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Plant Hormones & Seed Development

The document discusses plant hormones (phytohormones), which regulate plant growth and development. There are six major classes of plant hormones: abscisic acid, gibberellins, auxins, cytokinins, ethylene, and brassinosteroids. These hormones play important roles in seed development, germination, and early seedling establishment through functions like promoting storage protein synthesis, inducing dormancy, stimulating germination, and regulating embryogenesis. The roles of specific hormones like abscisic acid, gibberellins, and ethylene in seeds are described.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
121 views4 pages

Plant Hormones & Seed Development

The document discusses plant hormones (phytohormones), which regulate plant growth and development. There are six major classes of plant hormones: abscisic acid, gibberellins, auxins, cytokinins, ethylene, and brassinosteroids. These hormones play important roles in seed development, germination, and early seedling establishment through functions like promoting storage protein synthesis, inducing dormancy, stimulating germination, and regulating embryogenesis. The roles of specific hormones like abscisic acid, gibberellins, and ethylene in seeds are described.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

1.

Plant Hormones
Plant hormones (phytohormones) are chemical compounds that are involved in the regulation of
growth and development, hence the alternative term for them of plant growth regulators. They are signal
molecules that are produced within the plant and are active at very low concentrations (10-7–10-5 M).
Hormones regulate cellular and developmental processes in targeted cells, which may or may not be the cells
in which they are synthesized. Plant hormones play a pivotal role in the many signal transduction chains in
plants, and are particularly important in mediating the translation of environmental signals to internal ones
(Chap. 6). A short overview of plant hormones, all of which have been reported in seeds, and their functions,
is presented initially before describing seed developmental events in which they play important roles.
There are six major classes of plant hormones, as noted below, based upon their structural similarities
as well as on their physiological effects. Some other plant hormones and growth regulators are not easily
grouped into these classes. They may exist naturally or are synthesized by humans or other organisms. The six
classes are: abscisic acid, gibberellins, auxins, cytokinins, ethylene, and the brassinosteroids (Fig. 2.7). Their
roles in seed development, germination or early seedling establishment include the following.
Abscisic acid (ABA) is an isoprenoid compound formed by the cleavage of carotenoid precursors. It
was named on the basis of early work on its influence on leaf abscission, although now it is more closely
associated with responses to environmental stresses. Its involvement in seed development includes the
following:
• Promotion of synthesis of some seed storage proteins (Sect. 3.2.4.3);
• Acquisition of desiccation tolerance (Sect. 2.5.2.2);
• Induction and maintenance of dormancy (Sects. 2.3.3, 2.4.2).
Gibberellins (GA) are a large group classi fi ed on the basis of both structure and function. All
gibberellins are derived from the ent-gibberellane skeleton. They are named GA1....GAn in order of discovery.
Gibberellic acid (GA3) was the first gibberellin to be structurally characterized. There are nearly 150 GAs
identified from plants, fungi, and bacteria. The gibberellins GA1 and GA4 are active in seeds, where they
occur naturally; commercially available GA3 is most commonly used in experiments, although this may
contain contaminating GA1. GA activities include the following:
• Stimulation of stem elongation by promoting cell division and elongation;
• Breaking of seed dormancy to induce germination (Sect. 6.6.1.2);
• Stimulation of a-amylase production for mobilization of starch reserves (Sect. 5.5.1);
• Parthenocarpic (seedless) fruit development.
Auxins are generally considered as compounds characterized by their ability to induce cell elongation
and otherwise resemble indoleacetic acid (IAA, the first auxin isolated) in physiological activity:
• Stimulating cell elongation
• Promoting root initiation and lateral root development
• Mediation of tropic responses such as bending in response to gravity and light
• Regulation of pattern formation in embryogenesis (Sect. 2.3.2).
Cytokinins (CK) resemble adenine and promote cell division, but also have other functions. The most
common naturally occurring cytokinin in plants is zeatin, which was isolated from corn (Zea mays).
Ethylene (ETH). Unlike all other plant hormones, ethylene is a gaseous compound. Like ABA, it is
the only member of its class. Of all the known plant growth substances, ethylene has the simplest structure. It
may stimulate the breaking of seed dormancy (Sect. 6.6.1.3).
Brassinosteroids (BR) are polyhydroxysteroids that are present in small amounts, but play a number
of roles in plant development. These include the stimulation of cell elongation and division, and gravitropism,
as well as promoting resistance to stress.
Other hormones/growth regulators:
• Salicylic acid may activate genes that aid in the defense against biotic stress.
• Jasmonates are derived from fatty acids and are involved in the production of defense proteins. They may
also have a role in seed germination and the control of protein storage in seeds.
• Strigolactones are associated with the inhibition of shoot branching and the induction of germination of
parasitic weeds (Sect. 7.2.6).
• Karrikins are a group of plant growth regulators discovered in smoke and extracts of burned plant material
that stimulate the germination of seeds at extremely low concentrations (Sect. 6.6.7.3).

3.
Cereals
An initial event is the release of cell wall-degrading enzymes, -glucanases, from the scutellum into
an intermediate layer of crushed cells (Fig. 1.1) that lies between the scutellar epithelium and the starchy
endosperm. The digestion of this layer facilitates the release and passage of -amylase from the scutellum into
the starch-storing cells to commence digestion of this reserve. The initial production of this enzyme invariably
occurs in the region of the scutellum, in the epithelial layer of this organ (e.g., rice), or the entire scutellum
(e.g., sorghum), or in the few aleurone layer cells that penetrate the peripheral regions of the scutellum (e.g.,
barley). Later the enzyme is usually synthesized within the aleurone layer, the only living cells in the storage
tissue, which lie to the outside of the mature cereal endosperm (in barley it is three cell-layers thick, in maize
and wheat only one, and rice one to several), and is then secreted into the starchy endosperm. Thus, although
-amylase synthesized in, and released from the scutellum is important during the early stages of starch
mobilization, e.g., in barley, wheat, rye and oat, most of the later hydrolysis is effected by enzyme from the
aleurone layer. In rice, synthesis of -amylase in the scutellum precedes that in the aleurone layer and is at
least as important for starch hydrolysis; in maize, the scutellum is persistently a major source of the enzyme.

Legume
In contrast to the large amount of research on triacylglycerol (TAG) mobilization in dicots (Sect. 5.7),
there have been relatively few studies on starch utilization, and mostly in legumes. In non-endospermic
legumes the endosperm is broken down as a source of nutrients during seed development, being either residual
in (e.g., soybean), or absent from (e.g., peas, Phaseolus bean) the mature seed; the cotyledons assume the role
as the major storage organ. These may contain predominantly starch or TAGs. Endospermic legumes of the
tribe Trifolieae retain a substantial endosperm at maturity (e.g., fenugreek, carob, guar) and it becomes the site
of stored carbohydrate reserves, as hemicelluloses, whereas the cotyledons are the site of storage proteins.

4.
Cereals
During germination a signal passes from the axis through the cotyledons and then to the endosperm
where, following germination, it overcomes the negative effect of the endogenous inhibitor ABA on endo- -
mannanase synthesis. -Galactosidase activity also increases and the products of cell wall-galactomannan
degradation are taken up by the cotyledons. Small oligomannans are then hydrolyzed to mannose residues by
-mannosidase already present within the cotyledon cell walls. Mannose and galactose are likely quickly
converted to glucose, and then to sucrose for transport and utilization within the growing seedling as an energy
source until mobilization of the lipid reserves commences within the cotyledons

Non Cereals
When the growing axis (sink) is removed there is a build-up of hydrolytic products in the cotyledons
(source): amino acids and peptides from storage proteins, and sugars from triacylglycerols (TAG) following
gluconeogenesis. These may slow down or inhibit activity of some key enzymes in the catabolic pathways,
either directly or as a result of lowered transcription of their genes. The reduced mobilization of the reserves
could be due to one or more of: feedback (substrate-level) inhibition of specific enzymes in the catabolic
pathway, perturbation of the signalling pathways that are the fi ne control for cellular and metabolic
interactions, a change in osmotic potential that decreases enzyme synthesis, or due to an imbalance of the C:N
ratio.
1.
Hormon Tumbuhan
Hormon tanaman (fitohormon) adalah senyawa kimia yang terlibat dalam peraturan pertumbuhan dan
pembangunan, maka istilah alternatif bagi mereka pengatur pertumbuhan tanaman. Mereka adalah molekul
sinyal yang diproduksi di dalam tanaman dan aktif pada konsentrasi yang sangat rendah (10-7-10-5
M). Hormon mengatur proses seluler dan perkembangan dalam sel yang ditargetkan, yang mungkin atau
mungkin bukan sel di mana mereka disintesis. Hormon tanaman memainkan peran penting dalam banyak
hal rantai transduksi sinyal pada tanaman, dan khususnya penting dalam memediasi terjemahan sinyal
lingkungan ke sinyal internal (Bab 6 ). Ikhtisar singkat tentanghormon tanaman, yang semuanya telah
dilaporkan dalam biji, dan fungsinya, adalah disajikan pada awalnya sebelum menggambarkan peristiwa
perkembangan benih di mana mereka bermain peran penting.
Ada enam kelas utama hormon tanaman, seperti disebutkan di bawah ini, berdasarkan pada
mereka kesamaan struktural serta pada efek fisiologisnya. Beberapa tanaman lain hormon dan zat pengatur
tumbuh tidak mudah dikelompokkan ke dalam kelas-kelas ini. Mereka mungkin ada secara alami atau
disintesis oleh manusia atau organisme lain. Enam kelas tersebut adalah: asam absisat, giberelin, auksin,
sitokinin, etilen, dan brassinosteroid (Gbr. 2.7 ).Peran mereka dalam pengembangan benih, perkecambahan
atau pembentukan bibit awal meliputi sebagai berikut.
Abscisic acid (ABA) adalah senyawa isoprenoid yang dibentuk oleh pembelahan prekursor
karotenoid. Itu namanya atas dasar pekerjaan awal pada pengaruhnya terhadap daun absisi, meskipun sekarang
ini lebih erat terkait dengan respons terhadap tekanan lingkungan. Keterlibatannya dalam pengembangan benih
meliputi:
• Promosi sintesis beberapa protein penyimpanan benih (Bag. 3.2.4.3 );
• Akuisisi toleransi pengeringan ( Bagian 2.5.2.2 );
• Induksi dan pemeliharaan dormansi (Sect. 2.3.3 , 2.4.2 ).
Gibberellins (GA) adalah kelompok besar yang diklasifikasikan berdasarkan struktur
dan fungsi. Semua giberelin berasal dari kerangka ent- giberelin. Mereka bernama GA1 .... GA n menurut
urutan penemuan. Asam giberelat (GA3) adalah giberelin pertama yang dikarakterisasi secara struktural. Ada
hampir 150 GA yang diidentifikasi dari tanaman, jamur, dan bakteri. Giberelin GA1 dan GA4 aktif dalam biji,
di mana mereka terjadi secara alami; GA3 yang tersedia secara komersial paling umum digunakan
di percobaan, meskipun ini mungkin mengandung GA1 yang terkontaminasi. Kegiatan GA meliputi pengikut:
• Stimulasi pemanjangan batang dengan mempromosikan pembelahan sel dan pemanjangan;
• Pemutusan dormansi benih untuk menginduksi perkecambahan ( Bagian 6.6.1.2 );
• Stimulasi produksi a-amilase untuk mobilisasi cadangan pati (Bagian 5.5.1 );
• Pengembangan buah Parthenocarpic (tanpa biji).
Auksin umumnya dianggap sebagai senyawa yang ditandai oleh kemampuannya menginduksi
pemanjangan sel dan menyerupai asam indoleasetat (IAA, yang pertama auksin terisolasi) dalam aktivitas
fisiologis:
• Merangsang pemanjangan sel
• Mempromosikan inisiasi akar dan pengembangan akar lateral
• Mediasi respons tropis seperti menekuk sebagai respons terhadap gravitasi dan cahaya
• Regulasi pembentukan pola dalam embriogenesis (Sekt. 2.3.2 ).
Sitokinin (CK) menyerupai adenin dan meningkatkan pembelahan sel, tetapi juga memiliki yang
lain fungsi. Sitokinin yang paling umum terjadi secara alami pada tanaman adalah zeatin, yang diisolasi dari
jagung ( Zea mays ).
Etilen (ETH). Tidak seperti semua hormon tanaman lainnya, etilen adalah senyawa gas. Seperti ABA,
itu adalah satu-satunya anggota kelasnya. Dari semua pertumbuhan tanaman yang dikenal zat, etilen memiliki
struktur paling sederhana. Ini dapat merangsang pemecahan dormansi benih (Sect. 6.6.1.3 ).
Brassinosteroids (BR) adalah polyhydroxysteroids yang hadir dalam jumlah kecil, tetapi memainkan
sejumlah peran dalam pengembangan pabrik. Ini termasuk stimulasi sel perpanjangan dan pembagian, dan
gravitropisme, serta mempromosikan resistensi terhadap stres.
Hormon lain / pengatur pertumbuhan:
• Asam salisilat dapat mengaktifkan gen yang membantu pertahanan melawan stres biotik.
• Jasmonat berasal dari asam lemak dan terlibat dalam produksi protein pertahanan. Mereka mungkin juga
memiliki peran dalam perkecambahan biji dan kontrol penyimpanan protein dalam biji.
• Strigolakton dikaitkan dengan penghambatan percabangan dan tunas induksi perkecambahan gulma parasit
(Bagian 7.2.6 ).
• Karrikin adalah sekelompok pengatur pertumbuhan tanaman yang ditemukan dalam asap dan ekstrak bahan
tanaman yang terbakar yang merangsang perkecambahan biji pada tingkat yang sangat rendah konsentrasi
( Bagian 6.6.7.3 ).

3.
Sereal
Peristiwa awal adalah pelepasan enzim pendegradasi dinding sel,  -glucanases , dari scutellum ke
lapisan menengah sel-sel yang dihancurkan (Gbr. 1.1 ) yang terletak antara epitel scutellar dan endosperma
bertepung.Pencernaan ini Lapisan memfasilitasi pelepasan dan bagian dari  -amilase dari skutellum ke
dalam sel penyimpan pati untuk memulai pencernaan cadangan ini. Produksi awal PT Enzim ini selalu terjadi
di daerah skutel, di lapisan epitel organ ini (misalnya, beras), atau seluruh skutel (misalnya, sorgum), atau
sedikit sel-sel lapisan aleuron yang menembus daerah perifer skutellum (misalnya, jelai). Kemudian enzim
biasanya disintesis di dalam lapisan aleuron, satu-satunya sel-sel hidup dalam jaringan penyimpanan, yang
terletak di luar sereal matang endosperma (pada gandum hanya tiga lapis sel, pada jagung dan gandum hanya
satu, dan) nasi satu ke beberapa), dan kemudian disekresikan ke endosperma bertepung. Jadi, meskipun  -
amilase disintesis, dan dilepaskan dari skutellum penting selama tahap awal mobilisasi pati, misalnya, dalam
gandum, gandum, gandum hitam dan gandum, sebagian besar hidrolisis selanjutnya dipengaruhi oleh enzim
dari lapisan aleuron. Dalam beras, sintesis  -amilase dalam scutellum mendahului lapisan aleuron dan paling
tidak sama penting untuk hidrolisis pati; pada jagung, scutellum tetap menjadi utamasumber enzim .

Tumbuhan polong
Berbeda dengan sejumlah besar penelitian tentang mobilisasi triasilgliserol (TAG) di Indonesia dikotil
(Bagian 5.7 ), ada beberapa studi yang relatif sedikit tentang pemanfaatan pati, dan kebanyakan di legum. Pada
legum non-endospermia endosperma dipecah sebagai sumber nutrisi selama pengembangan benih, menjadi
residu dalam (misalnya, kedelai), atau tidak ada (misalnya, kacang polong, kacang Phaseolus ) benih
matang; kotiledon menganggap peran sebagai yang utama organ penyimpanan. Ini mungkin mengandung
sebagian besar pati atau TAG. Legum endospermik dari suku Trifolieae mempertahankan
substansial endosperma pada saat jatuh tempo (misalnya, fenugreek, carob, guar) dan itu menjadi
situs disimpan cadangan karbohidrat, seperti hemiselulosa, sedangkan kotiledon adalah situs protein
penyimpanan.

4.
Sereal
Selama perkecambahan sinyal lewat dari sumbu melalui kotiledon dan kemudian ke endosperm mana,
berikut perkecambahan, itu mengatasi efek negatif dari endogen inhibitor ABA pada endo  -mannanase
sintesis. Kegiatan -Galactosidase  juga meningkatkan dan produk sel degradasi dinding-galactomannan
diambil oleh kotiledon. Oligomannans kecil kemudian dihidrolisis residu mannose oleh  -mannosidase sudah
hadir dalam dinding sel kotiledon. Mannosa dan galaktosa cenderung dengan cepat dikonversi menjadi
glukosa, dan kemudian menjadi sukrosa untuk transportasi dan pemanfaatan dalam bibit yang tumbuh sebagai
sumber energi sampai mobilisasi cadangan lipid dimulai dalam kotiledon.

Non Sereal
Ketika sumbu tumbuh (tenggelam) adalah dihapus ada penumpukan produk hidrolitik di kotiledon
(sumber): asam amino dan peptida dari protein penyimpanan, dan gula dari triasilgliserol (TAG) setelah
glukoneogenesis. Ini dapat memperlambat atau menghambat aktivitas beberapa enzim kunci dalam jalur
katabolik, baik secara langsung atau sebagai hasil dari transkripsi gen mereka yang lebih
rendah. Berkurangnya mobilisasi cadangan dapat disebabkan oleh satu atau lebih dari: umpan balik (tingkat
substrat) penghambatan enzim spesifik di jalur katabolik, gangguan jalur pensinyalan yang merupakan kontrol
utama untuk seluler dan interaksi metabolik, perubahan dalam potensi osmotik yang menurunkan sintesis
enzim, atau karena ketidakseimbangan C: N rasio.

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