ESTELEYDES, AYVEE H.

BSED-BIOSCI

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

TERMS
Capacitance
Capacitance (C) is the relationship between the amount charge on two objects and the
voltage that appears between them, given by the formula .(In other words,
capacitance is a measure of the capacity of an object to store charge.) Its SI unit is
the farad (F), named after Michael Faraday, which is equal to one coulomb divided by
one volt.

One farad is a gigantic unit—typical capacitors can range from the pico- (10-12) to milli-
(10-3) farad range. Capacitance is purely a product of geometry, and can be altered by
changing the size of the objects or the distance between them.
Charge
Charge is the basic unit of electricity, abbreviated q—and measured in coulombs (C),
named after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, an eighteenth century physicist who spent
a lot of time playing with charged spheres. Charge can be used to describe the size of
the force an object feels when it is exposed to other charged objects, and can either
have positive or negative polarity.
Circuit
A circuit is a collection of conducting wire and various electrical elements that
constrains electron flow.
Conductor
A conducting material is one that freely allows electrons to move through it.
Conservation Of Charge
As an intrinsic property of matter, charge must be conserved, in the same way mass or
energy or momentum are conserved. Charge cannot be created or destroyed; it can't
even be turned into other forms. It's always present, but can be canceled out or
enhanced by opposite or similar charges, respectively.
Current
The movement of charge is called current, abbreviated I. Current can be calculated by
watching how much charge passes a point in a specific length of time: . Its SI unit
is the ampere (A)—or just the amp—named after André-Marie Ampère (of Ampère's
Law fame). One amp is equal to one coulomb per second of charge flow, but since a
coulomb is very large (one electron's charge is 1.6 × 10-19 C), 1 A is a decent amount of
current.
Because current is a measure of the change of positive charge, the direction of current
flow is opposite the direction of electron flow.
Electric Field
 Charged particles exert forces on other charged particles without touching them—the
force is transferred through the invisible electric field (E) that all charged particles
create. Electric field is expressed in units of newton per coulomb.
Electric Potential (Voltage)
Electric potential (V) is measured in volts, named after Alessandro Volta, widely
credited as the inventor of the modern battery. One volt is equal to a joule per
coulomb—that is, the amount of energy it takes to move 1 C of charge to a specific
location in the electric field of a second charge.
Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism is a combination of the disciplines of electricity and magnetism,
which are inextricably intertwined—moving charges create magnetic fields, and moving
magnetic fields can create voltages. Electromagnetism is responsible for countless
inventions in the modern world, from televisions to cell phones to blenders to polarized
sunglasses.
Insulator
Insulators prevent the free flow of electrons, and therefore do not let current flow
through them.
Ohm's Law
The voltage drop across a resistor is a product of the current through the resistor and
the resistor's resistance: V = IR. This is the pièce de résistance of solving circuit
problems.

HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY AND

MAGNETISM
600 BCE: Sparking Amber in Ancient Greece
The earliest writings about electromagnetism were in 600 BCE, when the ancient Greek
philosopher, mathematician and scientist Thales of Miletus described his experiments
rubbing animal fur on various substances such as amber. Thales discovered that
amber rubbed with fur attracts bits of dust and hairs that create static electricity, and if
he rubbed the amber for long enough, he could even get an electric spark to jump.

221–206 BCE: Chinese Lodestone Compass

The magnetic compass is an ancient Chinese invention, likely first made in China
during the Qin dynasty, from 221 to 206 BCE. The compass used a lodestone, a
magnetic oxide, to indicate true north. The underlying concept may not have been
understood, but the ability of the compass to point true north was clear.

1600: Gilbert and the Lodestone

 Toward the late 16th century, the "founder of electrical science" English scientist
William Gilbert published "De Magnete" in Latin translated as "On the Magnet" or "On
the Lodestone." Gilbert was a contemporary of Galileo, who was impressed by Gilbert's
work. Gilbert undertook a number of careful electrical experiments, in the course of
which he discovered that many substances were capable of manifesting electrical
properties.

Gilbert also discovered that a heated body lost its electricity and that moisture
prevented the electrification of all bodies. He also noticed that electrified substances
attracted all other substances indiscriminately, whereas a magnet only attracted iron.

1752: Franklin's Kite Experiments

American founding father Benjamin Franklin is famous for the extremely dangerous
experiment he ran, of having his son fly a kite through a storm-threatened sky. A key
attached to the kite string sparked and charged a Leyden jar, thus establishing the link
between lightning and electricity. Following these experiments, he invented the
lightning rod.

Franklin discovered there are two kinds of charges, positive and negative: objects with
like charges repel one another, and those with unlike charges attract one another.
Franklin also documented the conservation of charge, the theory that an isolated
system has a constant total charge.

1785: Coulomb's Law

In 1785, French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb developed Coulomb's law, the
definition of the electrostatic force of attraction and repulsion. He found that the force
exerted between two small electrified bodies is directly proportional to the product of
the magnitude of charges and varies inversely to the square of the distance between
those charges. Coulomb's discovery of the law of inverse squares virtually annexed a
large part of the domain of electricity. He also produced important work on the study of
friction.

1789: Galvanic Electricity

In 1780, Italian professor Luigi Galvani (1737–1790) discovered that electricity from two
different metals causes frog legs to twitch. He observed that a frog's muscle,
suspended on an iron balustrade by a copper hook passing through its dorsal column,
underwent lively convulsions without any extraneous cause.

To account for this phenomenon, Galvani assumed that electricity of opposite kinds
existed in the nerves and muscles of the frog. Galvani published the results of his
discoveries in 1789, together with his hypothesis, which engrossed the attention of the
physicists of that time.

1790: Voltaic Electricity

 Italian physicist, chemist and inventor Alessandro Volta (1745–1827) read of Galvani's
research and in his own work discovered that chemicals acting on two dissimilar metals
generate electricity without the benefit of a frog. He invented the first electric battery,
the voltaic pile battery in 1799. With the pile battery, Volta proved that electricity could
be generated chemically and debunked the prevalent theory that electricity was
generated solely by living beings. Volta's invention sparked a great deal of scientific
excitement, leading others to conduct similar experiments which eventually led to the
development of the field of electrochemistry.

1820: Magnetic Fields

In 1820, Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Oersted (1777–1851) discovered
what would become known as Oersted's Law: that an electric current affects a compass
needle and creates magnetic fields. He was the first scientist to find the connection
between electricity and magnetism.

1821: Ampere's Electrodynamics

French physicist Andre Marie Ampere (1775–1836) found that wires carrying current
produce forces on each other, announcing his theory of electrodynamics in 1821.

Ampere's theory of electrodynamics states that two parallel portions of a circuit attract
one another if the currents in them are flowing in the same direction, and repel one
another if the currents flow in the opposite direction. Two portions of circuits crossing
one another obliquely attract one another if both the currents flow either towards or
from the point of crossing and repel one another if one flows to and the other from that
point. When an element of a circuit exerts a force on another element of a circuit, that
force always tends to urge the second one in a direction at right angles to its own
direction.

1831: Faraday and Electromagnetic Induction

English scientist Michael Faraday (1791–1867) at the Royal Society in London
developed the idea of an electric field and studied the effect of currents on magnets.
His research found that the magnetic field created around a conductor carried a direct
current, thereby establishing the basis for the concept of the electromagnetic field in
physics. Faraday also established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that
there was an underlying relationship between the two phenomena. He similarly
discovered the principles of electromagnetic induction and diamagnetism and the laws
of electrolysis.

1873: Maxwell and the Basis of Electromagnetic Theory

James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879), a Scottish physicist and mathematician, recognized
that electromagnetism's processes could be established using mathematics. Maxwell
published "Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism" in 1873 in which he summarizes and
synthesizes the discoveries of Coloumb, Oersted, Ampere, Faraday into four
 mathematical equations. Maxwell's equations are used today as the basis of
electromagnetic theory. Maxwell predicts the connections of magnetism and electricity
leading directly to the prediction of electromagnetic waves.

1885: Hertz and Electric Waves

German physicist Heinrich Hertz proved Maxwell's electromagnetic wave theory was
correct, and in the process, generated and detected electromagnetic waves. Hertz
published his work in a book, "Electric Waves: Being Researches on the Propagation of
Electric Action With Finite Velocity Through Space." The discovery of electromagnetic
waves led to the development to the radio. The unit of frequency of the waves
measured in cycles per second was named the "hertz" in his honor.

1895: Marconi and the Radio

In 1895, Italian inventor and electrical engineer Guglielmo Marconi put the discovery of
electromagnetic waves to practical use by sending messages over long distances using
radio signals, also known as the "wireless." He was known for his pioneering work on
long-distance radio transmission and his development of Marconi's law and a radio
telegraph system. He is often credited as the inventor of the radio, and he shared the
1909 Nobel Prize in Physics with Karl Ferdinand Braun "in recognition of their
contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy."
 SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
1. Chemical energy. This is stored, or “potential,” energy. Releasing chemical energy
from carbon-based fuels generally requires combustion like the burning of coal, oil,
natural gas, or a biomass such as wood.
2. Thermal energy. Typical sources of thermal energy include heat from underground hot
springs, combustion of fossil fuels and biomass (as noted above) or industrial
processes.
3. Kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is movement, which occurs when water moves with
tides or flows downstream, or when air moves wind turbines in the wind.

1. Nuclear energy. This is the energy stored in the bonds inside of atoms and molecules.
When nuclear energy is released, it can emit radioactivity and heat (thermal energy) as
well.
2. Solar energy. Energy radiates from the sun and the light rays can be captured with
photovoltaics and semiconductors. Mirrors can be used to concentrate the power. The
sun’s heat is also a thermal source.
3. Rotational energy. This is the energy derived from spinning, typically produced by
mechanical devices such as flywheels.