BIBLIOTECA TEPGE Manual on Installation of Refinery Instruments and Control Systems Part I—Process Instrumentation and Control Section 14—Process Computer Systems API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 550 FIRST EDITION, FEBRUARY 1982 American Petroleum Institute 2101 L Street, Northwest Washington, D.C. a)CONTENTS SECTION 14—PROCESS COMPUTER SYSTEMS 14.1 Scope 14.2 Funetional Objectives of Process Computer Systems 14.2.1 Digital Process Controt 14.2.2 Process Monitoring 14.2.3 Management Information Systems 14.3. Elements of a Process Computer System 14.3.1 System Functions 143.2 System Hardware and Software 14.3.3 Central Processing Unit 14.3.4 Process Inputs 14.3.5 System Outputs. 14.3.6 Memory 14.3.7 Operator's Console 14.3.8 Communication Links 14.4 Software 14.4.1 Categories of Software 14.4.2 System Software 14.4.3 Process Software 14.4.4 Application Software 14.5 Peripherals 14.5.1 Bulk Memory 14.5.2 Keyboard Terminals 14.5.3 Other Access Devices 14.5.4 Printers, 14.5.5 Cathode Ray Tubes 14.5.6 Other Peripherals 14.6 Failure Considerations 14.7 Power Supply Considerations 14.8 Wiring and Grounding 14.9 Environmental Considerations 14.9.1 General 14.9.2 Temperature 14.9.3 Humidity 14.9.4 Ambient Air Contaminants 14.9.5 Vibration 14.9.6 Static Electricity 14.9.7 Fire Protection 14.9.8 Radio Frequeney Interference 14,10 Computer Location LALIL_ Acceptance Testing and Checkout 1.11.1 General {4.11.2 Final System Checkout Phase 14,11.3 On-Site Acceptance Test APPENDIX—PROCESS COMPUTER SYSTEMS GLOSSARY Figure 1 —Typical Process Computer PutPart |—Process Instrumentation and Control SECTION 14—PROCESS COMPUTER SYSTEMS 14.1 Scope This section discusses those normally monolithic computer-based digital process control systems that are user programmable. Only on-line, sensor based, real time computer systems designed specifically for use by the process industries are discussed here. (Configurable multi- Toop control systems, where the user defines the control ar- rangement within a rigorous format provided by the manu- facturer, are not considered user programmable and are discussed in Section 5, “Automatic Controllers."") This seetion is more tutorial in nature than those normally found in RP 550, ‘The types of systems covered are: 1. Computers used in process control, employing either direct digital control or supervisory control, adjusting the set point of process controllers. 2. Computers employed as process monitors, providing data acquisition, alarm annunciation, operating guides, and production records. 3. Centralized computers that receive process information from lower-level computers for the purpose of providing data to management. They may also provide output to lower-level control computers to accomplish desired opera- tional goals on the basis of scheduling, optimization, or ‘other incentives ‘The installation of a successful computer system is based on the premise that measuring transmitters, trans- ducers, valve positioners, control valves, other field- mounted devices, and the signal wiring and tubing are properly installed in accordance with the recommendations in the other sections of this manual. Covering all of the possible applications and types of process computers is beyond the scope of this document; however, this recommended practice provides the user with a reasonable set of guidelines to achieve a successful installation, 'A glossary of process computer systems terms is pro- vided in the appendix. 14.2 Functional Objectives of Process ‘Computer Systems 142.1 DIGITAL PROCESS CONTROL Digital process control has traditionally been divided imo two categories, direct digital control (DDC) and su- pervisory set point control. In direct digital control the computer does the control calculation and adjusts the con- trol valve ot final control element directly. In supervisory set point control the computer makes a calculation and ad- justs the set point of a process controller. Computer con trol provides a flexible framework that allows complex control techniques to be easily implemented and revised, ‘These control techniques include: Cascade control Ratio control. Feedforward control ‘Sequential logic control ‘Override control. . Constraint control Multivariable control - Optimization. Adaptive control. Use of special control algorithms, r ‘These control techniques often have significant financial payout, and the more complex techniques can be best pro- vided by a process control computer. Computer control systems are usually supplemented by an alternate method of process control in the event of computer failure. 14.2.2 PROCESS MONITORING Process monitoring involves the use of process com- puters to perform or enhance the noncontrol functions of plant operation previously done by operators, including: 1, Alarm logging. 2. Event recording, 3. Process logging. 4. Process variable recording. 5. Data presentation for manual plant startup and shut- down. 6. Operating guides. 14.2.3 MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS Management information systems (MIS) involve the use of computers to provide better supervision of operator and plant performance and to promote more efficient and prof- itable plant operation. Occasionally, management informa- tion system computers are involved in hierarchical com- ‘munication with lower level control computers ‘Management information system functions include: 1, Report generation.Performance calculation and reporting. Optimizing overall praguction rates. Short and medium range planning. Material balances, Energy balances. Product slate modifications based on market require ‘ments and profitability 8. Processing changes based on inventories and availabil- ity of raw materials. 14.3 Elements of a Process Computer System 14.3.1 SYSTEM FUNCTIONS Each process computer system performs the following functions: 1. Accepts— 4, Digital and analog input signals . Operator commands. . Program modifications, 2. Stores the information in memory. 3. Conditions the information and does other calculations, Outputs to graphic displays, loggers, and other equip- ‘ment A process control computer system performs the follow- ing additional functions: L. Compares process variables and set points and caleu- lates control algorithms. 2. Performs advanced multivariable control, where re- quired. 3. Outputs fo final control elements or to other controllers. 14.3.2. SYSTEM HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE Architecturally, a computer system consists of a seties of devices, each functioning as necessary to provide infor- mation, make calculations, and/or control the process. Collectively, these devices and their interconnections are referred (0 as system hardware ‘The order of functions and the functions themselves are accomplished according to a prescribed program that is stored in the system's memory. These programs comprise and are called the system's software. Software is described in 14.4, Figure 1 illustrates the various hardware elements that may be used in a process computer system. 14.3.2 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT ‘The central processing unit (CPU) is the key element of a computer system. The central processing unit interprets the information that it receives, executes the steps pre- PART PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION ANO CONTROL scribed by the software, and controls the various pieces of input and output hard To perform these functions, a central processing unit typically contains a control unit, an arithmetic unit. a working memory. input anc output registers. and a clock, Historically, the unit was a series of printed circuit boards with hundreds of integrated circuit chips. Modern large scale integrated (LSI) circuit technology has allowed the functions of hundreds of these chips to be replaced by a single chip known as a microprocessor. Although they hhave not yet achieved the speed and power of large com- puters, microprocessors are being used in more and more ‘control applications 14.3.4 PROCESS INPUTS Process inputs come in a variety of analog and digital forms. An analog-to-digital (A/D) converter is required to translate analog inputs into digital information that the cen- tral processing unit can accept. A computer system may have one or several analog-to-digital converters depending. fon system requirements. Because analog-to-digital con- verters can be expensive, time-sharing one converter with many analog inputs may be more economical. Time shar- ing is accomplished by using a series of switches that are sequentially addressed directly or indirectly by the central processing unit. This series of switches is commonly called a multiplexer (MUX) and in this particular case, since it is used on input signals, an input multiplexer. Af- tet conditioning, digital signals may be handled directly by the central processing unit or interfaced to it via a digital multiplexer. 14.3.5 SYSTEM OUTPUTS Outputs may be either analog or digital. For analog out- puts, a digital-to-analog converter (D/A) is required to convert the central processing unit information from a digi- tal to an analog output form. Some computer systems use a dedicated digital-to-analog converter for each analog out- pput required. Other computer systems use one or several digital-to-analog converters and time-share them, using an ‘output multiplexer to “sample and hold” amplifiers. Digi- tal outputs are formatted by the central processing unit and are sent through an output multiplexer to contacts or other digital devices. System outputs must be highly reliable since outputs from a control computer often go directly t0 final control elements. 14.3.6 MEMORY Memory is required to contain the software of the sys- tem and to provide working space for the data tables, cal- culations, and data handling required by the system's pro- grams. For functions that require fast access and high‘SECTION 14—PROCESS COMPUTER SYSTEMS 3 speed data transfer, a core or semiconductor random ac- cess memory (RAM) is employed. For large amounts of storage where fast access is not critical, bulk memory in the form of drums, discs or tapes is provided. A typical process computer may have a mixture of core, semicon- ductor, and bulk memory — fa] ‘ANALOG a INPUTS, ANaLoa ———>| INPUTS ——>| 14.3.7 OPERATOR'S CONSOLE ‘The operator's console enables operators or others to in: teract with the computer system, Most systems emplov a cathode ray tube (CRT) with a keyboard and printer minimum. Large systems often have more than one ope..: [= prarra x outputs, fo mI anatoa UIC outputs, fou} —> DIGITAL INPUTS OPERATOR'S. cOnsoLe’s) Central procestng unit DIA Digital-to-analog convener ANALOG = : ca bat — ourputs COMMUNICATION. |_, To OTHER LINK SYSTEMS, PRINTER CARO READER CARO PUNCH PAPER TAPE PUNCH PAPER TAPE READER BULK MEMORY cat VIDEO coPY XY PLOTTER. VARIOUS AVAILABLE PERIPHERALS Figure 1—Typical Process Computer4 PART I< PRQGESS INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL tor's console, with one or more for plant operation and an- other for use by superviggrs, programmers, engineers, or others. : The cathode ray tube displays process information, less- critical alarms, and in many systems, either static or dy- namic graphic displays. which aid in the operation of the plant. Color is sometimes used to enhance the presents- tion, In order to provide hard copy of the information that is presented on the screen, a video copier may be added to the system. ‘The keyboard gives the operator access to the computer systems for data inquiry or for issuing commands. It may also give access to the computer for program generation or modification. 14.3.8 COMMUNICATION LINKS: Communication links allow the process computer to transfer data to other digital systems. Multiple links are frequently provided for configurable multiloop control sys- ‘tems and corporate data systems. 14.4 Software A process computer system consists of the mechanical and electronic hardware and the software programs that cause the hardware to perform its tasks. 14.4.1 CATEGORIES OF SOFTWARE Process computer software usually can be divided into three categories: 1. System software (the operating system), including the executive routines that perform the basic timing, house- keeping, arithmetic, and information-handling functions within the computer. 2. Process software that provides a framework to read the various inputs, store the information, manipulate the data, and set up outputs to the controlled variables. 3. Application software that adapts the process software framework to monitor andior control the specific process. 144.2 SYSTEM SOFTWARE ‘System software is normally provided by the supplier of the process computer's central processing unit and per- forms the following functions: 1. Starting the computer and loading the initial data and programs. 2. Providing timing, interrupt handling, and program scheduling functions. 3. Transferring data between the input and output regis- ters, the memories, and the data processing sections. 4. Performing the basic arithmetic functions. ‘5. Checking for internal computer error. 6. Communicating with the various computer peripherals. 7. Compiling user-written, high-level language programs. Few users will have the expertise to write or modify sys- tem software. The user should legitimately expect that the process computer and its associated system software have bbeen properly checked out and debugged. The computer supplier should correct any system software defects that become apparent 144.3 PROCESS SOFTWARE Process software is the package of programs that con- verts an on-line computer and its peripheral equipment into a digital control computer, a process monitor, or a ma agement information system. ‘The process software package is normally provided by the control computer system supplier. The user occasion- ally modifies this software package to meet his particular needs and deletes unneeded sections. The package is usu- ally written in modules to facilitate matching to specific applications. Process software is often designed to minimize the need for programming skills and manpower in developing the application. “‘Fillin-the-blanks” and conversational mode programs are typical of this trend ‘A typical process control software package has the capa- ity to: 1. Read in the process inputs, error check, filter, linear- ize, and convert the inputs to engineering units 2. Build the files for process variables. 3. Generate alarm messages. 4. Generate summaries of operating data (process logs) . Perform single-loop or multiloop process control using suitable algorithms. 6. Generate output signals. 7. Produce graphic displays of process variables 8. Communicate with operators’ consoles. 9. Provide the ability to implement special control config- urations. 14.4.4 APPLICATION SOFTWARE. Application software is developed by the user, contrac- tor, consultant, or system supplier. Using the framework provided by the process software, the application engineers generate an application software package covering all of the process variables and imple- ‘menting the appropriate functions from the list in 14.4.3, This software package will be unique to the process appli- cation. For many processes, the application software will be modified frequently as the process requirements change. It {is important that the user's applications engineers maintain familiarity with the application software and the process.SECTION 14—PROCESS COMPUTER SYSTEMS 5 14.5. Peripherals Peripherals are those auxiliary devices that are used to center data into or receive data from a computer. They fall into several general categories described in 14.5.1 through 145.6. 14.5.1, BULK MEMORY Bulk memory is used to augment the working memory associated with the central processing unit. Bulk memory ig available in many forms, and selection of type is based con access time required, size of memory desired, cost, se- curity requirements, and other considerations. Some typi- cal bulk memory devices are described in 14.5.1.1 through 14.5.1.3, 14.5.1 Drums A drum is a cylinder on which large quantities of da.a may be stored by selective magnetization. Although they have faster access time, drums have largely become 3s0- lete and have been replaced by discs. 1451.2 Discs AA disc is a flat circular magnetic plate on whic’ data is stored by selective magnetization. Discs are furter differ- entiated by the nature of the reading and writin ; -lement, ‘which is called a head. Discs may be supplied » ith either fixed or movable heads. Much more data may be stored with a movable head for the same relative cost, but its electro-mechanical nature makes it less reliable than @ fixed head and it has a longer access time. Discs are used to augment the working memory or to store programs or short term historical data. A floppy disc is an inexpensive storage device that is inserted much like 1 tape cartridge: floppy discs are often used to store preg arns or historical data, 14,5.1.3 Magnetic Tape Magnetic tape is available in cas ette, cartridge, of reel- to-reel forms and is capable of storing very large quantities of data at a modest cost compared to other storage methods. The chief disadvantag: of tape is its very long access time, Tapes are often used to store large masses of historical data for later use. O ex this information is proc- cessed on an off-line general v ose computer, especially if it is recorded on reel-to- «magnetic tape. Tapes are also used as input devices t- sad or reload a program into 4 computer system. 145.2 KEYBOARD TERMINALS Keyboard terminals -wrovide operator and programmer access to the computer system for data inquiry or com- ‘mands and program ; .neration or modification. A terminal consists of a keyboard-printer or keyboard-cathode ray tube combination. Custom keyboards are sometimes pro- vided. 14.5.3 OTHER ACCESS DEVICES Additional computer access devices that are commonly used for program preparation or initial program loading in- clude paper tape and card punches and readers. 14.5.4 PRINTERS Most process computer systems include a printer to pro- vvide hard copy for alarms, logs, and operator actions. The speeds of printers can range from slow (30 to 150 charac- ters per second) to medium (150 to 1000 characters per second) to high speed (greater than 1000 characters per second), 14.5.5 CATHODE RAY TUBES In addition to being employed as part of the operator's console, cathode ray tubes are often used as peripherals for remote display of information. At times a keyboard is em- ployed along with a remote cathode ray tube to provide ac- cess to the computer system. 145.6 OTHER PERIPHERALS Other peripherals sometimes employed include X-Y plotters, analog strip chart recorders, and annunciators. 14.6 Failure Considerations ‘When computers are used for control, the failure mode must receive special consideration. A digital computer is usually installed with some form of backup. Backup may bbe as elaborate as a redundant computer that will automati- cally come into play should a failure occur in the primary system or as simple as a mechanism that permits the man- tual movement of control valves. A backup system consist- ing of analog controllers for continued operation is an ad- ditional option, Considerations that dictate the type of backup used include not only economics but also the sta- bility and speed of the process being controlled. In any event, the consequences of various modes of computer failure must be very carefully addressed. 14.7 Power Supply Considerations Computers are dependent on high quality electrical power for reliable operation. Many computer applications require a more reliable power supply than utility services normally provide. Minor voltage variations, which fre- quently occur in a utility power supply, can cause loss of ‘memory and/or disrupt timing. Therefore, most computer6 PART “PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL, systems have power monitoring circuits that detect power failure in time to performn orderly shutdown of the cen- tral processing unit. Software to conduct an automatic re- start of the operating program on power restoration is usu- ally provided. ‘As a minimum requirement, the computer manufac- turer's recommended power supply requirements should be followed, Guidelines for computer power supplies are de- scribed in Section 11, ‘Electrical Power Supply."” 14.8 Wiring and Grounding Installation guidelines described in Sections 7, ‘Trans. mission Systems,"" and 11, “*Electrical Power Supply,” are directly applicable 10 the installation of process com- puter systems, There is no substitute for following good ‘engineering practices in the selection of wiring methods and attention to detail in the installation of the transmission system, As a minimum requirement, the computer manufac turers’ recommended wiring and grounding methods should be followed, 14.9 Environmental Considerations 14.9.1 GENERAL ‘The environmental considerations covered in this section are limited to the computer, associated peripherals. and ‘control room multiplexing equipment directly related to the overall system, Environmental considerations for field- mounted equipment connected to the computer, such as process analyzers, transmitters, and transducers, are cov- ered in other sections of RP $50. Parts I and I. Detailed environmental requirements are a function of the specific items of equipment that comprise a computer system. Many systems will have equipment with varying resistance to environmental conditions. The requirements of the most susceptible component of these systems will apply to the entire system unless components are isolated by a special enclosure. ‘The information presented here is typical in nature and may vary depending on the equipment and the manufac- turer. Environmental specifications and requirements on computer systems are normally provided by the equipment ‘manufacturer and should be reviewed in the early planning stage of a computer installation project. 14.9.2 TEMPERATURE ‘Most computer specifications list a broad range of oper- ating temperature for the central processing unit; 32 to 122 F (0 to $0 C) is a typical range. However, caution should be observed regarding the operating temperature of the peripherals. Operating temperature can be chosen for operator comfort: however, temperature stability is impor~ tant and cycling should be avoided. The smbient tempera ture for storage or shipment is typically ~22 t0 160 F (= 30 to 700). 14.9.3 HUMIDITY Most computer specifications list a broad range of rela- tive humidity; 5 to 95 percent is typical. However a rela- tive humidity of 50 percent = 10 percent is recommended. Low relative humidity causes buildup of static charges, which when discharged near the equipment can cause mal- functions and even shutdown of the computer. Static dis- charges also cause paper handling problems. High relative humidity or cycling can cause condensa- tion, corrosion, and problems with paper and card han- dling. 14.9.4 AMBIENT AIR CONTAMINANTS: Corrosive components such as chlorine, hydrogen sul- fide, sulfur dioxide, and sulfuric acid should be limited to .L parts per million. Dust filters should be effective down to 10 microns, Note that the effects of these contaminants are cumulative; hence every reasonable effort should be made to minimize them. A two-stage particulate and chemical filter will frequently achieve this level of protec- tion if properly maintained. 14.9.5 VIBRATION Forces exerted on operating equipment by sinusoidal vi- brations in the range of 15 to 120 cycles per second should be limited to 1.0 g, (where g, equals the normal gravita- tional constant 14.9.6 STATIC ELECTRICITY Low relative humidity in conjunction with certain types of furniture and floor coverings can result in static dis ccharges from personnel coming in contact with the equip ment, These charges can be high enough to induce unde- sirable electrical transients if discharged to or near the ‘computer and related equipment. Floor and furniture covering material conducive to static buildup should be avoided. Floors should be designed to provide a conductive path to ground to minimize static buildup and discharge 149.7 FIRE PROTECTION ‘The extent of fire protection should be determined based con the plant’s dependence on the computer. National Fire Protection Association’ Publication No. 75, Protection of ‘ Natonal Fire Protection Asrociaton, Baterymarch Park, Quincy, Mas sachusets 02269,SECTION 14—PROCESS COMPUTER SYSTEMS z Electronic ComputeriData Processing Equipment, de- seribes recommended practices for protection of equip- ment, However, different requirements should be consid- ered for unattended computer equipment and for equipment in control rooms where plant operating person- rel are present around the clock. 14.9.8 RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFERENCE Computers are relatively insensitive to radio frequency interference. However, the fixed base transmitter for the control house should not be located near the computer. and portable walkie talkies should not be used within 5 feet 14.10 Computer Location ‘The physical location of the computer system is influ- enced by the type of equipment installed, the function per- formed by the equipment, environmental considerations, space requirements. and many other factors. Process signal multiplexing equipment available from several manufac turers permits data transmission over long distances and provides considerable flexibility in choosing a location for the computer. The data transmission rate or scan rate required by the process can influence of restrict the choice of available lo- cations. Multiplexing equipment, communicating over conventional twisted wire pairs, is normally limited to a maximum transmission rate of 9600 baud. Higher trans- mission rates generally require specialized communication lines and equipment. In systems with high data transmis sion rates or where the control philosophy prohibits multi- plexing output signals to final control elements, hardwiring tf process signals may be considered. Under these cireum= stances, economics favor locating the computer system at a site near the process being monitored or controlled. The associated wiring costs should be considered when select- ing a location for the computer system, In selecting a location, consideration should also be given to the following factors: Proximity to hazardous of corrosive gases. Floor loading capacity and vibration resistance. Availability of a suitable source of power. Proximity to existing control centers. Proper fire prevention and safety procedures. Adequate air conditioning and environmental control equipment. 7. Blast protection. 8. Minimization of foot trafic. 9. Raised floor (computer floor). Considered essential be- ccause of the large amount of cabling interconnecting the components of the system. Equipment repair, modifications, and program changes are generally easier if the computer system is located near the control center for the process being monitored oF con- trolled, The effect of program changes on the process be- ing controlled must be observed to prevent the introduction of erroneous control logic into the computer. Changes and troubleshooting are easier when direct observation of the affected variables is possible 14.11 Acceptance Testing and Checkout 1411.1 GENERAL All digital process computer systems undergo various testing and checkout procedures during manufacture. Gen- erally, peripherals are tested under a variety of environ- ‘mental conditions prior to their inclusion in the system. However, prior to delivery to the job site. an acceptance test of the total system, witnessed by the buyer, is nor- mally conducted at the vendor's plant, This test should also be repeated at the user's plant to assure that no dam- ‘age occurred during shipment and to ensure operation in a field environment (that is, with live data input, power, clectromagnetic interference, and so forth) 14.11.2 FINAL SYSTEM CHECKOUT PHASE [AS stated earlier, in order to assure system pe: nance, the system and its components are factory tested © many stages. Ultimately, the entire system is assemble: = the final system checkout phase is conducted. For this ;tuse, a detailed specification covering the factory acceptance test ‘may be submitted. The standard manufacturer's test proce- dure may be acceptable to the buyer. If this is the case, savings in testing costs and procedures can be achieved ‘The test procedure provides for the orderly testing of indi- vidual elements and then combinations of elements, until finally the complete system is tested with simulated inputs. A typical step-by-step testing procedure follows: 1, Demonstrate operability of all computer console con- trols. 2. Perform computer instruction diagnostic tests. 3. Perform working memory tests. 4. Perform bulk memory tests. 5. Perform tests of peripherals. 6. Run operational program. a. Check operator's console. . Verify each type of input and output at two signal levels or states, as appropriate cc. Check alarm messages by adjusting alarm limits. 4d. Execute improper sequences on console and ob- serve “console error e. Check logs.PART IX PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION ANO CONTROL Check thermocouple linearization. Check scaling of eagh type of input. (Check thermocouple cold junction compensation. Check integrations over a 48-hour period. Jj. Interrupt ac power and then restore it. Observe that the program has not been lost by repeating steps a through h. (A check of the integrations for | hour is sufficient in this instance.) k. Simulate the failure mode to test backup system in- tegrity 1. Perform system loading test, such as operator's console response time m, Verify communication links to other machines, if possible. 1. Perform all other vendor-supplied programs. Perform noise and voltage tests Normal mode rejection. Common mode rejection. Input contact circuits ‘© 10 percent on supply voltage ‘When acceptance testing has been successfully com- pleted to the satisfaction of both the vendor and buyer, the system is prepared for shipment 14.1.3 ON-SITE ACCEPTANCE TEST To ensure smooth commissioning of the system at the job site, on-site startup supervision is usually provided and the entire procedure is witnessed by the user. The vendor supervises and makes recommendations for the uncrating and the setting in place of the equipment. The vendor will provide for a physical examination of the equipment to en- sure that no damage has occurred during shipment and that proper interconnecting of the system components is com- pleted. The vendor will make additional tests on each input type to establish accuracy and make any necessary elec- tronic adjustments. The purpose of the on-site test is to identify and correct any problems created during shipment. At the completion of the test, the system should have dem- onstrated the capability to perform all the functions defined in the purchase specifications.APPENDIX—PROCESS COMPUTER SYSTEMS GLOSSARY Absolute address An address, which identifies a ‘unique storage area, permanently assigned to a memory lo- Absolute coding Machine language instructions di- rectly acceptable 10 a computer without further modifica- tion. ‘Access time The interval between the insertion and completion of storage or between the request for and the delivery of data from a memory. ‘Accumulator A register in which the result of an arithmetic or logic operation is formed. ‘Adaptive control Action in which control parameters are modified to improve performance, according to some predetermined criterion ‘Address An identifying name, label, or number for a data terminal, source, or storage location. Algorithm’ A prescribed set of well-defined rules or processes for the solution of a problem in a finite number of steps: a full statement of an arithmetical procedure for evaluating a result to a stated precision (for example, the calculation of the output to a control valve via a proportional-integral-derivative control algorithm). ‘Allocation The assignment of data blocks to specified storage locations. Alphanumeric A set of symbols including letters, num- bers, and other characters. ‘Analog The representation of quantities by means of continuous physical signals. Analog backup Provision for control by analog instru- mentation in the event of a computer system failure Analog-to-digital (AID) conversion Production of a digital output, indicating the value of an analog input quantity ‘Arithmetic unit A computer subsystem in which arithmetic and logical operations are performed. "ASCII Acronym for American Standard Code for In- formation Interchange: an eight-level code intended to pro- vide compatibility between digital devices. ‘Assembler A program which converts assembly lan- uage instructions to machine language instructions by substitution of absolute operation codes and absolute or re- locatable addresses for symbolic operation codes and ad- dresses. ‘Assembly language A programming language consist ing of symbolic instructions (operating codes and ad- dresses) that correspond on a one-to-one basis with abso- lute instructions in machine language ‘Auctioneering device A high or low selector, whose ‘output is either the highest or the lowest of the set of input signals. Background program A program of no particular ur- ‘gency with regard to time that may be preempted by a foreground program having greater urgency and priority Backup Provision for alternate means of operation in case of primary system failure Bandwidth The operating frequency range of a device or system, Batch processing A manufacturing operation in which specified quantity of material is subject to a series of treatment steps. Also, 2 mode of computer operations in which each program is completed before the next is started, ‘Baud A unit of signalling speed equal to the number of discrete conditions or signal events per second: one bit per second in a train of binary signals, and three bits per sec- ond in an octal train of signals. Binary The number system with a radix of two. Binary coded decimal (BCD) A number code in which individual decimal digits are each represented by a group of binary digits; in the 8-4-2-1 BCD notation, each deci- ‘mal digit is represented by a four place binary number, weighted in sequence as 8, 4, 2, and 1 Binary digit bit) A character used to represent one of the two digits in the binary number system, and the basic unit of information or data storage in a two-state device. Block A set of words, characters, digits, or other ele- ‘ments handled as a unit. Bootstrap A technique or device designed to bring it- self into a desired state, that is a computer routine whose first few steps provide the instructions necessary for con- tinued operation. Buffer An isolating element used to prevent a circuit from influencing upstream elements. Also. a temporary storage register. used to accumulate data for subsequent processing. Bulk memory A high capacity auxiliary data storage device such as a disc or drum bus A conductor used for transmitting signals or power between elements. Byte The smallest number of adjacent bits (generally eight bits) that can be read from a memory unit into the arithmetic and control unit by a single instruction. A byte is usually shorter than a word. Cathode ray tube (CRT) A display device in which controlled electron beams are used to present alphanumeric, or graphical data on a luminescent screen Central processing unit (CPU) The portion of a com- puter system consisting of the arithmetic and control units and the working memory. Clear To erase information in a storage device.10 PART IPROCESS INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL Clock A device which generates periodic synchroniz tion signals 4 Common mode rejection The ability of a differential input circuit to discriminate against a voltage appearing at ‘both input terminals, expressed as a ratio of log ratio. ‘Common mode voltage A signal which appears at both terminals of a differential input device Compiler A program which translates instructions written in a user-oriented language to instructions in ma- chine language, for example, a FORTRAN compiler. A compiler, as contrasted with an assembler, can substitute subroutines as well as single machine instructions for cer- tain symbolic coding. Computer A device capable of accepting information in the form of signals or symbols, performing prescribed ‘operations on the information, and providing results as outputs. Computer word An ordered set of bits which occupies cone storage location and is treated by the computer circuits as a unit and transferred as such. A word is the smallest addressable unit of information in a programmable mem- ory. An IBM 4300 computer has 32 bit words, while a Honeywell 4500 computer uses 24 bit words. Control algorithm A mathematical representation of @ control law, indicating action to be performed. Core memory & high-speed random-access data stor- age device utilizing arrays of magnetic ferrite cores, ust- ally employed as a working computer memory; generally considered to be nonvolatile Counter device or memory location whose value or contents can be incremented or decremented in response 10 an input signal Curve fitting The representation of a plot by a mathe- ‘matical expression. Cycle rime The period required for a complete action, In particular, the interval required for a read and a write operation in working memory, usually taken as a measure of computer speed. Dara Information that can be produced or processed by a computer or control system, Data acquistion system & centralized monitoring sys- tem, which receives signals from multiple remote points. Data handling Scanning, monitoring, analog-to-digital conversion, print-out, and similar devices designed to sim- plify the use and interpretation of data. Debug To detect, locate, and remove mistakes from computer software or hardware. Demultiplexer A device used to recover individual sig- nals, which have been combined for transmission over @ single channel. Diagnostic routine A program that locates malfunc- tions in computer hardware or software. Digital Representation of data in discrete or numeric form. Digital backup Digital equipment used to provide con- trol in the event of a primary computer system failure, Digital computer computer that operates on symbols representing data by performing arithmetic and logic oper- ations. Digital filter A computer algorithm that separates digi- tal data in accord with a criterion such as signal frequency Digital-to-analog (DIA) conversion Production of an analog signal whose instantaneous magnitude is propor- tional to the value of a digital input Digitize To obtain the digital representation of a mea- sured quantity or continuous signal Direct digital control (DDC) Use of a single digital computer to establish commands to the final control ele- iments of multiple regulatory loops. Disc A flat circular magnetic plate on which data can be stored by selective magnetization, Display Lights, annunciators, numerical indicators, or other operator output devices at consoles or remote sta- Distributed processing A monitoring and control con- cept in which arithmetic and logic are performed by com- puting elements at remote points under the coordination of a central computer. Double precision The use of two computer words to represent a number. Downtime The interval during which a device is inop- erative. Driver A program or routine that controls external pe- ripheral devices or executes other programs Drum A cylinder with a magnetic surface on w. + 1 data can be stored by selective magnetization Dump To copy the present contents of a memory onto 4 printout or auxiliary storage Duplex channel A communication system in which each terminal can simultaneously receive and transmit data (typically called full duptexo. Edit To modify a computer program or alter stored data prior to output Encoder An electromechanical transducer that pro- duces a serial or parallel digital indication of mechanical angle or displacement. Engineering units a process variable Error detecting A data code in which each ace-'sble term conforms to certain rules such that if transmis ot processing errors occur. false results can be detectea Error squared The technique of squaring the error in a linear control action to produce @ nonlinear correction. Executive routine The routine that coordinates and controls program execution. It determines the order of pri- ority for execution, coordinates the necessary information retrieval, and controls the loading and relocation of pro- ‘grams, subprograms, routines, and subroutines. ‘Standard units of measure applied toy SECTION 14—PROCESS COMPUTER SYSTEMS 4 Field An area of storage reserved for a particular cate~ gory of data. Firmware Fixed heads Rigidly-mounted reading and writing transducers on bulk memory devices. Fixed point A numbering system in which all quanti- ties are integers or in which all quantities contain a prede- termined number of digits and a radix point at some im- plicitly defined position Flag A signal indicating a hardware condition or pro- gram status. Floating point A numbering convention that allows adjustment of the decimal point. Flow chart A graphical representation of a problem or system in which interconnected symbols are used to repre- sent operations, data, flow, and equipment. Foreground processing Execution of real time or high priority programs, which can preempt the use of comput ing facilities. Format ‘The arrangment of data FORTRAN Acronym for FORmula TRANSlator, an al- ‘gebraic procedure-oriented computer language designed to solve arithmetic and logical problems. Function module A self-contained analog ot digital computing element whose output is a specified mathemati- cal function of the input. Gate A device which blocks or passes a signal depend- ing on the presence or absence of specified input signals. Programs or instructions stored in read-only Gray code A binary code in which successive values differ in one place only Guard bit bit contained in a word or group of words that indicates whether the content of a memory location ‘may be altered by a program. Half-duplex channel A communication system that permits transmission only one way at a time. Hardware Physical equipment. Head A transducer that reads, records, or erases data on a storage medium High-level language A user-oriented programming language that uses natural syntax and is translated into ma- chine language by a compiler. Hollerith code A system for encoding alphanumeric information onto punched cards. ‘Hybrid computer signal and symbol processing sys- tem using analog and digital computing elements. Incremental recorder A digital recorder in which the tape advances in steps to coincide with the availability of data. Indexing A means of altering a computer address on the basis of extemal commands or events. Indirect address An address specifying a storage loca tion which in tum contains either a direct or another indi rect address. Initialize To set counters, switches, and addresses 10 specified starting values at prescribed points in @ program, Instruction A statement that specifies an operation and. the values or locations of its operands. Instruction set The list of machine-language instruc tions that a computer can perform. Interacting control Action produced by a control al- ‘gorithm whose various terms are interdependent Interactive system A system in which bilateral com- ‘munication is established between a computer or operating, program and a user. Interface Hardware or software necessary to provide ‘energy and signal compatibility between two devices, Interleave To alternate segments of computer pro- grams to permit essentially simultaneous operation Interpretive routine routine that carries out its pro- cessing operations by decoding each instruction writen in a pseudo-code, selecting the appropriate subroutines called for by the pseudo-code, executing the subroutines in the proper sequence to carry out the desired functions, and proceeding to the next pseudo-instruction. It should be noted that an interpretive routine carries out its functions as it decodes the pseudo-code, as contrasted to @ compiler, which prepares a machine-language routine that will be ex- cuted later. Interrupt A break in the execution of a sequential pro- agiam or routine to permit processing of high priority data, eration A set of repetitive computations in which the output of each step is the input to the next step. Language A set of representations and rules used to convey information, Linear programming (LP) The analysis of problems in which a linear function of several constrained variables is maximized or minimized Load The amount of energy or material that a device ‘or machine must deliver or handle. Also, to enter pro- ‘grams or data into a computer. Log A periodic printed summary of operating data Logger An instrument that scans sensors and or prints data on a chart. Loop A sequence of instructions repeated until a term nation condition occurs. Machine language The programming language accept- able to a digital computer without further interpretation or translation. Such a language generally consists of binary- coded information in the form of instructions that define and direct machine operations and data that are acted upon or recorded by these machine instructions. Magnetic core The basic storage element of a ferrite core memory. ‘Main frame See central processing unit. ‘Manual backup A method of control in which final control elements are manually adjusted in the event of a primary system failure.SECTION 14—PROCESS COMPUTER SYSTEMS 19 use in program execution and event initiation Real-time operation Computer monitoring, control, or processing functions performed at a rate compatible with the operation of physical equipment or processes Repitter A device capable of retaining a fixed amount of information, such as a word. Relative adiress A label used to identify the location of data in a program by reference tits postion with ce- Spect to some other location in that program Relibilry The ability ofan item t0 operate as speci fied for an indicated time period, often expressed as mean time between failures (MTBF) or mean time to failure (MTP) Relocate To move a routine from one portion of stor. age to another, and t0 adjust the necessary address rcle- fences so thatthe routine can be expected. Routine series of computer instructions that perform a specified task. Sample and hold A circuit used to nereas the interval uring which a sampled signal is available by maintaining an output equal to the input for a specified period ‘Sampling period The interval between observations in «periodic sampling contol system Seale factor’ The multiplier used to scale a set of quan- ties Scan Collection of data from multiple sensors, usually through a multpleer. Selfadapting The ability ofa device to modify its own performance in response to environmental changes Selftuning Automatic modification of control al- gorithm constants based on process conditions Serial The transfer and processing of each bitin a unit ot information, one st atime Sign bit A single bit used to designate the algebraic sign of the information contained in the remainder ofthe word. Simulation Use of a computer to represent physical systems for purposes of design or analysis. Smooth To decrease or eliminate rapid data fluctua- tions. Software The collection of programs, routines, and documents associated with a computer. Source language A computer language used to write user programs that is subsequently compiled or assembled ‘nto machine-language form, Storage A memory device in which data can be en- tered and held and from which it can be retrieved. Subroutine A seriés of computer instructions that per- form a specific task, Supervisory A mode of process computer operation in which the computer performs control calculations but actu- ates the final element through conventional controllers, ‘Supervisory control Action in which the control loops are subject to intermittent corrective action from an exter- nal source. Also, remote electrical operation of equipment, such as in pipeline pumping stations, over one or more ‘common interconnecting telemetry channels. ‘Symbolic coding Any coding in which symbols other than actual binary machine language is used. Synchronous computer A computer in which each event or operation starts as a result of a clock signal System A collection of hardware and software orga- nized in such a way as to achieve an operational objective. Table A block of information in memory that is used as data by a program. Tag Information that is used as an identifier or label for other information. Time sharing The interleaved use of a sequential de- vice to provide apparently simultaneous service to a num- ber of users Track The portion of a moving storage medium, such as the drum. tape, oF disc, that is accessible to a given reading head position. Truncate To delete least significant digits of a number. Update To modify a program according to current in formation, Velocity limiting control Action in which the rate of, change of a specified variable will not exceed a predeter- mined limit Volatile storage A memory in which data can only be retained while power is being applied, Watchdog timer An electronic interval timer that will generate a priority interrupt unless periodically reset by a Computer program. It is used fo detect processing problems due to program stalls, hardware failures, or other abnormal, conditions. Word A sequence of bits of characters treated as a unit, and capable of being stored in one computer location. Word-time The data transfer rate between a device and the computer. Write To deliver data to a medium such as storage.2 Pant Marginal check A preventive maintenance procedure in which certain operatingzonditions are varied about their ‘normal values to aggravate borderline components into de- tectable faults ‘Mass-memory An auxiliary bulk memory providing rapid-access storage capacity ‘Mathematical model A mathematical representation of a process, device, or concept. ‘Memory A data storage system, particularly for use ‘with computing elements and machines. ‘Memory protect technique of protecting stored data from alteration, using @ guard bit to inhibit the execution of any modification instruction, Microprogramming A programming technique in which multiple instruction operations can be combined for ‘greater speed and more efficient memory use. Mnemonic An alphanumeric designation designed to aid in remembering a memory location or computer opera- tion. ‘Modem A contraction of modulator-lemodulator, des- ignating equipment used to connect data processing equip- ‘ment with communication lines. Monitor To observe or supervise the operation of a system. Movable heads Reading and writing transducers on bulk memory devices that can be positioned over the data locations. Multielement control system A control system utilizing input signals derived from two or more process variables, by jointly affecting the action of the control system. ‘Multiplexer Basically a switch that permits the com- puter to obtain information from or send information to any one of a group of channels: that is, the input multi- plexer, under program control, selects one of numerous process inputs to be converted and transmitted (0 the com puter. ‘Multiprocessing The simultaneous or interleaved exe- cution of several programs or sequences of instructions by ‘a computer or computer network ‘Multiprogramming The interleaved or time-shared ex- ecution of several programs by a computer. Noise An unwanted component of a signal or variable that obscures its information content. Noninteracting control system A multielement control system in which adjustments made on one process variable do not disturb other variables. Nonlinear system Any system whose operation cannot be represented by a first-order mathematical equation. Normal mode interference Electrical interference that appears as.a differential signal between circuit terminals. Normal mode rejection The ability of a circuit to dis- criminate against normal mode voltage, usually expressed as a ratio or a log ratio. PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL Normal mode voltage An extraneous voltage induced ‘across a circuit path. Numerical control (NC) technique of operating ma- chine tools or similar equipment in which motion is devel- ‘oped in response to numerically-coded commands Object program The coded output of an assembler oF compiler. Octal A characteristic of a system in which there are ‘eight elements, such as a numbering system with a radix of eight. Off-line Operating software or hardware not under the direct control of a central processor. or operations per- formed while a computer is not monitoring or controlling processes or equipment. On-line condition in which equipment or programs are under direct control of a central processor. Optimal control Control action that seeks and main- tains the most advantageous value of a specified variable, rather than maintaining it at a set value. Optimize To establish control parameters that maxi mize or minimize the value of a performance index. Overflow Data, resulting from an operation, that ex- ceed the capacity of the allocated storage Page addressing A storage addressing technique in which memory is divided into segments or pages. each of which can be addressed individually Parallel The simultaneous transfer and processing of all bits in a unit of information. Parallel processing Concurrent execution of several operations in multiple devices. Parity check A test of whether the number of ones or eros in any array of binary digits is odd or even, to detect errors in a group of bits. Peripheral Auxiliary equipment used for entering data into or receiving data from a computer. Priority Level of importance of a program or device. Priority interrupt The temporary suspension of a pro- gram to execute a program of higher priority Processor A computer, of set of computer programs, that provide compiling, assembling, and related software functions for a given programming language Program A seties of routines that logically solve a given problem. Queuing The formation of an ordered sequence in which data are to be processed. Random access memory (RAM) _A storage unit in which direct access is provided to information, indepen- dent of memory location Read To acquire data from a source. Read-only memory (ROM) A storage device, generally used for control programs. whose content is not alterable by normal operating procedures Real-time clock The circuitry that maintains time for