1

Performance and Operating

Characteristics of IC Engine
 Geometric parameter of reciprocating engine
2

 The performance of the internal combustion

engine is characterized with several geometric
and thermodynamic parameters

 The following geometric parameters are of

particular interest: bore(B), connecting rod length
(l), crank radius (a), stroke (S) and crank angle
(ө)

 For any single cylinder, the cranks shaft,

connecting rod, piston, and head assembly can be
represented by the mechanism shown to the left
 Geometric parameter of reciprocating engine
3

 The top dead center TDC of an engine refers to

the crankshaft being in a position such that ө=00.

 The volume at TDC is minimum and is often called

the clearance volume Vc

 The bottom dead center (BDC) refers to the

crankshaft being at ө=1800, the volume at BDC
is maximum and often denoted by VT

 The difference between the VT and Vc is the

displacement volume Vd
 Geometric parameter of reciprocating engine

 Engine Capacity (Ve)

TDC

Stroke VS VS VS VS
 πB 2

Ve = (Vd × n ) = nS   BDC
 4 
 Where n- is number of cylinders Bore

Vd - cylinder swept volume

 Displacement Rate

For 4-Stroke Engine

 Geometrical Properties of Reciprocating Engines
5

Compression ratio r,

o r = 8 to 12 for SI engines and

o r = 12 to 24 for CI engines;

Ratio of Cylinder bore to piston Stroke:

 B/S = 0.8 to 1.2 for small- and medium-size engines,

about 0.5 for large slow-speed CI engines;
 Geometrical Properties of Reciprocating Engines
6

Ratio of Connecting rod length to crank radius:

l
R=
a
 R = 3 to 4 for small- and medium-size engines,
increasing to 5 to 9 for large slow-speed CI
engines.

The stroke and crank radius are related by

 The cylinder volume V at any crank position θ
7

 The volume of the cylinder can be determined as

function of crank angle ( ), from the compression
ratio, the stroke, bore and connecting rod length.

 At TDC the crank shaft is at crank angle of 0o.

(Clearance volume, Vc)

 At BDC the crank angle is at 180 o. (Maximum

cylinder volume, VT )
 The cylinder volume V at any crank position θ
8

 Displacement volume = (Maximum -

minimum) cylinder volume

 The displacement volume can also be

represented as a function of the bore and
stroke

 At a given crank angle the volume is given by:

πB 2
V = VC + x(θ )
4
 The cylinder volume V at any crank position θ
9

 Again using geometry, a relationship for x(ө) can

be developed:


(
x(θ ) = a + l −  l 2 − a 2 sin 2 θ ) 1
2
+ a cos θ 


 The compression ratio becomes

 Solving for Vc results in:

.
The cylinder volume V at any crank position θ
10

 The cylinder volume at any crank angle becomes:

πB 2
V =
VD
r −1
+
4  
(
a + l −  l 2 − a 2 sin 2 θ ) 1
2
+ a cos θ  
 

  1

πB 2  l   l  
2 2

a 1 + −   − sin θ  + cos θ  
VD
V = + 2

r −1 4  a   a  


   

 Since, a=S/2 and setting, R = l , gives:

a

V V
V = D + D
r −1 2 
(
1 + R − cos θ − R 2 − sin 2 θ ) 1
2 


Non-dimensional form of the above

V
=
1
+ 1 + R − cos θ − R 2 − sin 2 θ
1
VD r − 1 2 
( ) 1
2 

equation becomes,
 The cylinder volume V at any crank position θ
11

If crank angle is measured from BDC in CCW

direction


V  r   1 − cos θ   l   1  2l 
2 
=  − + −   − sin θ 
2

VD  r − 1   2  S 2  S  
 

a θ

V
D
V V
TDC BDC
 Full throttle operation chemically correct mixture (Y=12.5)
Fuel C8H18 Speed 4000rpm
Tm 300k P1 1atm
.
The cylinder volume V at any crank position θ
Friction and heat transfer neglected Fuel vaporization neglect

12
Crank angle Vdisp Pr Crank angle Vdisp Pr
(deg) (cc) (bar) (cc) (bar)
 The cylinder volume at any crank angle becomes:
360 636.6 1
0 636.6 1 375 629.8 1
15 629.8 1 390 609.4 1
120
30 609.4 1.1 405 575.3 1
πB 2  1  100
45
60
575.3
528.1
1.2
1.3
420
V =
435
V D 528.1
+
469 a +
4  1  80
2 2
(
1l − l − a sin θ
2
1
2
+ )
a cos θ 
 
75 469 1.5 450 r − 1 400.4
90 400.4 1.9 465 326.4 1

pressure (bar)
105 326.4 2.5 480 252.8  1  1

120 252.8 3.6 495 π
186
2 
1   
60 2
 2

+132.5 a 1 + 1 −   − sin θ  + cos θ  


V B l l
135 186 5.6 V =
510
D 2

r −1 4  a   a40 


150 132.5 9 525 98  1   
165 98 13.7 540 86 1 20
180 86 16.5 540 86 1
180 86 98.2 555 98 1 0
195 98 81.9 570
Since, a=S/2 132.5 1
and setting, l200 300 400 500 600
, gives:
=
0 100 700
 R
210 132.5 53.6 585 186 1 volume (cc)
225 186 33.4 600 252.8 1 a

( )
240 252.8 21.7 615 326.5 1
255 326.5 15.2 630V =
V
+
400.4
D V D 1 1 + R − cos θ − R − sin θ2 2
1
2 
270 400.4 11.4 645
r −1 2
469 1  
285 469 9.1 660 528.1 1
300 528.1 7.7 675 575.3 1
315 575.3 6.9
Non-dimensional form of the above
330 609.4 6.3
V
V
=
1
+ 1 + R − cos θ − R − sin θ
1
690
705
r − 1 2 
609.4
629.8
1
1
2
( 2
) 1
2 

345 629.8 6 720 D 636.6 1
equation
360 becomes,
636.6 6
 Engine Performance Parameters
13

 The performance of the engine depends on inter-relationship between

power developed, speed and the specific fuel consumption at each
operating condition within the useful range of speed and load.

POWER

PERFORMANCE
OF ENGINE
 Engine performance
14

 Internal combustion engine should generally operate within a useful

range of speed.

 Some engines are made to run at fixed speed by means of a speed

governor which is its rated speed

 At each speed within the useful range, the power output varies and it has
a maximum usable value.

 The specific fuel consumption varies with load and speed

 Engine performance definition
15

 Absolute Rated Power: The highest power which the engine could
develop at sea level with no arbitrary limitation on speed, fuel-air ratio
or throttle opening

 Maximum rated power: The highest power an engine is allowed to

develop for short periods of operation.

 Normal rated power: The highest power an engine is allowed to

develop in continuous operation.

 Rated speed: The crankshaft rotational speed at which rated power is

developed
 Engine Performance Parameters
16

 The performance an engine is judged by quantifying its

efficiencies
 Five important engine efficiencies are
 Indicated thermal efficiency (ηith) Indicated Power
 Brake thermal efficiency (ηbth) Brake Power
 Mechanical efficiency (ηm)
 Volumetric efficiency (ηv)
 Relative efficiency or Efficiency ratio (ηrel)
 Engine Performance Parameters
17

 Other Engine performance Parameters

 Mean effective pressure (MEP or Pm)
 Mean piston speed (sp)
 Specific power output (Ps)
 Specific fuel consumption (sfc)
 Inlet-valve Mach Index (Z)
 Fuel-air or air-fuel ratio (F/A or AI F)
 Calorific value of the fuel (CV)
 The Energy Flow
18

 The energy flow through the engine is expressed in 3

distinct terms
 Indicated Power
 Brake Power
 Friction Power
The Energy Flow

Expansion Force
The Energy Flow
 Indicated work
21

 The Engine cycle on a P-V coordinates, is often called an indicator

diagram.

 The indicated work per cycle Wc,i is obtained by integrating around the
curve to obtain the area enclosed on the diagram

Wc,i = ∫ PdV
 Gross Indicated Work
22

 The upper loop of the engine cycle of the indicator diagram, the
compression and power strokes, where output work is generated is
called the gross indicated work.

Wc ,ig = A + C
 Pump work
23

 The lower loop, which includes the intake and exhaust is called Pump work
and absorbs work from the engine.

 Wide-Open Throttle (WOT) Engine operated with throttle valve fully open
when maximum power and/or speed is desired.

Net indicated work is

W pump = B + C
Wc ,inet = Wc ,ig − WPump
 Indicated Work at Part Throttle
24

 At WOT the pressure at the intake valve is just below atmospheric

pressure, however at part throttle the pressure is much lower than
atmospheric

Therefore at part throttle the

pump work (area B+C) can
be significant compared to
gross indicated work (area
A+C)
 Indicated Work with Supercharging/Turbocharged
25

 Engines with superchargers or turbochargers can have intake

pressures greater than the exhaust pressure, giving a positive pump
work

Wnet = ( Area A) + ( Area B )

Supercharges increase the net

indicated work but is a parasitic
load since they are driven by the
crankshaft
 Work during engine cycle
26
Indicated Power (ip) or (Pi)

Gross indicated work

a A (m2) F (N)
c
p = imep (N/m2)

L (m)

b
F= P.A (N)

Work (W) = F.L (N m)

Time (t) = 60 / (Ne /k) (s)

Indicated power (Pi) cylinder = W/t = F.L .Ne/(k*60) (W)

(Pi) cylinder = (imep.A.L.N) / (n R . 60) n R = 2 (four stroke)
n R = 1 (two stoke)
(Pi) engine = imep. (A.L.n) N) / (n R . 60) n = number of cylinder

(Pi) engine = [imep. Ve . N)/ (n R . 60)] (W)

 Indicated, brake and frictional power
29

 The indicated power per engine can also be given in terms of

indicated work per cycle :

n × Wi × N
Pi =
nR

where N–crankshaft speed in rev/s

nR - number of crank revolutions per cycle
= 2 for 4-stroke
= 1 for 2-stroke
 Indicated, brake and frictional power
30

 The term brake power, Pb, is used to specify that the power is measured
at the output shaft, this is the usable power delivered by the engine to
the load.

 Part of the gross indicated work per cycle or power is used to expel
exhaust gases and induct fresh charge.

 An additional portion is used to overcome the friction of the bearings,

pistons, and other mechanical components of the engine, and to drive
the engine accessories.
 Power flows in an engine
31

 The power flow through the engine is expressed in 3

distinct terms
 Indicated Power
g
 Brake Power
 Friction Power

Pig = Pb + Pf
 Mechanical Efficiency
32

 The ratio of the brake (or useful) power delivered by the engine to
the indicated power is called the mechanical efficiency.

Pb Pf
ηm = = 1−
Pig Pig

 Mechanical efficiency depends on throttle position as well as engine

design and engine speed.

 Typical values for a modern automotive engine at wide open or full

throttle are 90 percent at speeds below about 30 to 40 rev/s (1800
to 2400 rev/min), decreasing to 75 percent at maximum rated
speed.
 Power Speed Curve
33

Pig = Pb + Pf

Where:
Pig = indicated power
Pb= brake power
Pf = friction power

Pb Pf
ηm = = 1−
Pig Pig
 Mean effective pressure (mep)
34

 MEP is a fictitious pressure that, if acted on the piston during the entire
power stroke, would produce the same amount of net work as that
produced during the actual cycle

 Mean effective pressure (mep) is the work done per unit displacement
volume.
mep = W/VD

 The net work during the intake and exhaust strokes is:

Wp, net = (Pi-Pe)

 Mean effective pressure
35

 The work per displacement volume required to pump the working fluid
into and out of the engine during the intake and exhaust strokes is
termed as the pumping work ( WP) and the mean effective pressure is
called pumping mean effective pressure (PMEP)
WP, net/VD =pmep= (Pi-Pe)

 The indicated mean effective pressure (imep) is defined as the work per
unit displacement volume done by the gas during the compression and
expansion stroke.
imep = Wi /VD
 The net indicated mean effective pressure for the whole cycle,
imep net = imep-pmep
 Mean effective pressure
36

mep = W/VD
P × nR
P × nR mep =
Wi = VD × N
N

 nR is the number of crank revolutions for each power stroke per

cylinder
 Indicated and brake Mean effective Pressure
37

P ( kW ) × n × 6 × 10 4
mep( N m 2 ) = R
 For SI unit VD (m 3 ) × N (rpm)

 Mean effective pressure can also be expressed in terms of

torque

2 π N (rpm) × T ( Nm) 2 π T ( Nm) × nR

P= [W ] mep( N m ) = 2

60 VD (m 3 )

 Indicated power gives indicated mean effective pressure:

Pi (kW ) × nR × 6 ×10 4
imep( N m ) =
2

VD (m 3 ) × N (rpm)
 Brake mean effective pressure
38

Pb (kW ) × nR × 6 ×10 4
bmep( N m ) =
2

VD (m 3 ) × N (rpm)
 Engine Torque Te-Torque and crankshaft angle
39

Work is also accomplished when the

torque is applied through an angle.

 Distance
xy = rθ
W = F .xy = Frθ = Tθ

W per revolution = T (2π )

P = W t = T (2π ) t = Tω
Where: 2π N
ω=
60
 Engine Brake Torque Te
40

2 π N × Te Te ( Nm )× N (rpm )
Pb = Te × ω = = (kW )
60 9550
Brake mean effective pressure can also be expressed in terms of
torque
bmep( N m 2 ) × VD (m 3 )
2 π Te ( N .m) × n R Te ( N .m) =
bmep( N m 2 ) = 2 π × nR
VD (m 3 )
Where:

N = Engine speed (rpm)

VD = engine Displacement capacity (m3)

n R = 2, for 4-stroke engines

1, for 2-stroke engines

 Engine Torque Te
41

o There is a direct relationship

between BMEP and torque output.

o The torque curve with engine rpm is

identical to the bmep curve, with
different values.
 Power and Torque versus Engine Speed at WOT
42

There is a maximum in the brake power versus

Rated brake power engine speed called the rated brake power
(RBP).

1 kW = 1.341 hp At higher speeds brake power decreases as

friction power becomes significant compared
to the indicated power
Pb = Pig − Pf
Max brake torque
There is a maximum in the torque versus
speed called maximum brake torque
(MBT).

Brake torque drops off:

• at lower speeds do to heat losses
• at higher speeds it becomes more difficult
to ingest a full charge of air.
 Mean Piston Speed S p
43

 An important characteristic speed is the mean piston speed S p

S p = 2S N
 Where: S is the stroke and
N is the rotational speed of the crankshaft.

 Resistance to gas flow into the engine or stresses due to the inertia
of the moving piston limit the maximum mean piston speed to
within the range 8 to 15 m/s.
 Specific Power
44

 Specific power output of an engine is defined as the power

output per unit piston area.

 It is a measure of the engine designer’s success in using the

available piston area regardless of cylinder size.

Pb Pb (kW ) × nR × 6 ×10 4
specific power , SP = bmep( N m ) =2
AP VD (m 3 ) × N (rpm)

bmep × S p
specific power , SP =
(nR ×12 ×10 5 )
 Specific Fuel Consumption (sfc)
45

 sfc shows how much fuel is consumed by an engine to do a certain amount

of work.
 Specific fuel consumption represents the mass or volume of fuel an engine
consumes per hour while it produces 1 kW of power.
 It depends on
 Engine size
 Operation load
 Engine design
 Specific fuel consumption is given in kilograms of fuel per
kilowatt-hour.
 Specific fuel consumption and efficiency
46

 Specific fuel consumption (sfc) is fuel flow rate per unit power output.
 It measures how efficiently an engine is using the fuel supplied to
produce work:

m f m f ( g / s ) m f ( g / h)
sfc = sfc(mg / J ) = sfc( g / kW .h) =
P(kW ) P(kW )
P
 Brake power gives brake specific fuel consumption:
m f
bsfc =
Pb

 Indicated power gives indicated specific fuel consumption:

m f
isfc =
Pi
 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Engine Size
47

 Brake specific fuel consumption generally decreases with

engine size, being best (lowest) for very large engines.

One reason for this is less

heat loss due to the higher
volume to surface area ratio
of the combustion chamber in
large engines.

Also large engines operate

at lower speeds which
reduce friction losses.
 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Engine Speed
48

 Brake specific fuel consumption decreases as engine speed

increases, reaches a minimum, and then increases at high
speeds.

Fuel consumption increases at

high speeds because of greater
friction losses.

At low engine speed, the longer

time per cycle allows more heat
loss and fuel consumption goes
up.
 Engine Thermal Efficiencies
49

 The time for combustion in the cylinder is very short so not all the fuel
may be consumed or local temperatures may not favor combustion
 A small fraction of the fuel may not react and exits with the exhaust
gas

 The combustion efficiency is defined as:

actual heat input Qin

ηC = =
theoretical heat input m f QHV

Where Qin = heat added by combustion per cycle

mf = mass of fuel added to cylinder per cycle
QHV= heating value of the fuel (chemical energy per unit mass)
 Energy flow
50
 Indicated thermal efficiency (ηith)
51

 Indicated thermal efficiency (ηith)

 is the ratio of energy in the indicated power, Pi, to the
input fuel energy in appropriate units

Pi Pi Pi
ηith = =  =
rate of heat input per cycle Qin m f QHVηC

Indicated thermal efficiencies are typically 50% to 60%

and brake thermal efficiencies are usually about 30%
 Brake Thermal Efficiency(ηbth)
52

 Is the ratio of energy in the brake power Pb to the input

fuel energy in appropriate units
Pb Pb Pb
ηbth = =

=
rate of heat input per cycle Qin m f QHVηC
 Thermal efficiency
53

From specific fuel consumption

m f ηith =
Pi P
= i =
Pi
sfc = rate of heat input per cycle Q in m f QHVηC
P

1
ηith =
isfc QHVηC
or

1
ηbth =
bsfc QHVηC
 Fuel conversion efficiency
54

 Fuel conversion efficiency is defined as:

Work per cycle WC P 1
ηf = = = =
Theortical Heat input per cycle m f QHV m f QHV sfc QHV

 Thus thermal efficiency may be defined as:

ηf
ηt =
ηC
 Air-Fuel Ratio and Fuel-Air Ratio
55

 The relative proportions of the fuel and air in the engine

cylinder are very important from the standpoint of
combustion and the efficiency of the engine.
 Air-Fuel ratio (AF) or Fuel-Air ratio (FA) are used to
describe the mixture ratio of the charge.
Air-Fuel Ratio and Fuel-Air Ratio

 For SI engine hydrocarbon fuel:

 Ideal or Stoichiometric AF is about 15:1 (14.7:1)

 Combustion possible in the range of 6:1 to 25:1

 For CI engine hydrocarbon fuel:

 Ideal or Stoichiometric AF is also about 15 (14.7:1)

 Combustion possible in the range of 18:1 to 70:1

Fuel-Air (F/A) or Air-Fuel Ratio (A/F)

 In the SI engine the fuel-air ratio practically remains a constant

over a wide range of operation.

 In CI engines at a given speed the air flow does not vary with
load; it is the fuel flow that varies directly with load.
 Therefore, the term fuel-air ratio is generally used instead of
air-fuel ratio.
 Fuel-Air (F/A) or Air-Fuel Ratio (A/F)

 A mixture that contains just enough air for complete combustion of all
the fuel in the mixture is called a chemically correct or stoichiometric
fuel-air ratio.
 A mixture having more fuel than that in a chemically correct mixture is
termed as rich mixture and
 a mixture that contains less fuel (or excess air) is called a lean mixture.
 The ratio of actual fuel-air ratio to stoichiometric fuel-air ratio is called
equivalence ratio and is denoted by
 Φ=1 Stoichiometric
 Φ>1 Rich Mixture  Actual fuel − Air ratio 
φ =  
 Φ<1 Lean Mixture  Stoichiometric fuel − air ratio 
Equivalent ratio & Relative A/F ratio
 Volumetric efficiency CI (ηV )
60

 The volumetric efficiency is used to measure the effectiveness of an

engine's induction process.
 Volumetric efficiency is usually used with four-stroke cycle engines
which have a distinct induction process.
 It is defined as the volume flow rate of air into the intake system
divided by the rate at which volume is displaced by the piston:
ma 2 m a
ηV = =
ρ a ,i VD ρ a ,i VD N

Where: ma is the mass of air inducted into the cylinder per cycle.
 Volumetric Efficiency SI (ηv)
61

•
2( m a + m f )
ηv =
ρ a,i Vd N

Where number of intake strokes per

minutes
n=N/2 for 4-S Engines
n= N for 2-S Engines
N= speed of engine in rpm
 Volumetric efficiency
62

 Typical values of volumetric efficiency for an engine at wide-open

throttle (WOT) are in the range 75% to 90%, going down to
much lower values as the throttle is closed.
 Can be measured:
 At the inlet port
 Intake of the engine
 Any suitable location in the intake manifold
 If measured at the intake of the engine, it is also called the
overall volumetric efficiency.
 Volumetric Efficiency (ηv)
63

 Volumetric efficiency depends upon

 throttle opening and engine speed
 induction and exhaust system layout,
 port size and
 valve timing and opening duration.
 High volumetric efficiency increases engine power.
 Volumetric Efficiency can be greater than one where Super charger
or turbocharger fitted
 Turbo charging is capable of increasing volumetric efficiency up to 50%.
 Volumetric Efficiency
64

Air Entering the Engine

ηV =
Engine Displacement
 Engine Specific Weight and Specific Volume
65

 Engine weight and bulk volume for a given rated power are
important in many applications. Two parameters useful for
comparing these attributes form one engine to another are:

engine Weight engine volume

Specific Weight = Specific volume =
rated power rated power

 These parameters indicate the effectiveness with which the engine

designer has used the engine materials and packaged the engine
components.
 Calorific Value (CV)
 Calorific value of a fuel is the thermal energy released per unit
quantity of the fuel when the fuel is burned completely and the
products of combustion are cooled back to the initial temperature
of the combustible mixture
 Other terms used for the calorific value are heating value and
heat of Combustion.
 When the products of combustion are cooled to 25 °C practically
all the water vapour resulting from the combustion process is
condensed.
 Calorific Value (CV)

 When H2O is in products is condensed to liquid additional heat is

realized and the total heat liberated is called Higher Calorific Value
(HCV)
 when H2O in the products is in the vapor form heat is not removed
this calorific value is called is called Lower calorific Values (LCV)
 L.C.V. = H.C.V. –(Mass of H2O * 2454.1 ) in kJ
 Engine Performance Curves
1. Imep
2. Bmep and torque
3. Indicated power
4. Brake power
5. Indicated thermal efficiency
6. Brake thermal efficiency
7. Specific fuel consumption
Brake Torque and Power measurement

 Dynamometers are used to measure torque and power over the engine
operating ranges of speed and load.

 Dynamometers use various methods to absorb the energy output of the

engine, all of which eventually ends up as heat.

 Some dynamometers absorb energy in a mechanical friction brake,

hydraulic fluid and magnetic field
Dynamometer vs. Engine Setup

 The Engine is clamped on a test bed and the shaft is connected to the
dynamometer rotor.

 The rotor is coupled electromagnetically, hydraulically or by

mechanical friction to a stator

 The torque exerted on the stator with the rotor turning is measured
by balancing the stator with weights, springs or pneumatic means.

Stator Force F

Rotor

N
Load cell
Brake Torque and Power

 Work is defined as the product of a force and the distance through which
the point of application of the force moves

 When the drive shaft of the engine turns through one revolution, any
point on the periphery of the rigidly attached roter moves through a
distance of equal to

 During this movement a friction force, f, is acting on the stator.

 The friction force, f, is thus acting through the distance and

producing a work
Brake Torque and Power

 Work during one revolution = Distance * f

= *f

The torque , r*f , produced by the drive shaft is opposed by a turning

moment equal to the product of the length of the moment arm b and
the force F measured by the scale

T = r*f = F*b

Work during one revolution = Fb

Power = Work/Time = Fb N/60