ELSEVIER Sour of Ponce Soares 1122002) 162-173 ——= ww tevercm/oete jpowsor Design and analysis of aluminum/air battery system for electric vehicles Shaohua Yang, Harold Knickle” Deparment of Chemical Engineering, Univers of Rhode Mand, Kags. 2881, USL Received 6 Apel 202; aecepted 14 Jane 2002 ‘Abstract 5 Aluminum (Alvis hanes have the pte 0 be edo produce poner pera cr and ther vebils. These bates might be ingot oma lng nes bash ae word pss tog the Canson fm soln eas eho uel cel ears The ALAS bac stem can generat enough energy and pve fr devin anges an celeron inl galt powers cre Prom our design analyst ca bee ta cso alumina aan ane ct beas lon as USS L figs lng mse easy roves sel. The ol ft fone Oring the eee process in Ali clot eile EV) canbe 15 (ese sae) o 20% (pete) Compare to hat of teal combustion enaevbiles (CEs) (3%). The desien bate ener desis 1300 WH (serene 2000 Wipe). The cs of tatty rem chosen to evaluat is USS 3OAW (presen or USS 2ORW (preted projected to have a travel range comparable to ICES Fon this analysis, Alar EVs are the most promising candidates compared to ICES in terms of travel range purchase price, fuel cost, and life-yele cost. Alai BVs life-cycle analysis was conducted and compared to lead/acid and nickel metal hydride (NIMH) EVs, Oly the AVair EVs can =) (© 2002 Elsovee Science BLV. Allright reserved. “Keywords: Aluminum haters Lifeyee analysis: Bless vebile: Coat aml 1. Introduction ‘The Alfair battery system has a high theoretical voltge (27), high theoretical energy density (8.1 kWh/kg-Al), low cost, an environmentally benign and recyclable product It rms out to be a promising system for BVs. The AVair yields energy densities that exceed many other couples abte 1) 1.21. Alfa batteries have the potential to be used to produce power to operate ears and other vehicles. These batteries ‘might be important on an interim basis as the world passes through the transition from gasoline ears to hydrogen fuel cells cars. The Al/air battery system could generate enough ‘energy and powcr for driving ranges and acceleration similar to gasoline powered cars. The major problem in using this system is the low coulombic efficiency of aluminum in strong alkaline media resulting from its high comosion rate (Ciydrogen evolution reaction) and high level of polarization during discharge. Use of high grade (99.99 or 99,999%) aluminum doped with other minor elements such as Ga, In, Sn, Mg, Pb, Hg, Ma, TI, et. [3-7] can reduce corrosion but * Comespontag author Te: |1-A0-878 59; fan: 1-401-782-1066 mal dress: kakekle@esee (Kick) increases the material cost, To demonstrate the ability ofthis system for vehicle applications the range and acceleration capability similar to internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEs) on an economically sound basis must be provided. ‘Ths, the analysis and estimation of the performance, cost and efficiency of the fuel (alumimum anode), the batteries, and the vehicles powered by this system are all important parts ofthis study. 2, Fuel cast and efficiency 2.1. Fuel cost ‘The presence of certain impuritios in aluminum can ‘markedly affect the electrochemical behavior. For example, the corrosion rate is particularly sensitive to the concentra- tion of iron [5]. Typically the anode uses aluminum of high purity 99,995 and 9.999% with small amount of osher ‘elements, usually in combinations as ternary or quaternary alloys t achieve activation and inhibition of corrosion. The production of aluminum, the cost of aluminum required by the AVair batery system are reviewed and estimated in this section. (0378-79538 ~ see foet mater € 2002 Eerie Slence BV. Al rights reserved. Pu: $0378-7753(02)00370-1‘The Water Intensity of the Plugged-In Automotive Economy Page I of 1 Copyright © 2008 American Chemical Society The Water Intensity of the Plugged-In Automotive Economy Carey W. King" and Michael E. Webber"= The University of Texas at Austin, Bureau of Economic Geology, 10100 Burnet Road, Bldg. PRC 130, £0620, Austin, Texas 78713, and Center for International Energy and Environmental Policy, Jackson ‘School of Geosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, P.O. Box B, Austin, Texas 78713-8902 Received for review July 2, 2007 Revised manuscript received January 7, 2008 Accepted January 8, 2008 Abstract: Converting light-duty vehicles from full gasoline power to electric power, by using either hybrid electric vehicles or fully electric power vehicles, is likely to increase demand for water resources. In the United States in 2005, drivers of 234 million cars, light trucks, and SUVs drove approximately 2.7 trillion miles and consumed over 380 million gallons of gasoline per day. We compare figures from literature and. government surveys to calculate the water usage, consumption, and withdrawal, in the United States during petroleum refining and electricity generation, In displacing gasoline miles with electric miles, approximately 3 times more water is consumed (0.32 versus 0.07-0.14 gallons/mile) and over 17 times ‘more water is withdrawn (10.6 versus 0.6 gallons/mile) primarily due to increased water cooling of thermoelectric power plants to accommodate increased electricity generation. Overall, we conclude that the impact on water resources from a widespread shift to grid-based transportation would be substantial enough to warrant consideration for relevant public policy decision-making. That is not to say that the negative impacts on water resources make such a shift undesirable, but rather this increase in water usage presents a significant potential impact on regional water resources and should be considered when planning for a plugged-in automotive economy. http://pubs.acs.org/cgi-bin/sample.cgi/esthag/2008/42/i12/htmV/es0716195.html 11/7/2008Economic and environmental comparison of conventional, hybrid, electric and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles Mikhail Granovskii® 5, Ibrahim Dincer* and Marc A. Rosen® “Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, 2000 Simove Street North, Oshawa, Ont., Canada L1H 7K4 Received 14 October 2005; revised 24 November 2005; accepted 25 November 2005. Available online 18 January 2006. Abstract Published data from various sources are used to perform economic and environmental comparisons of four types of vehicles: conventional, hybrid, electric and hydrogen fuel cell. The production and utilization stages of the vehicles are taken into consideration. ‘The comparison is based on a mathematical procedure, which includes normalization of economic indicators (prices of vehicles and fuels during the vehicle life and driving range) and environmental indicators (greenhouse gas and air pollution emissions), and evaluation of an optimal relationship between the types of vehicles in the fleet. According to the comparison, hybrid and electric cars exhibit advantages over the other types. The economic efficiency and environmental impact of electric car use depends substantially on the source of the electricity. If the electricity comes from renewable energy sources, the electric car is advantageous compared to the hybrid. If electricity comes from fossil fuels, the electric car remains competitive only if the electricity is generated on board. It is shown that, if electricity is generated with an efficiency of about 50-60% by a gas turbine engine connected to a high-capacity battery and an electric motor, the electric car becomes advantageous. Implementation of fuel cells stacks and ion conductive membranes into gas turbine cycles permits electricity generation to increase to the above-mentioned level and air pollution emissions to decrease. It is concluded that the electric car with on-board electricity generation represents a significant and flexible advance in the development of efficient and ecologically benign vehicles.Engineering philosophy of EVs a 1.2. Engineering philosophy of EVs Engineering integrates science, technology and management to solye real world problems effectively and economically, while usually asks for how’ and ‘what for’, pursues ‘best solution” and emphasizes ‘teamwork’. As EV engineering is rmulti- disciplinary, specialists in those areas of engineering must work (ogether; electrical engineers, electronic engineers, mechanical engineers, chemical engineers and instream automotive engineers must pool their knowledge in the main areas that must be integrated: body design, electri propulsion, energy sources, energy ing and energy management. 2.1 EV CONCEPT though the EV was around before the turn of the 20th Century, the modern {sa completely new machine thats totaly different from the classical EV. Lis HL only « transportation vehicle, but also a new type of electric equipment. je modem EV concept is summarized as follows: ¢ BV isa road vehicle based on modern electric propulsion which consists of electric motor, power converter and energy source, and it has its own EY system is an intelligent system which can readily be integrated with n transportation networks; ign involves the integration of art and engineering; ing conditions and duty cycles must be newly defined; expectations must be studied, hence appropriate education must be ithe system architecture of quartz-based electronic waiches is very that of spring-based mechanical watches. In short, their appearances are ‘Whiereas their principles are very different. The EV system architecture hnical subsystems, electrical and electronic subsystems, and infor- yystems, Concerning those mechanical subsystems, namely the body opulsion structure and transmission as well as energy source frame, lors include road characteristies, crash worthiness, interior spacc, orviecubility and cost. Concerning those electrical and electronic ing the power network, motors, controllers and energy source ors are safety, regulation, standards, efficiency, reliability, nig those information subsystems, handling the driver’ , motor status, controller8 Engincering philosophy of EV development Engineering philosophy of EVs 9 processing algorithms as well as communication links for diagnostic and charging. control. 1.2.2. BY ENGINEERING PHILOSOPHY The EV engineering philosophy essentially isthe imegration of automobile eng cering and electrical engineering. Thus, system integration and optimization a prime considerations to achieve good EV performance at affordable cost. Sing the characteristics of electric propulsion are fundamentally different from those engine propulsion, a novel design approach is essential for EV engineering. Mol over, advanced energy sources and intelligent enerey management are key fact to enable EVs competing with ICEVs. Of course, the overall cost effectivent the fundamental factor for the marketability of EVs. ‘The design approach of modem EVs should include state-of-the-art technol ‘ties from automobile engineering, electrical and electronic engineering. il chetnical engineering, should adopt unique designs particularly suitable for P and should develop special manufacturing techniques particularly suitable for PI Every effort should be made to optimise the energy utilisation of EVs following points ate those typical considerations for EV design: To identify the niche market and environment; To determine the design philosophy; To determine the technical specifications including the driving eyele; To determine the infrastructure required including the recycling of batter To determine the overall system configuration—EV, HEV or fuel cell | configurations; To determine the chassis and body; To determine the energy source—generation ot storage, single or hybrid} ‘To determine the propulsion system—motor, converter and transi single or multiple motors, gearless or geared, mounting methocls, wi systems in ease of an HEV; Yo determme the specifications of eleetric propulsion (power, tor and energy source (capacity, voltage, current) according to variout dl ) cycles; for example, Fig. 1.7 shows that the torque-speed requirement of Urban Driving Schedule (FUDS) is very different from that of Federal Rm nerientt clea! diving cytes Driving Schedule (FHDS); ‘To adopt intelligent energy management system; To analyse the interaction of EV subsystems by using the quality ‘matrix, hence understanding the degree of intersetion that affecth ‘automotive technology, electrical technology, performance and safe mi technology and chemical technology. To optimize the efficiency of the mot electric propul: pattern and operating conditio u i + To optimize the overall10 Engineering philosophy of EV development Body design ‘There are two basic approaches for producing EVs—cither conversion or purpose: built. For the conversion BY, the engine and associated equipment of an existing. ICEV ate replaced by ihe electric motor, power converter and battery. This offery some economy for a small volume production because the existing ICEV chassit can be utilized. However, in most conversions, the resulting EV suffers from a seater curb weight, a higher centre of gravity and an unbalanced weight distribu tion. Therefore, this approach is gradually fading out. At present, the modern EW is mostly purpose-built, sometimes called ground-up design. This purpose-bul EV takes the definite advantage over the conversion one because it allows th engineers having the flexibility to coordinate and integrate various EV subsystem so that they can work together efficiently. There are some design concepts for purpose-built EVs so that the ove performances such as range, gradeability, acceleration and top speed cin improved. These conexpts include the consistent weight-saving design, lov coefficient body design, and low rolling resistance concept. Firstly, the vehi ‘weight directly affects the performance of EVs, especially the range and grid ability, To reduce the cur weight, the use of lightweight materials such aluminium and composite material for the body and chassis can be adopt Secondly, low drag coefficient body design can effectively reduce the vehi aerodynamic resistance, which has a significant effect on extending the ring EVs in highway driving or cruising. In general, the aerodynamic resistance oil reduced by tapering front and rear ends, adopting undercover and flat under fl design, optimizing airflow around the front and rear windows, using ret Sp providing airflow streeks along the front and rear tires, and employing sil front nose design. Thitdly, low rolling resistance tires are particularly effet reducing running resistance at low and medium driving speeds, and pil important rote a extending the range of EVs in ety driving. This cn be ai through the use of a newly developed blended tire polymer, together Will increase in tire pressure, Eleetrie propulsion ‘The electric propulsion system of EVs is responsible for converting ‘energy to mechanical energy in such a way that the vehicle is propelled ‘come aerodynamic drag, rolling resistance drag and Kinetic resistinee, torque-speed characteristic of un engine covers only a natroveninigaaliin torque-speed performance of the vehicle has to be achieved through ging. On the other hand, ina modern motor drive, high-Lorquie 10 onstantpowsr hi-speed regions ean boas tou Moreover, the BV propulsion design tiple motors, with oF without ing, and axle oF Wheel motor Engineering philosophy of EVs u le propulsion system consists of the motor drive, transmission device ‘The transmission device sometimes is optional. In fact, the motor ‘motor, power converter and electronic controller, the EV propulsion system. The major requirements of the EV motor rized as follows: ht poner and high power density; special requirements, the power rating and torque-speed require- Orilrive should be determined on the basis of driving cycles and ianey region. Newly developed electronic products are also ie system performance and to reduce the total cost. ghnological prowth of electric motors, power electronics, micro- ol sinttegies, more and more kinds of motor drives become motor drives have been traditionally used for EV propulsion WY 10 achieve high torque at low speeds and easy to control noeds careful maintenance due to its commutator and ermanent magnet (PM) brushless motors possess the density over the others, but may suffer from a Onto! for the constant-power high-speed region, jut type of PM brushless motors. In this motor, Wing is so incorporated that the air-gap flux is a I inding flux. By adjusting the field-winding, “cat be varied flexibly, hence offering optimal eas pe ota al2 Engineering philosophy of EV development braking. However, they may suffer from torque ripples and acoustic noise problems Ta summary, for EV motor drives, de motor drives have been gradually super- seded by induction motor drives, PM brushless motor drives with various contig- trations and SR motor drives. These advanced motor drives must be specially {designed to meet the EV special requirements. For transmission devices, conven- tional gearing can no longer satisfy the needs of EVs. Recently, planetary gearing hhas been accepted as the transmission device of the latest EVs. Energy sources At present, the main obstacles of the commercialization of EVs are the relatively high initial cost and short driving range. The EV energy source has been identified to be the major cause of these problems. Thus, the present and foreseeable future most important EV development issue is on how to develop various EV energy sources. Thos: development criteria are summarized as follows; ‘» High specific eneray and energy density; ‘© High specific power and power density; ‘« Fast charging and deep discharging capabilities; 4 Long cycle and service lives; ‘» Low self discharging rate and high charging efficiency; + Safety and cost effectiveness; # Maintenance free; + Environmental sound and recyclable Currently, there is no sole EV energy source that can fully satisfy all of thet criteria, When batteries are selected, there are various compromises among tho criteria. For examples, the lead-acid battery offers the merits of relatively low coh and high specific power, and the demerits of relatively short eycle life and |0 specific energy; whereas the nickel-metal hydride battery exhibits the relativ high specific energy but with relatively high cost. In general, all batteries fee compromise among the specific energy, specific power and cost. In the foresees future, the lithium-based batteries such as lithium-ion and lithium-polymer sholl have good prospects for modern EVs. On the other hand, emerging energy soul including ultracapacitors and ultrahigh-speed flywheels provide promi applications because of their exceptionally high specific power. Recently, hhave been identified as one of the most important EV energy sources thal fundamentally solve the key EV problem—short driving range, Provided thi igh initial cost of fuel cells can be significantly reduced, itis anticipated th cell EVs can directly compete with the existing IGHYs in the next general road transportation, Rather than based on one energy so-called hybridization of en Engineering philosophy of EVs 1B specific energy and specifie power. For the hybridization of two energy sources, Isselected for high specifi energy while the other for high specific power. For mples, there are the battery & battery hybrid, battery & ultracapacitor hybrid, ty & ultrahigh-speed flywheel hybrid, and fuel cell & battery hybrid. In fact, 'V isa special case of this hybridisation, namely the petrol is of high specific gy for the ong driving range while the battery is of high specific power for \d with ICEVs, EVs offer a relatively short driving range. Thus, in onder mize the utilization of on-board stored energy, an intelligent energy gement system (EMS) needs to be adopted. Making use of sensory inputs ous BY subsystems, including sensors for temperatures of outside and current and voltage of the energy source during charging and dischar- nt and voltage of the electric motor, vehicle speed and acceleration as ie temperature control in response to external climate; ighting brightness in response to external environment; a suitable battery charging algorithm: the operation history of the energy source, especially the battery; # any incorteet operation or defective components of the energy fe EMS is coupled with 2 navigation system, it can plan energy efticient (@ charging facilities for extended trips, and modify range predictions ‘raffie conditions. In summary, the EMS has the distinct features of lisfunctions, flexibility and adaptability Gust like the brain of EVs) ied on-board eneray can be used wisely.14 Engineering philosophy of EV development prototyping cost and time, and to providerapid concept evaluation, Since the whole Py patem consists of various subsystems clustered together By ‘mechanical link, ey eeactTink, contol nk and thermal link, the simulation sia 6s based on sept of mixed-signal simulation. ene, the system oplimisstion be oa oer inthe ayster level in which there are many tade-os mone OT Subsystem criteria, Gencrally, numerous iterative processes ate involved for the preferred system criteria Sere esi the systert-evel simulation and optimization of EVs should ‘consider the following Key issues: «As the interactions among various subsystems areally affect the ‘performance AAs tua the sgntficance of those interations should be analysed and ken into account. axe the model accuracy is usually coherent with the model complexity bot AY te conadictory to the model usability, trade-offs among the aoetracyy com plenity and usability as wel as simulation time should be ‘considered, mre the aystem voltage generally causes contradictory issues for EV design, jpoluding the battery weight, motor drive voltage and current raves, ‘acceletas tion performance, driving range and s. ould be optimized on the system level. Th onder to inerease the driving range, multiple encrgy sourors may Be adopted Tae made EVs. The corresponding combination and hybriciaion ratio sy ald be optimized on the basis ofthe vehicle performance and cost Since EVs generally adopt fixed gearing, the gear ratio can erealy affect the. siete performance and driveability. An optimal ratio should be ‘determined Through iterative optimization under different driving proses. References ‘Chan, C.C. (1993), An overview of electric vette technolo. Proceedings of JPER, Bl. 1201-13. ANSE. (0. The 21st Century Green Trensportation Means CET: Vehicles. Ha Key Book Series in Chinese. Ting Hua University Press, Bovine: Panett ofthe 1s Inverational Electric Vehicle Symposium, 1 eres, of the 2nd International Elestic Vehicle Syrposion, 107) Proceed: the Sed International Electric Velcle Symposioy 6. Preece ake duh International Electric Vehicle Sympesins 1576 eer the Sth Intemational lecirc Vehicle Spaposiuns 1. arenes ofthe 6th Internaional Electric Vehele Symposia, 108) Procee se, Oh Tek International Electric Vehicle Symposia, 1946, ‘proceedings of the 8th Intemational Electric Veh Proceedings of the 9th Inrernational