96 Handbook of Railway Vehicle Dynamics 1 “ne-slp force a FIGURE 4.8 Coulomb's model and rolling friction longitudinal forces couple M,. Howe; when the contact angle becomes the yaw force, depending on { ‘The couple Ze has ac: a first approximation. 1e spin generates a lateral force which is not negligible This lateral force is described separately or included with ory used, ent resisting the forward displacement, which can be neglected in B. TANGENT FORCES: ROLLING FRICTION SIMPLE MODELS ‘The wheel-rait contact is a rolling friction contact. It differs from the sliding friction Coulomb ‘model (Which can be found for example in the brake shoes) with an area of adhesion and an area of slip which appears progressively as the slip speed increases (see Figure 4.8) ‘The transition is characterized by the initial slope or "no-slip force,” the force if the friction coefficient s. was infinite, and the “S” saturation curve. 1. Historical Review After Hertz, Boussineseq, and Cerruti, at the beginning of the 20th century three authors were interested by the wheel—rail contact modelisation: Carter and Fromm for longitudinal models,' and Rocard for the lateral force. FIGURE 4.9 “Heuristic” expressions used forthe saturation and physical meaning of the different parts, 20h Tyra Fac ea LLCWheel Rail Contact, 7 Carter described a simple 2D contact surface, but he was the first to give a rather adequate expression of the force relative to the creepage in the longitudinal direction. His method of describing the stresses in the adhesive zone (see Figure 4.9) was used until the 1960s. Fromm ‘made similar observations. Rocard described the linear relationship between the yaw angle and the guiding force, for rubber tyres and for railway wheels, in the lateral direction. He was particularly interested in the equivalent of the bogie hunting for cars: the shimmy phenomenon. Tn the 1960s, more experimental data were available, the definitive expressions were established mainly by Johnson and Kalker, who gave an expression of the creepage stiffness introducing variable coefficients depending on the b/a ratio ofthe contact ellipse. This expression is the most common today, CC. LINEAR EXPRESSIONS OF THE CREEP FORCES In the case of a Hertzian contact, the creep forces are a function of the relative speeds between rigid bodies near the contact point, the creepages. ‘The general expression of the creep forces takes into account stiffness coefficients cy expressed. in the linear theory of Kalker" by: F,=-Gabeun, A ‘ye = Gab exer Figg = Gab exs c@ (with e= Vab) 4.12) where Gis the material shear modulus (steel in the railway case);mrab is the contact ellipse surface; and ey are the coefficients given in Ref. 4 D. DEFINITION OF CREEPAGES 1. Quasi-Static Creepages ‘A general expression for two rolling bodies can be given by the projection of the speed vectors on On, Oy, and Oz: proj./x(Va ~ Vi) longitudinal = Beto“ V) (dimensionless ° 0+) « » tera ee (dimensionless) 300+) proj. /2(A — Oh) ~rotation 30+ Vi) (a/m) (4.13) Vp and V; are the absolute speed atthe contac, 1/2(V + ¥) isthe mean speed 1 and are the angulat sped ofthe two solids 2, Vir projected onthe normal tothe contatt (rigute 4.1), 2, Quasi-Static Creepages in the Railway Case The above general expressions are useful for the test rigs used in research, however the railway case leads to simplified expressions.98 Handbook of Rallway Vehicle Dynamics vg vi Co) a1 10) of es vo FIGURE 4.10 General geometry and creepages. 3. Longitudinal Creepage ‘When the wheelset is rolling freely without traction or braking, due to the conicity, the two different rolling radius r, = Ar generates the two opposite forces j, and — f,;r, being the mean rolling radius, the static longitudinal creepage can be described with: + In the general case in quasi-static conditions with small creepages, V, ~ roo and 1/2(V, + rw) ~ Vj then, for the left wheel (respectively with the opposite sign on the right wheel) vy a Men re Ve tre + Aw 4 TV,+ra) ny = Arno (4.14) «+ In the case of a perfectly conical wheelset: Atleft: Ar: 0 Then va=—‘Wlro Yer = — Ya Rather than the cone value, the equivalent conicity , can be used for simplified models (see Appendix 4.1). 4, Lateral Creepage The lateral creepage in quasi-static conditions, with small creepages, is simply the yaw angle common to the two wheels: -a 4.15)Wheel-Rail Contact, 99 5. Spin Creepage In the quasi-static case, the rail speed {2 is equal to zero and the general expression is simplified. ‘The spin creepage ¢ is: g=sin y/r5 (4.16) (vis an algebraic value, different for the two wheels) ‘This expression shows that the spin has an important value when fianging, and a larger value with small radius wheels. 6. Dynamic Formulation of the Creepages For the dynamic forces at the contact level, a formulation identical to the other dynamic links is established with an elastic term and a damping term. ‘The expressions of the dynamic creepages contain the speed terms whose sign is opposed to the clastic deformation, which will contribute to damping: Dea % 2S) forthe et whee ig —¥y forthe right wheel = BY — Sey adie < tate) an where: « isthe wheelset yaw angle relative tothe rail (radians) re isthe mean rolling radius ofthe wheel y is the lateral displacement ofthe wheel relative tothe centred postion is the relative speed in the track reference system is the running speed of the wheelset along the curvilinear abscissa 7. Damping Terms and Stabi In the creepage, the damping terms ¥/ and &/s are inversely proportional to the forward speed. ‘This means that these terms are reduced as the speed increases, and the wheelset becomes unstable. 8. Nondimensional Spin Creepage The creepayes are relative slips, they have no dimension ‘The lat spin expression, to become dimensionless, must be multiplied by a distin. The chaacteristic dimension of the ellipse c= Vab is used to obtain the spin crespage in a homogeneous form: (4.18)100 Handbook of Railway Vehicle Dynamics TABLE 4.5 Kalker’s coefficient tables (irom Ref. 4) Cy Ca & 8 V4 WR @=0 ve 12 o=0 oo wt - 9) mnerar mls oi aS 4A 4aS 251 252 253 034 0473 OTH 642 02 259 337 481 259 263 265 0483 0.603 0809 3.46 03 268 344 480 268 «275-281 0607 OTIS 0889 249 04 278 353 4g2 278 288 298 0720 0823 0977 202 wp jos 288 362 483° 288 301 314 0827 0929 1.07174 06 «298 «372 491-298 314 331 0930 103118156 07 309 381 497 309 328 34803129143 08 319 391 Sos 349 341 365 LIB 28404 09329 «401 «S12 «3.29 «358 32 L238 36 SL LT 10 340 412 $20 340-367 398133 LAT 1681 09 351 422 530 351 (381 a6 Lee 159 L716 08 365 «436 SA2 365-499-439 LSB 7S L9H 110 07 382 454 558 382 421 467 176195218 10s tye [06 405 478 580 406 450 SOs 201-223-250 Lot 05 437 S10 G11 437 490 S56 235-262-296 0958 04 484 S57 557 48 S48 G31 288324 3.700912 03 557 634 734 557 640 751 379-432 S01 0868 02 696 778 882 696 34 979 S72 663 789 0828 01 107 117 129 107 12k 160 122 146 1800795 E, KAUeR’s COEFFICIENTS ¢y ‘The cy coefficients are a given function of the bfa ratio ofthe ellipse (Table 4.5). Their values are not far from 7 for b/a close to 1 (see Kalker's tables). Initially, Carter uses the value 7. In the bibliography, the c1, and ca2 values are given for Poisson’s ratio values 0 or 0.25 or 05. ‘The typical value of steel is close to 0.27 and the tables must be interpolated. ‘A polynomial fit is proposed by: 0975 _ 0012 eu = 3.2803 + 9378 _ OOM 1 bia (bfay 9) 1790.02 cn = 24014 + = — = dja jay 1.0184 0.0565 _ 0.0013 ay = 0.6147 + LOS 5, 0.0565 _ 0.001% ° * Ta * faF ~ ja Before using these expressions it is necessary to limit the b/a ratio to an interval (ie., 1/25 to 25), the fit becoming wrong for very slender A/B ratio. Its possible to express the cy directly from the curvature ratio A/B (see Section ILB) ‘enh Tera Fan LLWhee! Rail Contact 101 1. ey Values for Simplified Bogie Models In seme simplified bogie models with equivalent conicity (Appendix 4.1), @ constant value is taken for ¢,; and cz2. The contact is assumed to be on the tread at all times, with values varying from 3 t0 5. ‘When the flange contact is considered, the range growth to a/b = 20 (c22 reaches 12.8 when alb = 10), However, the creepages are extremely large and the creep force can be considered saturated. F. CREEP FORCES IN THE LINEAR DOMAIN 1, Dependence on Load ‘The three previous expressions, considering a Hertzian contact, can be normalised with the load, implicit in the contact dimension a and b: ww babi iving: ab = a,b,N*? abe = aybyc\N 4.20) a, and by (respectively cy) are the semi-axes for 1 Newton load. The previous expressions. become: Fe= ~Gay by oy NP Fy = Gay by on Ny, F, son = Gay by crs € NO 21) ‘The spin force is proportional to the load and the pressure N/7ab is proportional to N'* 2. Creepages Combinations and Saturation In the above expression, the transversal force due to the spin g is separated from the force due to the lateral creepage ¥,. The total transversal force is: 5 +f, (4.22) ee In the case of negligible spin, i.c., in models considering mainly the ead contact, these expressions can be used and the lateral force due to the spin can be added to the yaw force, or even neglected. Tn the case of combined creepages, when the spin is not negligible, these independent expressions are not adequate because of the nonuniform combined saturation of the shear contact stresses inside the contact area. A model based on the surface description is necessary; the most ‘commonly used being the FASTSIM model due to Kalker. fons Toor102 Handbook of Railway Vehicle Dynamics The C110, C220 Stifinesses Some models need to establish the precalculated stiffness coefficients (mean or variable values). ‘These parameters have been standardised by the UIC in the two main directions by the expressions: 3. Using Linear Models: CUO=Gabey, — C220=Gaben It is useful to normalise them with the normal load N: CH= Gay bye N*® C220 = Gay by oz N*? Note that these expressions are neglecting the spin effect. 4, Reduced Creepages Inthe following expressions, iti useful to introduce a reduced parameter which will be used in a great number of equations: Gabe, Gabexa¥, <— = yy Oe id (423) ‘These parameters are called the no-slip reduced friction forces, they are characteristic of both the stiffness of the contact, and the creepage. G. SATURATION Laws ‘The first dynamic software have used the linear stiffnesses expressions in order to calculate the critical speed of a bogie with eigenvalues. ‘The first time domain resolution programs introduce the saturation as an evolution of the linear expressions with analytical formulations, 1. Vermeulen and Johnson ‘Vermeulen and Johnson’s law is a function of a reduced creepage coefficient neglecting the spin: Fre 4.24) with: ‘Vermeulen and Jonson's proposition is close to Carter's. ©2006 aa & Pac Gra LLCWheel~Rail Contact 103 2. Kalker’s Empirical Proposition If the expression’ is limited to the lateral creepage and force modulus, a comparison is possible; using the reduced parameter 1, = 1/3: Fy (3.5 cos! 3 4, (Saas) +(1-(1¢ $3) 3 for, > 1 425) ‘The expression is more complex if both directions are considered. Separating the two parts of his formulation, Kalker introduces the difference between the forces (¢:) and the slip direction (ey, see Ref. 6) as the creepage increase. The original slope C220 calculated by Kalker is almost different from Johnson's; both are close to Johnson’s experiments. 3. Exponential Saturation Law: CHOPAYA, Ohyama and Others Ohyama,” and later Ayasse—Chollet—Pascal (under the name CHOPAYA), proposed a classical exponential saturation starting from forces measurement in railways conditions: F/uN= " (4.26) ‘Some other saturation expressions have been proposed, such as the hyperbolic tangent, or the arctangent, All these laws (Figure 4.9) are “heuristic”, they are fitted on measured data, respecting the cy, but do not correspond to a physical saturation model. Neglecting the spin, the general mechanism of saturation can be divided into three steps. The linear zone is a full adhesion surface. The saturated case is slipping everywhere with the dry friction Coulomb value, the intermediate zone is a partially saturating surface, where the slipping area is always at the rear side of the ellipse. Qualitatively, when there is no spin, the slip-stick frontier presented in Figure 4.9 looks like a ‘moon quarter propagating from the rear fo the front with increasing creepage, v, or vs. Between these ereepages, only the stress directions are different. ‘The situation is more complex with the presence of spin. To determine the shear stresses quantitatively, it is necessary to use a physically based model, the most important for the railway use is FASTSIM from Kalker, it is presented in the following paragraph. H. SuRFACE-BaseD CONTACT MopEts Kalker proposed several methods to solve the contact problem with models based on the surface description; these methods are widely described im his book and only the simplest one is briefly described here, Both CONTACT and FASTSIM algorithms are based on the “strip theory” originally proposed by Haines and Ollerton (Figure 4.11), and extended to the three creepages.* CONTACT is a program based on the complete theory of elasticity, it can take into account several body shapes, including the railway case, Several methods are available to calculate the tangent stresses and/or the internal stresses. However, the calculation of one case takes several seconds, and it is limited to half space bodies.104 Handbook of Railway Vehicle Dynamics x i 19 y=056 Fa al 0s] ‘Haines and > erton | Kakear > oi « 15 ; v0 « 10 0.75; uz 0.0 os| ° e = a > FIGURE 4.11 The separatrix experiments from Haines and Ollerton and proposition from Kalker (from Kalker's thesis pp. 132-136) 1. Discretised El FASTSIM from Kalker FASTSIM, originally a Fortran subroutine,” is based on the “simplified theory” and, in the original publication, is limited to ellipses which mean that some assumnptions are common to Hertz: Te contact surface is elliptic and flat, the pressure p, isan ellipsoid 2. The creepages are estimated atthe ellipse centre 3, Kalker's coefficients cy are constant everywhere in the el from A/B or bla 4, The elliptic contact surface is divided into independent longitudinal parallel strips of length aj: ~ a; and width Ay; 5. Allthe strips are divided into tho same nnmiber of elements, the stress calculation begins from the leading edge, from element to element 6, The method is simplified: a local deformation corresponds to a local force 7. The saturation i calculated independently foreach element loaded by the normal force ny se, their values are deduced Practically, the surface is described by a grid separating parallel strips inthe direction of rolling. Due to the elliptical shape, the elements do not have the same length a/MX (Figure 4.12). Internal creepages are computed for each element, starting from the central creepage. The pressure and elementary forces are considered in the centre of each element, The pressure is defined by the ellipsoid value in this point. 0 006 alr FaeWheel~Rail Contact 105 vn Mixes in MY=8 as a =f hay aaa Fe FIGURE 4.12 Strips and elements discretisation with FASTSIM, 2, Stresses ‘The unsaturated stress distribution in the x and y directions* isthe following (simplified or “neat” theory,”) PY) (# F)e-a 427) ‘The first term represents the mean rigid longitudinal slip, and the second term is the spin effect as a local rigid slip at the point (x,)) in the strip, a; being the leading edge of this strip. Ya) 2 al Pye) = ee a) + a — al) 4.28) Ly, Ly La ate the elasticity coefficients (or flexibilities) of the contact. °° In the exact complete theory they are 8a 8a rasfayb 3c b 3eyG an) 4036 3. Linear Contact Forces, Elastic Coefficients ‘The contact forces are the integral distributions of the surface stresses. When there is no saturation: F.=~ | [rooteay ee _ xatbe = f fovea a 4.30) The xOy reference frame hee isthe plane containing the elise.106 Handbook of Railway Vehicle Dynamics 4, Reduced Creepages in FASTSIM FASTSIM is composed of two parts; the main program calls the subroutine SR in which the stresses are computed in loops. Practically, starting from the physical creepages, the four inputs of SR are: Ux= 599 Gaby n/n 2 ay uy 3m 589 Gaben¥,/uN = 5 FIY = 2(0.589) Gab" ens¢/HN FIX = b/a IY 43) where it can be seen that 0.589 is a numerical coefficient 37/16 coming from the Ly, Lz, La parameters. ‘The SR algorithm is computed in a normalised form (cllipse reduced to a circle of radius one), ‘The linear contact forces must be normalised by the load and the friction coefficient, giving the reduced ereepages already introduced in 2.6: Gabe a aN Hy Gabon Eon a) ‘The stresses are independent from one strip to the other, but they are not independent inside a ‘The calculation is shown in Figure 4,13 on a strip; on the right side, the pure spin case is presented without any longitudinal stress, even from the spin effect, in order to simplify the presentation, ‘The calculation begins with a deformation and stress at zero on the leading edge of each strip: 4a, The stress is incremented as a function of the stresses functions, by example in the direction O,: Ar- 2 xax (4.33) Sova = 7 Lb ‘This increment is constant for the lateral creepage but variable for the spin, pure lateral ereepage vy 7. pure spin (p_=0) EB ee FIGURE 4.13 Internal saturation of the stresses inside FASTSIM; simple cases.