of Network Protocols and Standards

7. Internet – worldwide collection of A protocol is a set of rules that govern data

interconnected LANs and WANs communications.
8. Intranet – private collection of LANs and WANs
Syntax – structure or format of the data
9. Extranet – provides users on the network access
Semantics – meaning of each section of bits
to massive data files stored in mass memory
Timing – refers to two characteristics: when
units data should be sent and how fast they can
be sent.

Protocols and Standards Standards Organizations

1. International Telecommunication Union (ITU) – devoted to the research and

Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, establishment of standards for telecommunications in general and for phone and
government agencies, and other service providers to data systems in particular.

ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's
marketplace and in international communications

De facto – standards that have not been approved by an
organized body but have been adopted as standards through
widespread use

De jure – standards that have been legislated by an officially
recognized body
3 Main Sectors: Radiocommunications (ITU-R), Telecommunications Standardization
(ITU-T)*, and Development (ITU-D)
2. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) – oversees the development
standards for products, services, processes, and systems in the US.
3. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) – a professional
association for electrical engineers (and associated disciplines). Oversees the
development and adoption of international standards for computing and
communications.
*Consultative Committee for International Telephony and Telegraphy (CCITT) – former
name of ITU-T

Standards Organizations Data Communications Components

4. International Standards Organization (ISO) – comprised of the national standards

1. Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) – the computer transmit and
organizations of various nations.
receive equipment
5. Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) – the leading
trade association representing the global information and communications 2. Channel – the medium by which the signal is sent through
technology (ICT) industries through standards development, government affairs,
business opportunities, market intelligence, certification and world-wide 1. Wire Medium – also known as bounded or guided medium
environmental regulatory. 2. Wireless Medium - also known as unbounded or unguided medium
6. Electronic Industries Association (EIA) – developed standards to ensure the
equipment of different manufacturers was compatible and interchangeable.
3. Data Communications Equipment (DCE) – interfaces the DTE to the
network, resolving any issues of incompatibility.
7. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) – protects the public interest by
regulating radio, television and wire/cable communications. The FCC has authority
over interstate and international commerce as it relates to communications.

5
 7/30/2019

Data Communications Components Channels > Wire Medium

1. Transmission Lines – metallic conductors that “guides”

electrical energy
1. Balanced Line – pair of wires
2. Unbalanced Line – coaxial cable
2. Waveguides – hollow metal tubes that “guides”
electromagnetic energy
3. From https://bit.ly/2GvZBl8
Optical Fibers – thin flexible fiber with a glass core through
From https://bit.ly/2SxseCZ
which light signals can be sent

Channels > Wireless Medium Channel Classifications

1. Ground (or Surface) Wave Propagation –

waves traveling along the surface of the 1. Lossless Channel - described by a channel matrix
ground with only one non-zero element in each column.
2. Space (or Tropospheric) Wave Propagation –
two paths from the transmitting antenna to 2. Deterministic Channel - described by a channel
the receiving antenna—one through the air matrix with only one non-zero element on each
directly to the receiving antenna, the other
reflected from the ground to the receiving row.
antenna.
3. Sky-Wave (or Ionospheric-Wave)
3. Noiseless Channel - a channel which is both
Propagation – waves reflected from the lossless and deterministic.
ionosphere

Channel Channel Capacity

Bit rate – number of bits per second that can be 1. Nyquist Theorem
transmitted along a digital line. 2. Hartley’s Law for Noiseless Channel
Baud rate – number of signal events or signal 3. Shannon-Limit for Information Capacity
elements passing a point on the line per second.
4. Shannon-Hartley Law for a Noisy Channel
Bandwidth – amount of data that can be
transmitted in a fixed amount of time

6
 7/30/2019

Channel Capacity > Nyquist Theorem Channel Capacity > Hartley’s Law for
Noiseless Channel

Channel Capacity > Shannon Limit for Channel Capacity > Shannon Limit for
Information Capacity Information Capacity

Data Transmission Serial Transmission

1. Serial Transmission – bits are transmitted one

after another.

2. Parallel Transmission – bits are transmitted all at

once.

7
 7/30/2019

Parallel Transmission Transmission Methods

1. Asynchronous – sends one start bit (0) at the beginning and one or
more stop bits (1s) at the end of each byte.
2. Synchronous – we send bits one after another without start or stop
bits or gaps. It is the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.
3. Isochronous – provides synchronization for the entire stream of bits.
In other words, it guarantees that the data arrive at a fixed rate.
4. Pleisiochronous – involves careful synchronization of transmission
systems of varying levels of bandwidth through the use of highly
accurate clocking devices.

Layered Task Network Architecture

1. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet

Protocol)Model
2. OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model

OSI Reference Model vs TCP/IP Model Encapsulation and Decapsulation

8
 7/30/2019

Physical Layer Data-Link Layer

lowest layer of the OSI Reference Model
responsible for the manner in which a device gains access to the

responsible for the mechanical, electrical, functional, and procedural medium specified in the physical layer.
mechanism required for the transmission of data

The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop

The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from (node) to the next.
one hop (node) to the next.

Protocol Data Unit (PDU): frames

Protocol Data Unit (PDU): bits

Data-Link Sublayers Network Layer

responsible for the physical routing of data. To accomplish this task,

1. Logical Link Control (LLC) – identifies the network layer performs addressing, routing, switching,
sequencing of data packets, and flow control.
network layer protocol
2. Media Access Control (MAC) – addresses
frame and defines media access
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets
from the source host to the destination host.

Protocol Data Unit (PDU): packets

Transport Layer Session Layer

responsible for ensuring that the transfer of information occurs
Creates and maintains dialogs between source and destination
correctly once a route is established through a network. applications

responsible for establishing and terminating data streams between
network nodes.

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from
one process to another.

Protocol Data Unit (PDU): segments

The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.

Protocol Data Unit (PDU): data

9
 7/30/2019

Presentation Layer Application Layer

provides for common representation of the data. The presentation
provides support services for user and application tasks. File transfer,
layer provides data transformation, formatting, and syntax interpretation of graphic formats and documents, and document
conversion. processing are supported at this level.

The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression,
Protocol Data Unit (PDU): data
and encryption.

Protocol Data Unit (PDU): data

MAC Methods Controlled Access

Controlled Access

Contention-Based Access
1. CSMA/CD
2. CSMA/CA

Contention-Based Access > CSMA/CD Contention-Based Access > CSMA/CA

10

Data Switching
1. Circuit Switching – provides continuous and exclusive access between
physical circuits for the duration of the conversation.
2. Packet Switching – transmission of data in packets of fixed length across a
shared network. Each packet is individually addressed, in order that the
packet switches can route each packet over the most appropriate and
available circuit.
3. Frame Switching (Frame Relay) – supports the transmission of virtually any
computer data stream in its native form.
4. Cell Switching (Asynchronous Transfer Mode/ATM) – data is organized into
cells of fixed length, shipped across very high-speed facilities and switched
through very high speed, specialized switches.
5. Photonic Switching - will eliminate the requirement for opto-electric
conversion when connected to a fiber optic transmission system.
IEEE 802 Standards

802.8 - Fiber Optic Technical Advisory Group. Established to assess
impact of fiber optics and to recommend standards.

802.9 - Integrated Voice and Data Networks (ISDN/Isochronous Traffic)

802.10 - Internetwork Security.

802.11 - Wireless LAN/WLAN.

802.12 - High-Speed LANs, Demand Priority Access (e.g.,
100VGAnyLAN).

802.15 - A communications specification that was approved in early
2002 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Standards
Association (IEEE-SA) for wireless personal area networks (WPANs).

802.16 - Broadband Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN).
Digital Transmission

Line Coding – process of converting binary data to a digital
signal

Ex. NRZ, RZ, Manchester, AMI

Block coding – provides redundancy to ensure
synchronization and inherent error detection

Ex. 4B/5B, 8B/10B

Scrambling – provides synchronization without increasing
the number of bits.

Ex. B8ZS and HDB3.
7/30/2019
IEEE 802 Standards

802.1 - defines architecture layers and rules for interconnection of disparate LAN
protocols. Includes data formatting, network management and internetworking.

802.2 - defines equivalent of Logical Link Control services, including protocol for data
transfer.

802.3 - defines CSMA/CD Access Method and Physical Layer specifications.

802.4 - Token-Passing Bus Access Method and Physical Layer specifications.

802.5 - Token-Passing Ring Access Method and Physical Layer specifications.

802.6 - Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) Access Method and Physical Layer
specifications. DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual Bus) is defined.

802.7 - Broadband Technical Advisory Group. Standards for definition of a broadband
cable plant design. Established guidelines for LAN construction within a physical
facility such as a building.
Internetworking

The Internet is divided logically into domains. Under the terms of IPv4
(Internet Protocol version 4), these are identified as a 32-bit portion of the
total address. Addresses follow a standard convention, which is similar to
user@organization.domain
Domain types include the following:
.com = commercial organizations
.edu = educational institutions
.gov = government agencies
.mil = military
.net = network access providers
Analog Carrier System

To maximize the efficiency of their infrastructure, telephone
companies have traditionally multiplexed signals from lower-
bandwidth lines onto higher-bandwidth lines.
11
 7/30/2019

Analog Carrier System Digital Carrier System

Hierarchy JG MG SG G VB

Group - - - 12

Supergroup - - - 5 60

Mastergroup - - 10 50 600

Jumbogroup - 6 60 300 3600

Superjumbogroup
3 18 180 900 10800

Digital Carrier System Error Detection and Correction

Basic Rate Interface (BRI)

2B+D = 192 kbps
Data can be corrupted during
B = 64 kbps
D = 16 kbps
transmission.
Overhead = 48 kbps
Some applications require that errors
Primary Rate Interface (PRI)


be detected and corrected.
1. 23B+D (American) = 1.544 Mbps (T1)
2. 30B+D (European) = 2.048 Mbps (E1)

Types of Errors Error Detection

1. Single-bit error – only 1 bit of a given data unit
(such as a byte, character, or packet) is
changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.
2. Burst Error – 2 or more bits in the data unit have
changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.
1. Redundancy – transmitting each character twice.
If the same character is not received twice in
succession, a transmission error has occurred.
2. Echoplex – receiving device “echoes” the
received data back to the transmitting device.
3. Exact-count Encoding – the number of binary 1s
in each character is the same.

12
 7/30/2019

Error Detection Error Correction

4. Parity Checking – appending one or more parity bits to the
data set in order to create odd parity or even parity.
1. Vertical Redundancy Checking (VRC) – adds a parity bit at the end of
each transmitted character
2. Longitudinal Redundancy Checking (LRC) or Block Checking
Character (BCC) - adds a “parity bit” at the end of each transmitted
block or data sets
5. Cyclic Redundancy Checking – uses a unique mathematical
polynomial known to both transmitter and receiver. The result
of that calculation is appended to the block or frame or text
as either a 16- or 32-bit value
1. Symbol Substitution – receiving computer will replace
faulty symbols
2. Retransmission (ARQ) – resending a message when it is
received in error and the receive terminal automatically
calls for retransmission of the entire message.
3. Forward Error Correction (FEC) – involves the addition of
redundant information embedded in the data set in order
that the receiving device can detect errors and correct
for them without requiring a retransmission.

Hamming Code Network Addresses

1. Logical Address – for delivering the IP packet

from the original source to the final destination
2. Physical Address – to deliver the data link frame
from one network interface to another network
interface on the same network

IPv4 Address IPv6 Address

A 32-bit address that uniquely and universally
An IPv6 address consists of 16 bytes (octets); it is
defines the connection of a device to the 128 bits long.
Internet.

IPv6 specifies hexadecimal colon notation.

The address space of IPv4 is 2^32 or
4,294,967,296.

13
 7/30/2019

Network and Host Portions Types of Address

Network address - the address by which we refer

to the network.

Broadcast address - a special address used to

send data to all hosts in the network.

Host addresses - the addresses assigned to the

end devices in the network.

Types of IP Communication Private Addresses

Unicast – the process of sending a packet from
one host to an individual host

Broadcast – the process of sending a packet from
one host to all hosts in the network

10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 (10.0.0.0 /8)

172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 (172.16.0.0 /12)

192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 (192.168.0.0 /16)

Multicast – the process of sending a packet from

one host to a selected group of hosts

Special Addresses Special Addresses

Default Route
TEST-NET Addresses

IPv4 default route as 0.0.0.0.

192.0.2.0 to 192.0.2.255 (192.0.2.0 /24)

Loopback

Link-Local Addresses

127.0.0.1. The loopback is a special address that hosts
use to direct traffic to themselves
169.254.0.0 to 169.254.255.255 (169.254.0.0 /16)

14
 7/30/2019

Classful and Classless Addressing Legacy Classful Addressing

Class Start Address End Address Subnet Mask CIDR Notation

1. Legacy Classful Address A 0.0.0.0 127.255.255.255 255.0.0.0 /8

2. Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) B 128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255 255.255.0.0 /16

C 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255 255.255.255.0 /24

D 224.0.0.0 239.255.255.255 not defined not defined

E 240.0.0.0 255.255.255.255 not defined not defined

User Datagram Protocol Transmission Control Protocol

a connectionless, unreliable transport protocol
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol;

it creates a virtual connection between two TCPs to

UDP is a very simple protocol using a minimum of
send data.
overhead.

In addition, TCP uses flow and error control mechanisms
at the transport level.

15