Z A Textbook of “Engineering Mechanics & 4 uD f= oF y fe Dt as i ) — 5 Dr. R. K. Bansal - Ys ; F 2 fam pnyPublished by: LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD 22, Golden House, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002. Sionea: | 011-2326 23 68 * | 011-28 26 2370 { o11-28.25 2572 Faxes: Gx0S* | 11-23 262279 Branches. ¢ 129/1, Illrd Main Road, IX Cross, Chamrajpet, Bangalore (Phone : 080-26 61 15 61) © 26, Damodaran Street, T. Nagar, Chennat (Phone : 044-24 34 47 26) « St. Benediet’s Road, Cochin (Phone : 0484-239 70 04) © Pan Bazar, Rani Bari, Guwahati (Phones : 0361-254 36 69, 251 38 81) 4-2-453, Ist Floor, Ramkote, Hyderabad (Phone : 040-24 75 0247) ‘© Adda Tanda Chowk, N.D. 365, Jalandhar City (Phone : 0181-222 12 72) '* 106/A, Ist Floor, $.N. Banerjee Road, Kolkata (Phones : 033-22 27 87 73, 22 27 52 47) © 18, Madan Mohan Malviya Marg, Lucknow (Phone : 0522-220 95 78) © 128A, Block 3, First Floor, Noorani Building, L.J. Road, Mumbai (Phone : 022-24 46 39 98) © Radha Govind Street, Tharpagna, Ranchi (Phone : 0651-230 77 64) EMAIL : colaxmi@hotmail.com WEBSITE : www.laxmipublications.com EEM-0552-240-ENGG MECHANICS © Dr. RK. Bansal and Sanjay Bansal All Rights Reserved. This book, or part thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or translated with the written permission of the authors and the publishers. Compiled by : Smt. Nirmal Bansal First Edition : 1991 Reprint 2 1992, 1993 Second Edition : 1994 Third Edition : 1996 Reprint 2 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, dan. 2001 Fourth Edition : 2002 Reprint : April 2003, March 2004 Reprint 2 October 2004, June 2005 Price : Rs. 240.00 Only C—10642/05/06 ‘Typesetting by : Goswami Printers, Delhi-110053. Printed at : Sanjeev Offset Printers, Delhi.Contents Chapter Pages PART I—STATICS 1._Fundamentals of Engineering Mechanics 1~23 L.._Introdwetiem 1.2__Definition: ¥ 1.2.1. Vector quantity 1 1.22. Sealar quantity 1 1.2.3. Aparticle - 1 1.2.4. Law of parallelogram of foress £ 1.25. Law of triangle of forces. 4 ‘L26._Lami’s theorem 4 3. ystem of Units 5 131, CGS. sysiem of units 5 13.3. _ S.L system of units 5 1.4, __Trigonometric Formulae and Expressions ‘ & 1.5. Differentiation and Integration 6 ‘L5.L__Differentiations 6 1.52. _ Integrations = z Solved Problems 1.1—1.9 me 7 1.6. Resolution of a Force 14 1.7. Resolution of a Number of Coplanar Foreos = 4 Solved Problems 1.10—1.12 4 1.8.__Moment ofa Force 16 LL Units of moment az 1.8.2. _ Effect of Force and moment on a body zi Wy Solved Problem 1.13 WwW LQ. Laws of Mechanies : 18 1.9.1. Newton's first and second laws of motion ‘ 19 1.92, Newton's third low 12 L ‘he Gravitiona! law of attract 19 1.94. The parallelogram law a 20 1.9.5. ‘The Principle of transmissibility of forces > 21 Highlights 21 Exercise 1 2. Coplanar, Collinear and Concurrent Forces 24—42 24. Introduction 24 2.2. Classification of a Foree System a 2.2.1, Coplanarcollinear 24 2.22, ~ Coplanar concurrent 25 2.23, Coplanar parallel 25 2.24. Coplanarnon.coneurrent, non-parallel 28 2.3, Resultant of Several Forces 25 Bahan dengan hak cipia(viii) Chap. Pages 2.4. Resultant of Coplanar Forces a 26 26. Resultant of Collinear Yoplanar Forces 26 2.5.1. Analytical method ws 26 2.5.2. Graphical method aah 26 Solved Problem 2.1 - 26 2.6, Resultant of Concurrent Coplanar Forces ss 27 2.6.1. When two forces act at a point_ sis 27 2.6.2. When more than two two forces act at a point = 28 Solved Problems 2.2—2.10 xen 30 Highlights ss 41 Burcis Al 3._Coplanar Parallel Forees 43—60 .1.__Introduetion 43 a2 8 s ‘ 44 3.3. Prineiple of Moments (or Varignon’s Principle) zs 44 ‘Salved Problem 3.2 ee) 3.4. _ ‘Types of Parallel Forces AT 341, Like parallel forces s AT 3.4.2. Unlike parallel forces 2 47 B.5_Resultantof Twa Parallel Forces ag 3.5.1, Reaultant of two like parallel forces 5 47 5.2. Resultant of two unlike parallel forces (unequal in magnitude) _. 48, 6.3. Resultant of two unlikeparallel forces which are equal in magnitude 49 Solved Problems 8.3—3.5 2 49 3.6. Resolution of a Foree into a Force and a Couple i 52 Solved Problem 3.6 a 52 31. General Case of Parallel Forees in a Plane 54 Solved Problems $723,800 5 3.8.__ Equivalent System sa 55 Solved Problems 3.9—3.10 Highlights Exercise 8 4. Conditions of Equilibrium 4.1__Introdueti 4.2. Principle of Equilibrium 4.2.1. Equations of equilibrium for non-current forces systems . _ Equations of equilibrium for concurrent force system. 4.3. Force Law of Equilibrium 4.3 “Two force system ‘Three force system. 4.3.3. Four force system Solved Problems 4.1—4.7 44. Action and Reaction(ix) Chap. Pages 4.5. _ Free Body Diagram i 72 Solved Problems 4.8—-4.2] 72 Highlights 2 88 Exercise 4 i 88 5._Support Reactions E 6.1.__Introduction 5.2. ‘Types of Supports Simple support or knife edge suppart Roller support ‘Pin joint (or hinged) support |. _ Smooth surface support 2.5. Fixed or built-in support 5.3. ‘Types of Loading : 5. Concentrated or point load Uniformly distributed load 5.3.3. Uniformly varying load 54, Method for Finding out the Reactions of a Beam 5.4.1. Analytical method 5.4.2. Graphical method for finding out the reactions of a beam _Problems on Simple Supported Beams jolved Problems 5.1—! 5 - 5.6. Problems on Overhanging Beams. . 100 Solved | Problems 5.65.’ 5.7. _ Problems on Roller and Hinged Supported Beams, 101 Solved Probleme58—612 a 5.8. _ Problems When Beams are Subjected to Couples 110 Iv a “110 Highlights Mi Exercise 5 1 6.__Analysis of Perfect Frames 114—153 61, Introdueti u4 62, Types of Frames nd 6.2.1, Perfect frame 114 6.2.2. Imperfect frame 115 63. Assumptions Made in Finding out the Forces in a Fr: ae 5 64. Reactions of Supports of a Frame - 115 65. Analysis of a Frame = 116 65.1. Method of joints 116 jolved Problems 6.1- i146 65.2. Method of joints applied to cantilever trusses 127 Solved Problems 6.6—6.7 27 65.3. Method of jaints applied to trusses carrying horizontal loads 7 129 Solved Problems6.8—6.9 || 65.4. Method of joints applied to trusses carrying inclined loade na ‘Solved Problem 6.10 a4 Bahan dengan hak cipta(x) Chap. Pages 6 Method of Sections 136 Problems 6.11—6.14 = 137 1.__Method of section, cutting more than three members % 142 Solved Problems 6.15—6.16 - 142 67. Graphieal Method 145 Solved Problems @17—6.1@ 000 ag Highlights é 1469 Exercise 6 150 7._Centre of Gravity and Moment of Inertia 154—194 LL. Centre of Gravity see 154 “22. Controid 154 7.3. Centroid of Centre or Gravity of Simple Plane Figures 154 7A. Centre of Gravity of Plane Figures by the Method of Moments. Lia 7.4.1. _ Centre of gravity of plane figures by integration method 155 2. Centre of gravity of aline os 155 7.5 Important Points 156 ‘7.6.1. Centre of gravity of structural sections a 156 Solved Problems 7.1—7.5 = 156 7.5.2. Problems of finding centre of gravity of area by integration method a 162 Solved Problems 7.6—1.7_ 162 71.5.3. Problems of finding centre of gravity of line-segment by 7 integration method we 167 Solved Problems 7.8—7.11 sas 167 16 Moment of Inertia 174 77. Radius of Gyration ae! 176 7.8, ‘Theorem of the Perpendicular Axis 175, 79. Theorem of Parallel Axis or 176 i it 7.10.1. Moment of inertia of a rectangular section e 177 2. Moment of inertia of a circular section ses [80 7.10.3.__Moment of inertia of a triangular section se 181 7.10.4. Moment of inertia of a uniform thin rod 183 7.10.5._Moment of inertia of area under a curve of given equation 183 Solved Problems 7.12—7.14 P 185, Highlights a 189 Exercise 7 sa 190 ‘8._Friction 195—238 8.1. Introduction = 195 82. Definitions 195 82.1 Coefficient of friction a 195 8.2.2. Angle of friction ve 195” 8.2.3. Cone of friction | see 196 8.8. ‘Types of Friction 197(a) Chap. 8 vs of S Pri Solved Problems 8.18.8 8.5. Angle of Repose 86. Equilibrium of a Body Lying on » Roagh Indined Plane Solved Problems 8 98. 8.7. Analysis of Ladder Friction és 222 Solved Problems 8,238.28 202 8.8. Analysis of Wedge Friction 230 Highlights 234 Exencise 8 235 9._ Lifting Machines 289 9.1.__Introduetion 238 9.2. Definitions 219 a z i ‘ aio 9.4. Condition for Irreversibility of a Machine 240 ‘Solved Problems 9.19.4 24 9.5.1, Expression for maximum mechanical advantage 5.2. Expression for maximum efficiency Solved Probiems 9.59.6 Friction of a Machine Expreseed in Terms of Actual Effort (P) Friction ofa Machine Expressed in Terms of Load Solved Problems 9.7—9.12 9.8 Important Lifting Machines ¢ 9.8.1. Simple wheel and axle a Solved Problem 9.13 . 982 wheel and: Solved Problem 9.14 260 9.8.3, Worm and worm whee) 256 Solved Problem 9.15 9.84. Single purchase crah winch & 267 Solved Problem 9.16 = 259 9.85. Double purchase erab winch - 259 Solved Problem 9.17 260 986, Pulleys i 262 solved Problems #189 20 284 9.8.7, Weston’s differential pulley block 269 Solved Problem 9.21 270 § e a 2 Highlights a 288 Exercise 9 as 286 10. Virtual Work 290331 10.1, Introduetion 290(xii) Chap. Pages 10.2. Work 290 10.3, Virtual Work 291 10.4. Principle of Virtual Work ee 291 10.5. Units of Work 291 10.6. Forees to be Omitted While Applying the Principle of Virtual Work 201 10.7. Important Points to be Remembered while Applying the Principle of Virtual Work 291 10.8. Uses of the Principle of Virtual Work 292 10.8.1. ‘Tho principle of virtual work for problems on beams 202 10.8.2. The principle of virtual work for problems on Framed structure... 302 Solved Problems 10.6—10.17 we 302 10.8.8. ‘The principle of virtual work for problems on lifting machines 323 Solved Problems 10.18—10.19 10.9. Virtual Work Done by Moment (or Torque) 325 Solved Problem 10.20 is 326 Highlights é 328 Exercise 10 329 11. Belts, Ropes and Chain Drives 332378 1LL_Introduetion 292 11.2. Open Flat Belt Drive . 332 112.1. Velocity ratio of open belt drive ss 333 12.2.2, Slip of the belt 5 334 11.2.3. Creep of the belt P 336 113. Cross Belt Drive = 339 11.4. Compound Belt Drive se 339 wed Problem 11.6 40 11.5._Length of Belt 7 341 11.5.1. Length of an open belt drive 341 11.5.2. Length of a cross-belt drive = 343 11.8. Ratio of Belt Tensions 348 11.8.1. Angle of contact for open belt drive . 350 11.6.2. Angle of contact for crossed belt drive : 350 11.7. Power Transmitted by Belt . 350 Solved Problems 11.9—11.10 . 351 118. Centrifugal tension 352 11.9. Maximum Power Transmitted by a Belt 2 353 Solved Problems 11.11—11.1 a 305 11.10. Initial Tension in the Belt ‘ 369 Solved Problems 11.15—11.17 : 360 111. V-belt Drive and Rope Drive 365 Solved Problems 11.18—11.23 366(xiii) Chap. Pages 11.12. Chain drive 373 11.13. Relative Advantages and Disadvantages of Chain and Belt (or Rope) Drives 373 Highlights B74 Exercise 11 376 PART II—DYNAMICS 12._Linear Motion 12.1._Intreduction 12.2. Velocity 125. Acceleration 12.4. Equations of Motion in a Straight Line 12.4.1, Equation for final velocity 12.4.2. Equation of motion for distance covered (6) 12.4.3. Derivation ofy"-u*=Qas 20 Solved Problems 12.1—12.6 3 12.4.4. Distance travelled in the nth second . SolvedProblem 127 0000 12.4.5. Equation of motion due to gravit 390 125. Pointstohe Remembered 0 Solved Problems 12.8—12.18 381 12.6. Velocity and Acceleration of a Body Movingin a Straight Line by Differentiation oo 401 Solved Problems 12.19—12.20 i 401 12,7. Velocity and Displacement of a Body Moving in a Straight Line by Integration . 403 Solved Problems 12.21—12.24 . 404 Highlights 2 aul Exercise 12 - a2 13. Curvilinear Motion, Circular Motion, Rotation and Translation 414—440 13.1, Introduction 7 414 13.2, Angular Velocity 2 414 19.2.1. Relation between linear velocity and angular velocity “ 44 13.3. Angular Acceleration - 415 13.3.1. Relation between linear acceleration and angular acceleration 415 13.4. Equation of Motion Along a Circular Path ~ 415 13.4.1. Equation for angular displacement (8) 416 13.4.2, Derivation of the angular displacement in terms of initial and final angular veloci “ 416 13.4.3. Relationship between rp.m. (N) and angular velocity (w) 416 Solved Problems 13.1—13.8 : 417 13.5. ‘Types of Motion 422 1. Motion of translation 422 135.2. Motion of rotation a 423, 13.5.3. Combined motion of translation and rotation 423, Solved Problem 13.9 anaChap. 14, 1b. (xiv) Pages 13.6. Analysis of Retiprocating Engine Mechanism 425 Solved Problems 13.10—13.11 az9 13.7. Analysis of Four Bar Mechanism. 434 Solved Problems 13.12—13.13 435 Highlights 438, Exercise 13 439 Projectiles 441470 14.1. Introduction 441 14.2. Terms Used with the Projectiles 441 14.2.1. Velocity of projection 41 14.2.2. Angle of projection 441 14.2.3. Times of flight 441 14.2.4. Horizontal range 441 14.3. Equation For tho Path of a Projectile a1 14.3.1. Maximum height attained by projectile 442 . Time of flight 443 Horizontal range of projectile (R) 443 Value of angle of projection (~) for maximum horizontal range 443 Time to reach the highest point 443 Solved Problems 14.1—14.11 444 14.4, Motion of a Body Thrown Horizontally from a Given Height into the Air 454 Solved Problems 14.12—14.17 455, 14.5. Projectile on an Inclined Plane 460 14.5.1. ‘Time of flight 461 14.5.2. Range on inclined plane 461 14.5.3. Projectile down the inclined plane 462 Solved Problems 14.18—14.21 463 Highlights 467 Exercise 14 468 Laws of Motion ATI—543 15.1 Introduction Newton'w Lawa for Linear Motion 15.3. Definition: 163.1. Mi 15.3.2, Woight 15.3.3. Momentum 15.4__Newton’s First Law of Motion 15.5. Newton's Second Law of Motion 15.8. Units of Fore Solved Problems 15.1—15.10 15.7. Motion on an Inclined Smooth Surface 15.8. Motion on an Inclined Rough Surface Solved Probloms 15.11—16.15 15.9. Analysis of Lift Motion Solved Problems 15.16—15.20 481 488 489(xv) Chap. Pages 15.10. Analysis of the Motion of Two Bodies Connected by a String 493 Solved Problems 15.21—15.25 494 15.11. Analysis of the Motion of Two Bodies Connected by a String When One Body is Lying on a Horizontal Surface and Other is Hanging Free 499 15.11.1. The horizontal surface is smooth and string is passing over a smooth pulley 499 15.11.2. The horizontal surface is rough and the string is passing over a smooth pulley 501 Solved Problems 15.26—16.29 502 15.1.3. The horizontal surface is rough and the string passes over a rough surface 504 Solved Problem 15.30 505 15.12. Analysis of the Motion of Two Bodies Connected by a String When One Body is Lying on Inclined Plane and the Other is Hanging Free in Air 506 15.12.1. First case when the inclined surface is smooth 506 15.12.2. Second case when the inclined surface is rough 508 Solved Problems 15.81—15.32 509 15.13. Momentum and Angular Momentum (or moment of momentum) Bul 15.13.1. Momentum ll 15.13.2. Momentum of momentum or angular momentum 511 15.14. Moment of Inertia of a Cireular Section siz 16.15. Radius of Gyration (K) 54 Solved Problems 15.33—15.34 515 15.16. Laws for Rotary Motion 516 15.17. Kinetic Energy Due to Rotation B17 15.18. Total Kinetic Energy of a Body 518, Solved Problems 15.35—15.38 518 15.19. Rotation Due to a Weight W Attached to One End of a String Passing Over a Pulley of Weight Wo 521 Solved Problem 15.39 22 15.20. Rotation duc to Weights Attachod to the Two Ends of a String, which Passes Over a Rough Pulley of Weight Wo 523 Solved Problems 15.40—15.42 525 15.21. D' Alembret’s Principle Applicable to Plane Motion 530 Solved Problem 15.43 532 15.22, D’ Alembret’s Principle Applicable to Rotary Motion 533 Highlights 536 Exercise 15 539 16._ Simple Harmonic Motion and Mechanical Vibrations 544-579 16.1, Introduction 544 16.2, Definitions of Some Terms Used with SM. 547 Solved Problems 16.1—16.9 5aT 16.3. Oscillation of the Bodies Having Simple Harmonic Motion 556 16.3.1. Oscillation of a vertical elastic string or spring Solved Problems 16.10—16.17(xvi) Chap. Pages 16.3.2, Oscillations of a simple pendulum a 566 Solved Problems 16.18—1619 16.4, Gain or Loss of Oscillations Due te Change ing or 1 for a Pendulum. 567 ‘Solved Problems 16.20—16.21 568 16.5._EreeVibration 16.5.1. The longitudinal vibrations i 569 16.5.2. The transverse vibration = 570 16.5.3. The torsional vibrations : 570 Solved Problems 16.22—16.25 B71 Highlights 576 Exercise 16 a 577 >. Gattatin of Bastia Bods 530608 1L.1._Introduction 2 580 12.2. Some Definition i 580 17.2.1. Time of compression 580 23 isi 580 17.3._‘Types of Impacts s 580 17.3.1. Direct impact of two bodies 680 17.3.2. Indirect impact of two bodies a 581 6 ic itution 583 ‘Solved Probleme 17.1—17.7 54 17.5. Loss of Kinetic Bnergy During Impact . 592 Solved Problems 178—=1712 sO? 17.6,_Impact of a Body on a Fixed Plane 597 17.7. Direct impact of a body on a fixed plane 597 Solved Problems 17.13—17.15 “ 598 17.8. Indirect Impact of a Body on a Fixed Plane 600 Solved Problems 17.16—-17.17 “ 600 ‘Highlights e 602 Exercise 17 yee 603 18,__ Work, Power and Energy 608—637 8. Introduction ce 606 18.2. Work ~ 606 1BB._UnitsofWork 0 Solved Problems 18.1—18.7 ~ 607 18.4. Power 610 Solved Problems 18.8—18.11 610 18.5. Work Done By a Torque o 614 18.6. Power Developed by a Torque 614 Solved Problems 18.12—18.13, 614 18.7. Energy 615 18. Mechanical Energy = 615 18.8.1. Potential energy 615(xvii) Chap. Pages 18.5.2. Kinetic energy 615 18.8.3. Work done is equal to change of kinetic energy 616 Solved Problems 18.14—18.15 . 617 18.9. Law of Conservation of Energy . 618 Solved Problems 18.16—i8.g1 00a 18.10. Energy Lost By a Body Falling on Another Body and to Calculate the Resistance Offered the Ground “ 626 Solved Problems 18.22—18.28 627 Highlights 635 Exercise 18 $5 635 12. Forces in Space 19.1, Introducti 19. Notation of a Vector 19.2.1, Magnitude of a vector 19.2.2. Multiplication of a vector by a scalar 19.3. Components of a Force 638 19.4. Unit Vector 639 19.5. Components of a Foree When Two Points on its Line of Actions are Given... 640 19.6. Position Vector of a Given Point 640 Solved Problems 19.1—19.5 7 640 19.7. Important Vector Operations we 646 19.7.1. Vector addition: 646 197.2. Dot product oo 646 197.8. Cross product or vector product 647 Solved Problems 19.6—19.10 647 198 Moment ofa Force 650 Solved Problems 19.11—19.15 3 650 Subject Index 658PARTI STATICS1 Fundamentals of Engineering Mechanics 1.1. INTRODUCTION Engineering mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behaviour of a body when the body is at rest or in motion. The engineering mechanics may be divided into Statics and Dynamics. The branch of science, which deals with the study of a body when the body is at rest, is known as Statics while the branch of science which deals with the study of a body when the body is in motion, is known as Dynamics. Dynamics is further divided into kinematics and kinetics. The study of a body in motion, when the forces which cause the motion are not considered, is called kinematics andif the forces are also considered for the body in motion, that branch of science is called kinetics. The classification of Engineering Mechanics are shown in Fig. 1.1 below. ENGINEERING MECHANICS 1. Statics 2. Dynamics (Body is at rest) (Body is in motion) (@Kinematies (i Kinetics Fig 1.1 Note. Ststics deals with equilibrium of bodies at rest, whereas dynamics deals with the motion of bodies and the forces that cause them. 1.2. DEFINITIONS 1.2.1. Vector Quantity. A quantity which is completely specified by magnitude and direction, is known as avector quantity. Some examples of vector quantities are : velocity, acceleration, force and momentum. A. vector quantity is represented by means of a straight line with an arrow as shown in Fig. 1.2. The length of the straight line (ie. AB) represents the magnitude and arrow represents the direction of the vector. The symbol AB also A B represents this vector, which means it is acting from A to B. Fig. 1.2. Vector Quantity. 1.2.2. Scalar Quantity. A quantity, which is completely specified by magnitude only, is known as a scalar quantity, Some examples of scalar quantity are : mass, length, time and temperature, 1.2.3. A Particle. A particle is a body of infinitely small volume (or a particle is a body of negligible dimensions) and the mass of the particle is considered to be concentrated at a point. Hence a particle is assumed to a point and the mass of the particle is concentrated at this point. 1.2.4, Law of Parallelogram of Forces, The law of parallelogram of forces is used to determine the resultant* of two forces acting at a point in a plane. It states, “If two forces, acting at a point be represented “The resultant ofa system of forces may be defined a5 a single force which has the same effect es system of forces acting on the body. 12 ENGINEERING MECHANICS in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point””. Let two forces P and Q act at a point O as shows Fig. 1.3. The force P is represented in magnitude and direction by OA whereas the force Q is presented in magnitude and direction by OB. Let the angle between the two forces be ‘cx’. The resultant of these two forces will be obtained in magnitude and direction by the diagonal (passing through O) of the parallelogram of which OA and OB are two adjacent sides. Hence draw the parallelogram with OA and OB as adjacent sides as shown in Fig. 1.4. The resultant R is represented by OC in magnitude and direction. Fig. 13 Fig. 14 Magnitude of Resultant (R) and and From C draw CD perpendicular to OA produced. Let Angle between two forces P and Q = ZAOB Now LA0B (Corresponding angles) AC= In triangle ACD, AD cD In triangle OCD, OC? = OD? + DC’. But OC =R, OD = 0A +AD= P+ Qcosa DC =Qsina. (P + cos a)’ + (Q sin a)” = P? + Q? cos” a + 2PQ cos a + Q” sin? a =P +Q (cos a+ sin” a) + 2PQ cos. =P*+0'+2PQcosa (cos? a + sin? = 1) * R=VP- +0? +2PQ cosa on LD) Equation (1) gives the magnitude of resultant force R. Direction of Resultant Let @ = Angie made by resultant with OA. Then from triangle OCD, tano -£2..Qsina “OD ~ P+Qcos a eur’ (Ftoees) P+Qosa (1.2)FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS: 3 Equation (1.2) gives the direction of resultant (R). The direction of resultant can also be obtained by using sine rule [In triangle OAG, OA =P, AC = Q, OC = R, angle OAC = (180— a), angle ACO = 180 — [8 + 180 -a] =(a-8)] AC sin _ sin(180- a) _ sin (a-6) Q R “PRP ‘Two cases are important. Fig. 14 (a) Ist Case. If the two forces P and Q act at right angles, then a= 90° From equation (1.1), we get the magnitude of resultant as R=VP* + Q*+2PQ cosa = VP* + Q* + 2PQ cos 90° =VP +g (cos 90° =0) ...(1.2A) From equation (1.2), the direction of resultant is obtained as ona err _sin (180 a) _ sin (a- 0) oc ‘OA =a! (oot } sin 90° = 1 and cos 90° = 0) P+Qcos 90° 2nd Case. The two forces P and Q are equal and are acting at an angle « between them. Then the ‘magnitude and direction of resultant is given as ReVPs Q's PQ cosa = VP +P + OP x Px cos = V2P* + 2P* cos a = V2P?(1 + cos a) I+emsan 2001S) -V zo = V 2P? x2 cos’ z 5 =V 4P cos? 5 = 2P cos $ 13) or P=Q) = tant ( —2sina_\ _ ay _Psina _ ‘a a Onta (atgena| 0" P+Poosa ts hag tan! —P Sin sagt Sin P(1+cosa) 1+cosa a a 2sin “cos at ES @ dent $ i sin stan gt (tn 14) cos 24 ENGINEERING MECHANICS It is not necessary that one of two forces, should be along x-axis. The forces P and Q may be in any direction as shown in Fig. 1.5. If the angle between the two forces is ‘a’, then their resultant will be given by equation (1.1). The direction of the resultant would be obtained from equation (1.2), But angle @ willbe the angle made by resultant with the direction of P. 1.2.5. Law of Triangle of Forces, It states that, “if three forces acting at a point be represented in magnitude and direction by the three sides of a triangle, taken in order, they will be in equilibrium.”” Fig. 15 1.2.6. Lami’s Theorem. It states that, “If there forces acting at a point are in eq will be proportional to thesine of the angle between the other two forces.”” ‘Suppose the three forces P, Q and R are acting at a point Q and they are in equilibrium as shown in Fig. 16. Let a= Angle between force P and Q. B= Angle between force Q and R. = Angle between force R and P. Then according to Lami’s theorem, P asine of angle between Q and R asin B. ibrium, each force Fig. 16 Pe conatnt 2 sin Similarly ~2--= constant and —"— = constant any ana or Pg @ Rk . sin“ siny~ sina Proof of Lami’s Theorem. The three forces acting on a point, are in equilibrium and hence they can be represented by the three sides of the triangle take the same order. Now draw the force triangle as shown in Fig. 1.6 (a). Now applying sine rule, we get * P a (180 (180-7) This can also be written oP Rk sin “siny ~ sina Fig. 1.6 (a) This is same equation as equation (1.5). ‘Nate. All the three forces should be acting either towards the point or away from the point.FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS 5 1.3, SYSTEM OF UNITS The following system of units arc mostly used : 1, C.GS. (ie., Centimetre-Gram Second) system of units. 2. M.KS. (Le., Metre-Kilogram-Second) system of units. 3. S.L (ce, International) system of units. 1.3.1 CG.S. System of Units. In this system, length is expressed in centimetre, mass in gram and time in second. The unit of force in this system is dyne, which is defined as the force acting on a mass of one gram and producing an acceleration of one centimetre per second square. 1.3.2. M.K.S. System of Units. In thissystem, length is expressed in metre, mass in kilogram and time in second. The unit of force in this system is expressed as kilogram force and is represented as kgf. 1.3.3. §.L. System of Units. SL is abbreviation for ‘The System International Units’. It is also called the International System of Units. In this system length is expressed in metre mass in kilogram and time in second. The unit of force in this system is Newton and is represented N. Newton is the force acting on a mass of one kilogram and producing an acceleration of one metre per second square. The relation between newton (N) and dyne is obtained as ‘One Newton = One kilogram mass x — = 1000 gmx = (C2 one kg = 1000 gm) = 1000 x 100 x & em # = 10° dyne dyne = Bom | ‘When the magnitude of forces is very large, then the unit of force like kilo-newton and mega-newton is used. Kilo-newton is represented by KN. ‘One kilo-newton = 10° newton or 1KN= 10°N and One mega newton = 10° Newton ‘The large quantities are represented by kilo, mega, giga and terra. They stand for : Kilo = 10° and represented by .. Mega = 10° and represented by .. Giga = 10” and represented by ‘Tera = 10)? and represented by ....... ‘Thus mega newton means 10° newton and is represented by MN. Similarly, giga newton means 10” N and is represented by GN. The symbol TN stands for 10 N. ‘The small quantities are represented by milli, micro, nano and pico. They are equal to Milli = 107 and represented by Micro = 10~ and represented by Nano = 10° and represented by sn. Pico = 10"? and represented by .......p. ‘Thus milli newton means 10 newton and is represented by mN. Micro newton means 10“ N and is represented by tN. ‘The relation between kilogram force (kgf) and newton (N) is given by One kgf = 9.81 N6 ENGINEERING MECHANICS Weight of a body isthe force with which the body is attracted towards earth. If W = weight of a body, m= mass in kg, then W= m x g Newtons If mass, m of the body is 1 kg, then its weight will be, m s 1.4. TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAE AND EXPRESSIONS ‘The following are the trigonometric formulae in a right-angled triangle ABC of We= 1 (kg) x9.81 = 981N. i) sin = AE ii AB (sin 0 = 3G (cos = Fe é , AC (ii) wn 0 =F (iv) sin (A +B) = sin A cos B + cos sin B (v) sin (A —B) = sin A cos B—cosA sin B (vi) cos (A +B) = 00s A cos B-sin A sin B (ii) ens (A — B) = cos A cos B +sin A sin B tan A+ tan B (x) sin 24 =2 sin A cosA Fig. 17 (xi) sin* 0 +008" @ = 1. 1.5, DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION 1.5.1, Differentiations, (i) Differentiation of a quantity (say A) with respect to x is written as d da Ere (9 Ee aa8 2 eyent-! and Ley (ii) £ e+ 5124 (8+ 5) x8 @) 2 (4) = 0 as differentiation of constant is zero. a ay, du ‘ (0) fuv)au. Sav. SE [when w and v are functions of x] (vi) Differentiation of trigonometrical functions Linx) = 00 d . 3, (608.2) =—sinx Leann = sec” x,FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS 7 1.5.2. Integrations. (i) Integration of a quantity (say A) with respect to x is written as [ Adx. 1 w@ Pare (if) fade = 4x r 4 pe (+5)! Go fers) dem (641) x8 Problem L.1. Two forces of magnitude 10 N and 8 N are acting at a point. If the angle between the two forces is 60°, determine the magnitude of the resultant force. Sol. Given : Force P=10N Force Q=8N Angle between the two forces, ot = 60° ‘The magnitude of the resultant force (R) is given by equation (1.1) R=VP* +? + 2PQ cosa = VIO? + 8+ 2 x 10 x8 x cos 60° = V100 + 6442% 10x8x1 Co c0s 60° = = VI00 + 64 +80 = V244 = 15.62 N. Ans. Problem 1.2. Two equal forces are acting at a point with an angle of 60° between them. If the resultant force is equal to 20 x V3 N, find magnitude of each force. Sol. Given: Angle between the force, a = 60° Resultant, R= 20xv3 ‘The forces are equal. Let P is the magnitude of each force. Using equation (1.3), we have 2 R=2PeosS ot 0x5 = 2P xene( SY) zr ens 30" = 2B a Pet (: cos 30° = 20xvo P= Ty = 20N. . Magnitude of each force = 20 N. Ans. Problem 1.3. The resultant of the two forces, when they act at an angle of 60° is 14 N. If the same forces are acting at right angles, their resultant is VI36 N. Determine the magnitude of the two forces. Sol. Given: Case I Resultant, R,=14N Angle, a =60° ‘Case IT Resultant, Ry =V136 N Angle, 2 =90° Let the magnitude of the two forces are P and Q. Using equation (1.1) for case I. R=VP+Q'+2PQ cosa or 14 = VPP+ + 2PQ x cos 6° = VP? + O*+ 2PQxt or 14=VP74 04 PO .or or or ENGINEERING MECHANICS Squaring, 196 = P+ 0? + PO. wi) Using equation (1.2 A) for case II, R=VP 4 or VI36=VP'+ 0 136 = P?+Q? (Squaring both sides) ...(ii) Subtracting equation (if) from equation (i), we get 196 - 136 = P? + 0? + PQ-(P? +") 60=PQ Adil) Multiplying the above equation by two, we get 120 = 2PQ iv) Adding equation (iv) to equation (ii), we get 136 + 120 = P? + Q? + 2PQ 256 = P?+07+2PQ or (16)*=(P+Q)* 16=P+Q o P=(16-Q) -() Substituting the value of P in equation (ii), we get 60 =(16-Q)xQ= 169-2 or Q-169+60=0 is a quadratic equation. 62 V(-167-4%60 16 and 10 and 6. Substituting the value of Q in equation (v), we get P = (16-10) or (16-6) = 6 oF 10. 2 Henee the two forces are 10 N and 6 N. Ans. Problem 14. Two forces are acting at a point O as shown in Fig. 1.8. Determine the resultant in magnitude and direction. Qywioon Fig. 1.8 Fig. 1.9 Sol. Given : Force P=50N, Force Q = 100N Angle between the two forces, « = 30° The magnitude of the resultant R is given by equation (1.1) as R=VP*4Q?+ 2PQ cosa = V50" + 100? +2 x 50 x 100 x cos 30° = VIS500 + T0000 + 8660 = VZTTOO = 145.46 N. Ans.FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS 9 The resultant R is shown in Fig. 1.9. ‘The angle made by the resultant with the direction of P is given by equation (1.2) as tan = 100 x sin 30° r ee 30 + 100 cos 30° = tan”! 0.366 = 20.10" ©. Angle made by resultant with x-axis = @ + 15° = 20.10+ 15 =35.10°. Ans. Problem 1.5. The resultant of two concurrent forces is 1500 Nand the angle between the forces is 90". The resultant makes an angle of 36° with one of the force. Find the magnitude of each force. Sol. Given: Resultant, R = 1500 N Angle between the forces, cx = 90° Angle made by resultant with one force, @ = 36° Let P and Q are two forces. Qsina P+Qcosa «@sin9___Qxi_ _@ =@2 or tan 36 ee "Peoxo po OTH=E or Q=0.726P 0) Using equation (1.1), R= VP?+ 0? + 2PQcosa or R=P+0'+2PQcsa or 1500? = P? + (0.726P}? + 2P(0.726P) x cos 90° “= 0.726P) 1500? = P° + 0.527P? +0 (2 ©0890" = 0) =1527P° Using equation (1.2), tan @ = 1500? _ 1500 1527 "12357" 1213.86 N Substituting the value of P in equation (i), we get Q = 0.726 x 1213.86 = 881.26 N. Ans. Alternate Method. Refer to Fig. 1.9 (a). Consider triangle OAC. Using sine rule, we get sin 90° _ sin 36° _ sin 54° R ~ @ P in 90° _ sin 36° R Q Rsin 36° o On 90" = So = 881.67 N. Ans. sin 90° _ sin 54° 8 c or (where R = 1500 N) Also, we have = Bi Fig. 1.9 (@) Resin 54° _ 1500 x 0.8090 “sin 90° 1 = 1213.52 N. Ans.10 ENGINEERING MECHANICS Problem 1.6. The sum of two concurrent forces P and Q is 270 N and their resultant is 180 N. The angle bewween the force P and resultant R is 90°. Find the magnitude of each force and angle between them. Sol. Given : Sum of two concurrent forces =270N or P+Q=270N Resultant, R= 180N Angle between force P and resultant R = 90° This means = 90° Find : () Magnitude of P and Q (i) Angle between P and Q (i.e. angle «) sina Using equation (1.2), tan @ = pees tan oo? = = 28in + Qcosa ® (i., infinity). This is only possible when P + Q cos 1 = 0 we P=-Qeosa AD) “The above result can also be obtained by using alternate method But tan 90° B c hig. 190) Alternate Method. Refer to Fig. 1.9 (6). Consider triangle OAC in which @ = 90°, ZAC 180 -a, LACO = 0-8 = 0-90" or Using sine rule, we get sin 90° _ sin (180-a) _ sin (a - 90} RP Q From first and last terms, we en = fine=90) oe [+ sin (a - 90) = sin [- (90 -a)] = -sin (90- a) =~ cos a] P=-Qcosa ‘This is the same result as given by equation (i) above. Using equation (1.1), R=VP*+Q?+2PQ cosa ‘Squaring to both sides, we get R = P? + Q? + 2PQcosa = P+ Q?+2P(-P) (From equation (i), Q cos a = - P)FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS " =P? +O? 2p? = Q?- P= (0+ PKQ-—P) or 180? = 270 (Q- P) (2 R= 180,Q+ P= 270) 32400 = 270 ~P) 32400 270 But P+ Q=270(given) Adding the above two equations, we get 20 = 270 + 120 = 390 es Q=195N. Ans, and P=270-Q Value of angle a Substituting the vatues of Pand Q in equation (i), =120 170 - 195 = 75 N. Ans. P=-Qoosa or 75=-1%5 cosa or cosa 1 = cos (- 0.3846) = 112.618", Ans. Problem 1.7. A weight of 1000 N is supported by two chains as shown in Fig. 1.10. Determine the tension in each chain. Sol. Given : Weight at C = 1000 N CAB = 30° CBA = 60° ACB = 90° In right-angled triangle ADC, ZACD = 90° — 30° = 60" In right-angled triangle BDC, BCD = 90° — 60° = 30° LACE = 180° — 60° = 120° ZBCE * 180° — 30° = 150° ‘Tension in chain No. 1 ‘Tension in chain No. 2, 0.3846 195 Fig. 1.11or ENGINEERING MECHANICS Applying Lami’s theorem at point C (Refer Fig. 1.11). qh tT __1000 sin 150° ~ sin 120° ~ sin 90° Le sin 150° ~ sin 120° # Tz = 1000 sin 150° = 1000 x 5 = 500 N. Ans. and Tz = 1000 sin 120° = 1000 x 866 = 866 N. Ans. Problem 1.8.4 weight of 900.N is supported by two chains of lengths 4 m and 3 m as shown in Fig. 1.12. Determine the tension in each chain. Sol. Given : Weight at C = 900 N = 1000 (2 sin 90°= 1) Length, AC=4m Length, BC=3m Length, AB=3m In triangle ABC, AC? + BC? = 4? +3? = 164925 AB’ = 5? =25 AB? = AC* + BC? ‘Triangle ABC isa right-angled triangle in which LACB = 90° + BC _3 sina 22S 6 ABS @=36°52' and a+f & B= 90? - a= 90° — (36° 52 Let 7, = Tension in chain AC T;= Tension in chain BC In right-angled triangle ADC, 6, = 90°— a= 90° — 36° 52' = 53° 8° In right-angled triangle BDC, 0, = 90° — f= 90° 53° 8’ = 36° 52" LACE = 180° — 8, ~ 180° —53° 8" = 126° 52’ LBCE = 180° 8, = 180° —36° 52’ = 143°8' and LACB = 90°. Applying Lami’s theorem at C or (2 sin 90° = 1) T, = 900 x sin 143° 8 = 900 x 597 = $37.44 N. Ans. Tz = 900 x sin 126° 52' = 720 N. Ans. Problem 1.9. An electric light fixture weighing 15 N hangs from a point C, by two strings AC and BC. AC is inclined at 60° to the horizontal and BC at 45° to the vertical as shown in Fig. 1.13. Using Lami’s theorem or otherwise determine the forces in the strings AC and BC. (AMIE Summer, 1975)FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS 3 Sol. Given : Weight at C=15N LOAC = 60° LCBD = 45° Let 1, = Force in string BC Ty = Force in string AC Ist Method Using Lami’s theorem at C 15, sin of ZBCA qT Tr sinof LACE sinof LACE But LBCA = 45° + 30° = 75° LACE = 180° — 30° = 150° 2BCE = 180° ~ 45° = 135° 15__ sin 75° 15 x sin 150° 1S TIGN, Ans. and 1 = 15 xin 135° _ 1098.N. Ans, 2nd Method ‘The point C is in the equilibrium. The forces acting at C are 15 N,7, and 7. Resolving all forces at C in the horizontal direction T, sin 45° =Tysin 30° or 7; “e het, xRevxr, Ai) Resolving all forces at C in the vertical direction, T, cos 45° + Tz cos 30° = 15 or 7, xfdine tess ii) Substituting the value of 7 from equation (i) into equation (ii), Tix gervEen 7 Ry a 2 ° 2 Exe VE or T,+V3T,=15xVZ or 7,(14+V3)=15xV2 15 x v2 7 = S22 27.760, Ans. ‘Substituting this value of 7; in equation (9, we get T,=VZ x Ty =VZ x 7.76 = 10.98 N. Ans.4 ENGINEERING MECHANICS, 1.6, RESOLUTION OF A FORCE Resolution of a force means “finding the components tions.”" of a given force in two given di Let a given force be R which makes an angle @ with X-axis as shown in Fig. 1.14. It is required to find the com- ponents of the force R along X-axis and Y-axis. Components of R along X-axis = R cos 8, Component of Ralong Y-axis =R sin @. ° woe e i: Hence, the resolution of forces is the process of find- ing components of forces in specified directions. Fig. 1.14 1.7. RESOLUTION OF A NUMBER OF COPLANAR FORCES Let a number of coplanar forces (forces acting in one plane are called co-planar forces) Ry, Ra, Roy --- are acting at a point as shown in Fig. 1.15. Let 0, = Angle made by Ry with X-axis 63 = Angle made by Ro with X-axis, 05 = Angle made by Ra with X-axis, H = Resultant component of all forces along X-axis V = Resultant component of alll forces along Y-axis R = Resultant of all forces 8 = Angie made by resultant with X-axis. Each force can be resolved into two components, one along X-axis and other along Y-axis. ‘Component of R, along X-axis = R; cos 0 Fig. 115 Component of R; along Y-axis = Ry sin . Similarly, the components of Ry and Ry along X-axis and Y-axis are (R; cos 62, Ro sin @;) and (Ry cos ,, Ra sin @2) respectively. Resultant components along X-axis = Sum of components of all forces along X-axis. H=R, cos 0, +Rzcos 02 + Ry cos 03 + Resultant component along ¥-axi = Sum of components of all forces along Y-axis. V=R, sin 6, + Rp sin @ + Ry sin + .. ‘Then resultant of all the forces, R = VH? + V ‘The angle made by R with X-axis is given by, tan 0= 7 Problem 1.10. Two forces are acting at a point O as shown in Fig. 1.16, Determine the resultant in magnitude and direction. Sol. The above problem has been solved earlier. Hence it will be solved by resolution of forces. Force P=SON and force Q = 100 N. Lot us first find the angles made by each force with X-axis.FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS 15 ‘Angle made by P with x-axis = 15° Angle made by Q with x-axis = 15 + 30 = 45° Let _H = Sum of components of all forces along X-axis. um of components of all forces along Y-axis. ‘The sum of components of all forces along X-axis is given by, H = P cos 15° + Q cos 45° = 50 x cos 15° + 100 cos 45° = 119N ‘The sum of components of all forces along Y-axisis given by, V=Psin 15° + Q sin 45° 0 sin 15° + 100 sin 45° = 83.64 N “The magnitude of the resultant force is given by equation (1.8), R=VH?+ VV =V119" + 83.64 = 145.46 N. Ans. ‘The direction of the resultant force is given by equation (1.9), tan @= tan Sete 35,10". Ans. Here @ is the angle made by resultant R with x-axis, Problem 1.11. Three forces of magnitude 40 kN, 15 KN and 20KN are acting at a point O as shown in Fig, 1.17, The angles made by 40 KN, 15 kN and 20 kN forces with X-axis are 60°, 120° and 240° respectively. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force, Sol. Given : R, = 1OKN, 8, Ra = 15 KN, 8)= Ry =20KN, 83 The sum of components of all forces along X-axis is given by efuation (1.6) as H =Rj cos @, + R2 cos 0; +R cos 03 = 40 x cos 60° + 15 x cos 120° +20 x cos 240° 340 x34 15x C1) +20x-) =20-75~10=2.5kN. ‘The resultant component along Y-axis is given by equation (1.7) as V=R; sin @, +Rzsin @ + Ry sin Q = 40 x sin (60°) + 15 x sin (120°) + 20 x sin (240°) 3 ois ¥E (2) 5 2404S +15 x75 + 20x| => = 20 x V3 + 7.5 x V3 —10 x V3 = 17.5 x V3 KN = 30.31 KN. ‘The magnitude of the resultant force is given by equation (1.8) R=Vit +? = V2.5? + 30.31? = 30.41 KN. Ans. ‘The direction of the resultant force is given by equation (1.9) = 12.124 = tan 85.28" 0 =85.28° or 85° 16.8. Ans,16 ENGINEERING MECHANICS Problem 1.12. Four forces of magnitude 10 kN , 15 kN, 20 kN and 40 kN are acting at a point O us shown in Fig. 1.18, The angles made by 10 N, 15 kN, 20 kN and 40 kN with X-axis are 30°, 60°, 90° and 120° respectively, Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force. Sol, Given : Ry = 10 KN and 0, = 30° Ry= 15 KN and 0) = 60° Ry= 20 KN and 8; = 90° Rq= 40 KN and @, = 120° ‘The resultant components along X-axis is given by (1.6) as H = R, cos 0) + Ra cos 8, + Ry cos 6s + Ry cos 8 = 10 x c08 30° + 15 cos 60° +20 cos 90° +40 cos 120° Fig 118 = 10x +150} +20%0+40%(-5] {5 c0s90°= 0 and cos 120° = Sx V3 +7.5~20 = 8.66 + 7.5 —2 3.84 kN, Negative sign means that H is acting slong OX" as shown in Fig. 1.19. ‘The resultant component along Y-axis is given by equation (1.7) as V= R, sin 8, + Ry sin @2 + Ry sin Os + Rysin Oy = 10 sin 30° + 15 sin 60° + 20sin 90° +40 sin 120° 1 vi v3 10x54 +20x14 10 19x75 +20x1 440% = 547.5 xV3 + 20 +20 xv5 25 427.5 x V3 = 72.63 KN. Positive sign means that V is acting along OY as shown in Fig. 1.19. The magnitude of the resultant force is given by ‘equation (1.8) as R=ViP + VV =V(-3.84)° + 72.63? = VIETES + SEIS.11T = 72.73 KN. Ans. From Fig. 1-19 it is clear that @ lies between 90° and 180°. ‘Tho angle whose tangent is 18.91° is 86.97. 0 = (180° — 86.97°) = 93.03". Ans. 1.8, MOMENT OF A FORCE The product of a force and the perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from a point is known as moment of the force about that point, P=A force acting on a body 2s shown in Fig. 120. r= Perpendicular distance between the point O and line of action of the force P.FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MEUHANICS 17 ‘The moment of the force P about O = P xr The tendency of the moment Px ris te rolate the body in the clockwise direction about 0. B00r, ‘i PONT Hence this moment is called clockwise moment. Ifthe tenden- cy of rotation is anti-clockwise, the moment is called anti-clockwise moments. 1.8.1. Units of Moment. In M.K.S. system the moment is expressed as kef m whereas in S.1. system, moment is expressed as newton metre (N m). 1.8.2. Effect of Force and Moment on a Body. The force acting on a body causes linear displacement while moment causes an angular displacement. Hence a body when acted by a number of coplanar forces will be in equilibrium if : LINE_OF ACTION Fig. 1.20 (@ Resultant component of forces along any direction is zero i, direction of x, in the direction of y and in the direction of z are zero. (@) Resultant moments of the forces about any point in the plane of the forces is zero or clockwise moment is equal to anti-clockwise moments. Note. Ifthe resultant component of forces acting on a body slong any direction is zero but the net moment of the forces ahout any point is not zero the body will not be in equilibrium. The body will have the tendency to rotate about the point. resultant component of forces in the Problem 1.13, A beam of span 10 m is carrying a point load of 200 N at a distance 4 m from A Determine the beam reactions, Sol. Given 200N Span Load at C, Distance, BC=10-4=6m = Reaction at A and Rg= Reaction at B Fig. 1.21 As the beam is in equilibrium, the clockwise moments of all forces aboul any point must be equal to anti-clockwise moments about that paint. Also the resultant force in any direction must be zero. Taking momenis aboutA, Clockwise moment = Anti-clockwise moments 200 x 4 = Ry 10 Also Ry +Ry=200N Ry = 200 - Ry = 200-80 = 120 N. Ans, Problem 1.14, Four forces of magnitudes 10 N, 20 N, 30 N and 40 N are acting respectively along the Jour sides of a square ABCD as shown in Fig. 1.22. Determine the magnitude, direction and position of the resultant force. Sol. Given : Force along AB = 10 NForce along BC =20N Force along CD =30N Force along DA =40N (0 Magnitude and direction of the resultant force ‘The net force in the horizontal direction is given as, H=10-30=-20N The net force in the vertical direction given as, V=20-40=-20N The resultant force is given by equation (1.8) as R=VHP+ B =V(- 207 + (20 = V4004+ 200 = V2x 400 =20xVZN. Ans, The ditection of the resultant force is given by equation (1.9) as tn = 1 = =38 = 45°. Since H and V are — ve, hence @ lies between 180° and 270°. Hence from Fig, 1.23, it is clear that actual = 180 + 45 = 225°. Ans. (i) Position of the resultant force The position of the resultant force is obtained by equating the clockwise moments and anti-clockwise moments about A. Let £ = Perpendicular distance between A and line of action of the resultant force and a= Side of the square ABCD. Taking moments of all forces about A, 40x 0+ 10x0+20xa+30xa =R x perpendicular distance of R from A = 20x VE xb (2 R=20%v2) or 20a + 30a = 20 x V2 «Lb or p= 50. Ans. 20 xV2 ~ 2x v2 ° The position of the resultant force is shown in Fig. 1.23 (a). 1.9, LAWS OF MECHANICS 30ND 40N ENGINEERING MECHANICS 20N 10N Fig. 1.22 23(u) ‘The following basic laws and principles are considered to be the foundation of mechanics : (@ Newton’s first and second laws of motion (ii) Newton's third lawFUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS 10 (ii) The gravitational law of attraction (iv) The parallelogram law (v) The Principle of Transmissibility of forces. 1.9.1, Newton’s First and Second Laws of Motion. Newton’s first law states, “Every body continues ina state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled to change that state by some external force actingon it.”” Newton's second law states, “The net external force acting on a body in a direction is directly proportional to the rate of change of momentum in that direction.”” 1.9.2, Newton’s Third Law. Newion’s third law states, “To every action there is always equal and ‘opposite reaction.”* Fig. 1.24 shown two bodies A and B which are placed one above the other on a horizontal surface. Here F\ = Force exerted by horizontal surface on body A (action) F, = Force exerted by body A on horizontal surface (reaction) F; = Force exerted by body A on body B (action) ~ Fy = Force exerted by body B on body A (reaction) ‘) md orate Fig. 1.24 1.9.3. The Gravitational Law of Attraction. It states that two bodies will be attracted towards each other along their connecting fine with a force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres. Refer to Fig. 1.24 (a). Let my = Mass of first body Mass of second body Distance between the centre of bodies F = Force of attraction between the bodies. Then according to the law of gravitational attraction. Foamy.m, or or (1.10) k— + —| Universal gravitational constant of proportionality. where G20 ENGINEERING MECHANICS. In equation (1.10), F is expressed in N, m, and m2 in kg and r in m. Hence dimensionally, equation (1.10) becomes as 2 NaGHBSHE ox oA any But IN= 1 hg xt or Nekgx ‘Substituting the value of N is equation (), 2? G= (tox) ge fii) Hence from equations (i) and (i), dimension of Universal Gravitational Constant G is N m#/kg? or m/kg s*. ‘The value of G is 6.67 x 10°"! N m*/kg? or m*V/kg s*. Inequation (1.10), ifmy = 1 kg, m= 1 kg and r= 1 m, then F=G. This means that the force of attraction between two bodies of mass 1 kg cach when they are at a distance of 1 m apart, will be 6.67 x 107"! Nic, 10,0000000000667 N. This force is very very small. Weight ‘The weight of a body is defined with the help of law of gravitation. Weight is defined as the force with which a body is attracted towards the centre of earth. Let M = Massof the body ‘Me= Mass of the earth = 5.9761 x 10" kg r= Distance between the centres of the earth and the body 6.371 x 10° m (ie., radius of earth) Universal gravitational constant = 6.67 x 10"! N m?/kg? = Force of attraction which is equal to weight (W) Substituting these values in equation (1.10), we get wa Mee (oF = Wyn =M, m= Mz) 67x 107! x 5.9761 x 10 (kg) x M(kg) (6.371 x 10° m) {67 x 107"! x 5.9761 x10" M Nm? Sei Oe = (9 6.371 x 10"%x m= ig? *KEx KE = 81 x N where 9.81 is acceleration due to gravity and is denoted by ‘g". WegxMorMxg GM, ‘Actually the term —= is equal to 9.81 5, which i represented by ‘g’. 1.9.4, The Parallelogram Law. This law has been already defined. It states that if two forces acting at a point be represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then th resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point.FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS 21 19.5, The Principle of Transmissibility of Forces. It siates that if a force, acting at a point on a rigid* body, is shifted to any other point which is on the line of action of the force, the external effect of the force on the body remains unchanged. FoF FSF F Fy @ o © Fig. 1.25, For example, consider a foice F acting at point O on a rigid body as shown in Fig. 1.25 (a). On this rigid body, “‘there is another point 0" ia the line of action of the force F. Suppose at this point 0’, two equal and opposite forces F, and Fz (each equal to F and collinear with F) are applied as shown in Fig. 1.25 (b). The force F and F2, being equal and opposite, will cancel cach other, leaving a force F at point O" as shown in Fig. 1.25 (c). But force F; is equal to force F. The original force F acting at point O, has been transferred to point 0’ which is along the line of action of F without changing the effect of the force on the rigid body. Hence any force acting at a point on a rigid body can be transmitted to act at any other point along its line of action without changing its effect on the rigid body. This proves the principle of transmissibility of a force. HIGHLIGHTS 1. Engineering mechanics i divided into statics and dynamics. The study of a body at rest isknown as statics whereas, the study of a body in motion is known as dynamics. 2 Aquantity which is completely specified by magnitude and di 3. A particic is a body of infinitely small volume and is considered to be concentrated at a point. 4, Lawof parallelogram of forces states that “Iftwo forces, acting ata point be represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a paralielogram, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point. 5, Iftwo forces P and Q act at a point and the angle between the two forces be ot then the resultant is given by RaVP +O? +2 PO cosa is known as vector quantily. and the angle made by the resultant withthe direction of force Pis expressed as tan 0 = 2 Sint | S e es P+Qoosa 6 the two forces P and Q ore equal and ae acting at an angle a between therm, thea the resultant is given by R= 2Peost and angle made by the resultant is expressed as ® = . | “A body which does not deforms under the action of loads or external forces is known as rigid body. Hence in case of a rigid body, the relative movement between the various points of the body are negligible orthe distance hetween ‘any two points remains the same for all the times.2 9. 10, ue 10, ML. 2 13, 14, 15, 16. ENGINEERING MECHANICS According to Lami’s theorem, “If three forces acting ata pointare equilibrium, each force will be proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two forces.”” “The relation between newton and dyne is piven by One newton = 10° dyne. Moment of a force about a point = Force x perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from that point. ‘The force causes linear displacement while moment causes angular displacement. A body will be in equilibrium if (@ resultant force in any direction is zero and (ii) the net moment of the forces about any point is zero. Gravitational law of attraction is given by, my, my = mass of bodies 1r= Distance between the bodies F = Force of attraction between the bodies. EXERCISE 1 (A) Theoretical Problems What do you mean by scalar and vector quantities ? Define the law of parallelogram of forces. What isthe use of this law ? State triangle law of forces and Lami’s theorem. ‘Two forces P and Q are acting at a point in a plane. The angle between the forces is “ct, Prove that the resultant (R) of the two forces is given by R = VP" + Q* +2PQ cosa. Define the following terms : dyne, newton, meganewion and moment of a force. Prove that one newton is equal to 10° dyne. Explain the terms : clockwise moments and an ‘What is the effect of force and moment on a body ? Indicate whether the following statement is true or false. “The resultant components ofthe forces acting on a body along aay direction is zero but the nel moment of the forces about any point is not zero, the body will be in equilibrium’, [Ans False] Write the S.1. units of : Force, moment and velocity. What do you mean by resolution of a force ? ‘A number of coplanar forces are acting at a point making different angles. resultant force. Find also the angle made by the resultant force with x-axis. State and explain the pinciple of transmissibility of forces. ‘State and explain the following laws : (9 Newton's laws of motion, (Gi) The gravitational law of attraction. Using gravitation law of attraction, prove that W = mx g. Explain fully the following terms (0 Resolved part ofa given force ina given direction. (i) Lami’s theorem. ‘moments. axis, Find an expression for the (B) Numerical Problems Determine the magnitude of the resultant of the two forces of magnitude 12 N and 9 N acting at a pointif the angle between the two forcesis 30°, [Ans. 203}FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS 23 & 3. 4 5. 10, Find the magnitude of two equal forces acting at a point with an angle of 60* between them, ifthe resultantis equal t030x V3 N. [Anns, 30 N] ‘The resultant of two forces when they act at right angles is 10 N, whereas when they act at an angie of 60° the resultants is VTA . Determine the magnitude of the two forces. [Ams. 8 N and 6 N} Three forces of magnitude 30 KN, 10kN and 15 KN are acting at a point O. The angles made by 30 KN force, TOKN force and 1SKN force with x-axis are 60°, 120° and 240° respectively. Determine the magnitude and direction Of the resultant force. [Ans. 21.79 kN, 83° 24] ‘A weight of 800 N is supported by two chains as shown in Fig. 1.26. Determine the tension in cach chain. [Ans. 273.5 N, 751.7'N] An electric light fixture weighing 20 N hangs from a point C, by two strings AC and BC. AC is inclined at 60° to the horizontal and BC at 30° to the vertical as shown in Fig. 1.27. Using Lami’s theorem or otherwise determine the forces in the strings AC and BC [Ams. 8929 N, 13.05 N] Fig. 1.26 Fig, 1.27 ‘A beam AB of span 6 m carries a point load of 100 N at a distance 2 m from A. Determine the beam reaction. (Ans. Ry = 6667 N ; Rp = 33.33 N] Fout forces of magnitudes 20 N, 30N, 40 N and SO Nare acting respectively along the four sides of asquare taken in order. Determine the magnitude, direction and position of the resultant force. Ta x 2 ‘Ans. 20 x VEN, 225°, 5g ‘Two forces magnitude 15 N and 12 N ere acting at a point. Ifthe angle between the two forces is 60°, determine the resultant of the forces in magnitude and direction. [Ams. 23.43 N, 26.3°] Four forces of magnitude P, 2P, 3 x VIP and 4P are acting at a point O. The angles made by these forces with axis are 0°, 60°, 150° and 300° respectively. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force. [Ans. P, 1200]2 Coplanar Collinear and Concurrent Forces 2.1. INTRODUCTION Coplanar forces means the forces in a plane. The word collinear stands for the forces which are having common lines of action whereas the word concurrent stands for the forces which intersect at a common point. When several forces act on a body, then they are called a force system or a system of forces. In a system in which all the forces lie in the same plane, it is known as coplanar force system. Hence this chapter deals w asystem of forces which are acting in the same plane and the forces are either having a common line of action or intersecting at a common point. 2.2, CLASSIFICATION OF A FORCE SYSTEM A force system may be coplanar or non-coplanar. If in asystem all the forces lie in the same plane then the force system is known as coplanar. But if in a system all the forces lie in different planes, then the force system is known as non-coplanar. Hence a force system is classified as shown in Fig. 2.1. Force System 1. Coplanar 2. Non-coplanar Cottincar Concurrent Parallel Non-coneurrent Non-parallel Concurrent Parallel Non-concurrent Non-paralle! Fig. 2.1 In this chapter, we shall discuss only coplanar force system, in which the forces may be (® Coltinear (i) Concurrent (iif) Parallel () Non-concurrent, non-parallel (or General system of forces). 2.2.1. Coplanar Collinear. Fig. 2.2 shows three forces F,, Fzand F,acting ina plane. These three forces are in the same fine ie., these three forces are having a common line of action. This system of forces is known as coplanar collinear force Fi Fy Fig. 2.2. Coplanar Collinear Forces. 24COPLANAR COLLINEAR AND CONCURRENT FORCES system, Hence in coplanar collinear system of forces, all the forces act in the same plane and have a common line of action. 2.2.2, Coplanar Concurrent. Fig.2.3 shows three forces F), F, and Fy acting in a plane and these forces intersect or meet at a common point Q. This system of forces is known as coplanar concurrent force system. Hence in coplanar concurrent system of forces, all the forces act in the same plane and they intersect at a common point. 2.2.3. Coplanar Parallel. Fig. 2.4 shows three forces F, F and Fy acting in a plane and these forces are parallel. This system of forces is known as coplanar paral- lel force system. Hence in coplanar parallel system of forces, all the forces act in the same plane andare parallel, 2.2.4, Coplanar Non-concurrent Non-parallel Fig. 2.5 shows four forces F), F, Fy and Fy acting in a plane. The lines of action of these forces lie in the same plane but they are neither parallel nor meet or intersect al a common point. This system of forces is known as coplanar non-concurrent non-parallel force system. Hence in coplanar non-concurrent non-parallel system of forces, all the forces act inthe same plane but the forces are neither parallel! nor meet at a common point. This force system is known as general system of forces. 2.3. RESULTANT OF SEVERAL FORCES ‘When a number of coplanar forces are acting on a * body, then these forces can be replaced by a single force which has the same effect on the rigid body as that of all the forces acting together, then this single force is known as the resultant of several forces. Hence a single force which can replace a number of forces acting on a rigid body, without causing any change in the external effects on the body, is known as the resultant force. 2.4. RESULTANT OF COPLANAR FORCES fi 3 9.3. Concurrent Coplanar Forces. Fo Fs F Fig. 2.4. Coplanar Parallel Forces. Fig. 2.5. Non-concurrent Non-parallel. ‘The resultant of coplanar forces may be determined by following two methods : 1. Graphical method 2. Analytical method. Rigid body is a body which does not deform under the action of loads or external forces. In case of rigid body, the distance between any two points of the body remains constant, when body is subjected to loads. Though all the bodies do deform to same extent under the action of loads, but in many situation, this deformation is negligible small.26 ENGINEERING MECHANICS ‘The resultant of the following coplanar forces will be determined by the above two methods : (i) Resultant of collinear coplanar forces (ii) Resultant of concurrent coplanar forces. 2.5. RESULTANT OF COLLINEAR COPLANAR FORCES ‘As defined in Art. 2.2.1, collinear coplanar forces are those forces which act in the same plane and have a common line of action. The resultant of these forces are obtained by analytical method or graphical method. 2.5.1. Analytical method. The resultant is obtained by adding all the forces if they are acting in the same direction. If any one of the forces is acting in the opposite direction, then resultant is obtained by subtracting that force. Fig. 2.6 shows three collinear coplanar forces F,,Fpand fl B F) acting on a rigid body in the same direction. Their resultant R will be sum of these forces. RaF\+Fo+Fy ee(2-1) Fig. 26 If any one of these forces (say force F2) is acting in the opposite direction, as shown in Fig, 2.7, then their resultant will be given by RaF\-FatPs (2.2) 2.5.2. Graphical Method. Some suitable scale ischosen F, and vectors are drawn to the chosen scale. These vectors are added/or subtracted to find the resultant. The resultant of the three collinear forces Fy, F2 and F3 acting in the same direction Fig.2.7 will be obtained by adding all the vectors. In Fig. 2.8, the force F, = abtosome scale, force F, =be and force F; = ed. Then the —f_,_, Fs length ad represents the magnitude of the resultant on the scale =. b c d chosen. R=Fi+Fe+Fs The resultant of the forces F;, Fz and F3 acting on a body shown in Fig, 2.7 will be obtained by subtracting the vector F. Fig. 28 “This resultant is shown in Fig. 2.9, in which the force F, = ab 10 ‘ é some suitable scale. This force is acting from ato b. "The force eeegegetpege Fy is taken equal to be on the same scale in opposite direction. a fF, b 6 This force is acting from b to c."The force Fy is taken equal to fg_R=Fi=Fr +Fs_ J cd, This force is acting from c to d. The resultant force is represented in magnitude by ad on the chosen scale, Fig.2.9 5 Problem 2.1. Three collinear horizontal forces of magnitude 200 N, 100 N and 300 N are acting on a rigid body. Determine the resultant of the forces analytically and graphically when ( all the forces are acting in the same direction, (id the force 100 N acts in the opposite direction. Sol. Given: _F, = 200N, F, = 100 N and F = 300 N (a) Analytical Method (@) When all the forces are acting in the same direction, then resultant R=F, +Fz+ F;= 200 + 100+300=600N, Ans. given by equation (2.1) asCOPLANAR COLLINEAR AND CONCURRENT FORCES 7 and (When the force 100 N acts in the opposite direction, then resultant is given by equation (2.2) as R= F, + F2+Fs = 200-1004 300=400N. Ans. (6) Graphical Method Selecta suitable scale. Suppose 100 N = 1 em. Then to this scale, we have F,=2-20m, Fy= in =1em, Fy= =3em. (8) When all the forces act in the same direction. Draw vectors ab = 2. cm to represent Fy, vector be = 1 cm to represent F2 and vector ed = 3 cm to represent F, 2s shown in Fig, 2.10. Measure vector ad which represents the resultant. By measurement length ad = 6 cm Resultant = Length ad x chosen scale ("Chosen scale is 1 cm = 100 N) =6x 100 =600N. Ans. (i When force 100 N = F), acts in the opposite direction Draw length ab = 2 cm to represent force Fy. From 6, draw be = 1 cm in the opposite direction to Fi Fs i _ ——+———»? represent F>. From c draw ed = 3.cm to represent Fy as shown in. 7" 4 Fig. 2.10(a), Measure length ad. This gives the resultant. Fig. 2.10(@) By measurement, length ad = 4cm Resultant = Length ad x chosen scale =4x100=400N, Ans. 2.6, RESULTANT OF CONCURRENT COPLANAR FORCES As defined in Art. 2.2.2, concurrent coplanar forces are those forces which act in the same plane and they intersect or meet at a common point. We will consider the following two cases : of parallelogram of fore: obtained from equation (1.1) and the direction of resultant with cone of the forces is obtained from equation (1.2). Fig. 2.11 and qcis the angle between them. Let @ is the angle made by the resultant RX with the direction of force P. (® When two forces act at a point (@ When more than two forces act at a point. 2.6.1. When two forces act at a point (a) Analytical Method {n Art. 1.2.4, we have mentioned that when two forces act at a point, their resultant is found by the law . The magnitude of resultant is Suppose two forces P and Q act at point O as shown in Forces P and Q form two sides of a parallelogram and according to the law, the diagonal through the point O gives . the resultant R as shown, Fig 2.1128 ENGINEERING MECHANICS ‘The magnitude* of resultant is given by R=VP?+ 0? +2PQ cosa The above method of determining the resultant is also known as the cosine law method. The direction” of the resultant with the force P is given by awn ( —Qsina__ } P+Qcosa (b) Graphical Method (@ Choosea convenient scale to represent the forces P and e. (ii From point O, draw a vector Oa = P. (iii) Now from point O, draw another vector Ob = Q and at an angle of a as shown in Fig.2.12. (iv) Complete the parallelogram by drawing lines ac | to Ob and be || 0 Oa. (+) Measure the length OC. Fig. 2.12 Then resultant R will beequal to length OC x chosea scale. (vi) Also measure the angle 0, which will give the direction of resultant. The resultant can also be determine graphically by drawing a triangle oac as explained below and shown in Fig. 2.13. (0 Draw a tine oa parallel to P and equal to P. (@ From a, draw a vector ac at an angle a with the horizontal and cut ac equal to Q. (ii) Join oc. Then oc represents the magnitude and direction of resultant R. Magnitude of resultant R = Length OC x chosen scale. ‘The direction of resultant is given by angle ®. Hence measure the angle 0. 2.6.2. When more than two forces act ata point (a) Analytical Method The resultant of three or more forces acting at a point is found analytically by amethod which is known as rectangular components methods (Referto Art. 1.7). According to this method all the forces acting at a point are resolved into horizontaland vertical components and then algebraic summation*® of horizontal and vertical components is done separately. The summation of horizontal component is written as EH and that of vertical as BV. Then resultant Ris given by »R=V(SH)P + (2VP . ‘The angle made by the resultant with horizontal is given by a tmo= 2 cH) + Let four forces F, Fp Fy and Fact at a point O as shown in Fig, 2.14. Fig. 2.13, *Refer Art. 1.24, forthe derivation of magnitude and direction of resultant on page 1 **Summation means addition. Algebraic summation of horizontal components means that if all the horizontat components are in the same direction then they are added. But ifone horizontal component jon then it is subtracted.COPLANAR COLLINEAR AND CONCURRENT FORCES @ s io 0) Se hg. 244@) Fig. 2.14 (6) Fig. 2.14 (€) Fig.2.14 (d) ination of the forces is indicated with respect to horizontal direction. Let 8, = Inclination of force F, with OX inclination of force F3 with OX’ 83 = Inclination of force F; with OX’ 04 = Inclination of force Fy with OX. ‘The force Fis resolved into horizontal and vertical components and these components are shown in Fig. 2.14 (a), Similarly, Fig, 2.14 (2), (¢) and (d) shows the horizontal and vertical components of forces F2, Fy and F, respectively. The various horizontal components are : F cos 8 > (4) F005 = (-) Fycos F,,cos 84 > (+) Summation or algebraic sum of horizontal components : EH = F) cos 0;— F; cos 0~ Fy cos 03+ Fy cos Os Similarly, various vertical components of all forces are : Fy sin 8, t (+) Fy sin 8) t (+) Fysin 8 | () Fysin |) ‘Summation or algebraic sum of vertical components : EV = Fi sin 0; + Fy sin 02— Fy sin 03— Fy sin 0530 ENGINEERING MECHANICS ‘Then the resultant will be given by R= V(EH)* + (ZV) (2.1) ‘And the angle (8) made by resultant with x-axis is given by tan @= on (2.2) (b) Graphical method ‘The resultant of several forces acting at a point is found graphically with the help of the polygon law of forces, which may be stated as “Ifa number of coplanar forces are acting at a point such that they can be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon taken in the same order, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the closing side of the polygon taken in the opposite order. Let the four forces Fy, F2, F; and Fy act at a point O as shown in Fig. 2.15. The resultant is obtained graphically by drawing polygon of forces as explained below and shown in Fig. 2.15 (a). Fe Fi RESULTANT Fig.2.15 Fig. 2.15(@) (@ Choose a suitable scale to represent the given forces. (ii) Take any point a. From a, draw vector ab parallel to OF ;. Cut ab = force F; to the scale. (iii) From point b, draw bc parallel to OF >. Cut be = force Fy. (iv) From point C, draw cd parallel to OF , Cut cd = force Fy. (») From point d, draw de parallel to OF, Cut de = force Fs. (vi) Join point @ to e. This is the closing side of the polygon. Hence ae represents the resultant in magnitude and direction. Magaitude of resultant R = Length ae x scale. The resultant is acting from ato e. Problem 2.2. Two forces of magnitude 240 Nand 200 N are acting at a point O as shown in Fig. 2.16. Ifthe angle between the forces is 60°, determine the magnitude of the resultant force. Also determine the angle [band yas shown in the figure. 4 Ex 120° Resultant, R=72kN Resultant is along Y-axis. Hence the algebraic sum of horizontal com- ponent should be zero and algebraic sum of vertical Fig. 2.24 components should be equal to the resultant ns TH=0 and 3V= But ZH =F, cos 30° + Fz cos 8 + Fy cos 90° + Fy.cos 120° = 10 x0,866 + F, cos 0 +20 x0+40x(-4) 8.66 + Fy cos 8+ 0-20 = F008 0= 11.34 EN=0 or F008 0- 11.3450 or Fz 00s @= 11.34 Ai) Now IV =F, sin 30° + F, sin 8+ Fy sin 90° + Fy sin 120° = 0x5 +Fzsin 0+ 20% 14 40x 0866 5+ Fysin 0 + 20 + 34.64 Fy sin 0 + 59.64 But EV=R Fy sin @ + 59.64 = 72 @ = 72-59.64 = 1236 oii) Dividing equation (i) and (i), 6 Freos0 1134 % 'n8= 1.0899 @ = tan"! 1,089 = 47.46". Ans.38 ENGINEERING MECHANICS Substituding the value of 8 in equation (ii), we get Fy sin (47.46%) = 12.36 236, 12.36 “ Fa in (47.469) ~ 0.7368 7 177 KN. Ans. Problem 2.10. Determine the magnitude, direction and position of a single force P, which keeps in equilibrium the system of forces acting at the corners of rectangular blockas shown in Fig, 2.25. The position of the force P may be stated by reference to axes with origin O and coinciding with the edges of the block. Sol. Given : 25N Length OC=4m, Length BC=3m Force at O=20N(+) Force at C=35NQ) Force at B=25N( Force at A=50N(1) Let Obetheorigin and OXandOYbethe 20N reference axes as shown in Fig. 2.26. Forces 50 N and 20 N form a concurrent system and their line of action intersect at 0. Fig. 225 Fig.2.26 The resultant of these forces R, = VS0 + 20? = V3900 = 53.85 N and 8, = tant (33 }=21s" win vertical axis. Similarly the forces 35 N and 25 N form a concurrent system and their line of action intersect at B.COPLANAR COLLINEAR AND CONCURRENT FORCES 39 ‘The resultant of these forces R, = V25? + 35? = VT850 = 43.01 N and 8, an! ( 3) =35.53° with BC ie., with vertical line. These two forces R, and Ry intersect at D. The angle between these forces is 0) + Oi. R,DRp = 8, + 0; = 21.8" + 35.53° = 57.33°, Let P be the resultant of the forces R and Ry. P= VRe + Ry + 2R, x Ro x c0s (57.33°) = V53.85" + 43.017 + 2x 53.85 x 43.01 x cos 57.33” = VIV00+ 1850+ 4632.17 x 05308 = 85.15N. Ans. The angle made by the resultant P with R; is given by ton ca = —R2sin 57.33% ___43,01 sin $7.33° ” Ry + Ry cos 57.33" ~ 53.85 + 43.01 x cos 57.33" _ 43.01 x 0.8418 _ 36.2058 "53.85 423.21 ~ 77.06 “ a= tan“! 0.4698 = 25.16" Hence the resultant P makes (cc— 01) angle with vertical in anti-clockwise direction i., P makes (25.16 ~21.8 = 3,36). Ans. Position of the force P ‘Theposition of the force P is obtained by equating the clockwise moments and anti-clockwise moments about O (Refer Fig. 2.26). Let OE = Perpendicular distance between O and line of action of the force P. Taking moments of all forces about O, 20 x0 +50x 0435x4425 x3=PxOE ngle 4698 215 __ 5c, or 040+ 140+ 75 =85.147x OE or OE = e547 = 2525m From right angled triangle OED, sin ay ight angled triangle OED, sin a = OF OE OE 2.525 = OE, OE. 2515 «595 0 Sina sin 25.16" 0.4241 = 79°? Let rand y are the co-ordinates of the force P with reference to the axes with origin 0. Then x= OF andy=DF In right angled triangle OFD, OF = OD x sin 8, = 5.939 x sin 21.8° 0, = 21. Also 5.514 m andENGINEERING MECHANICS VERTICAL. np ———YERTICAL Method [Refer to Fig. 2.27 (a)] (i) Toa suitable scale, take OG = 50 N and GH =20N. Join OH. Then OH represents the resultant Ry itude and direction, Produce the line HO backward. (ii) From point B, Take BY = 35 N and JK = 25 N. Join BK, which represents the resultant Rz in magnitude and directic n the backward direction to interest the line of action of Ry at point D. (ii) To find the resultant of Ry and Ro (ce., force P) refer to Fig. 2.27 (6). (iv) Take any point ‘a’. From this point draw line ab parallel to R, and equal to R,. From point ‘b’,draw {ine be paralle! to R> and equal to Rp, Join the point c to a. (0) Then ca represents in magnitude and direction the force P. Hence measure ca. Then P=ca=8515N. Ans. (vi) From point D, draw the line DL parallel to ca. Hence DL represents the direction of the force P.COPLANAR COLLINEAR AND CONCURRENT FORCES 41 (vit) To find the position of the force P which is acting at point D, draw DF parallel to axes OY. Then OF represents the x-coordinate and FD represents the y-coordinate of the force P. Measure OF and FD. Then by measurement, OF = and FD 20 m. Ans. 514. Ans, HIGHLIGHTS 1. Coplanar forces means the forces are acting in one piane. 2. Concurrent forces means the forces are intersecting at a common point. 3. Collinear forces means the forces are having same line of action. 4. The resultant of coplanar forces are determined by analytical and graphical methods. 5. The resultant (R) of three collinear forces F;, Fand Fs acting in the ssme direction, is given by R Ifthe force Fis acting in opposite direction then their resultant will be, R'= Fy — F) + F3. 6. The resultantoof the two forces P and Q having an angle «t between them and acting at a point, is given by consine law method as R = VP* + Q? + 2PQ cos a . And the direction of the resultant with the force Pis given by, _ sing PsO cosa tan iven by, R = V(EH) + (ZV), where EH = Algebraic sum of horizontal components of all forces, EV = Algebraic sum of vertical components of all forces. The ang! ey (2H) 8. The resullant of several forces acting ata point is found graphically by using polygon law of forces. 9 — Polygon law of forces states that if anumber of coplanar forcesare acting at a point such that they can be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon taken in the same order, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the closing side of the polygon taken in the opposite order. EXERCISE 2 ‘The resullant of three or more forces acting at a point is, made by the resultant with horizontal is given by, tan @ (A) Theoretical Questions 1, Define and explain the following terms: (i) Coplanar and non-coplanar forces (i Collinear and concurrent forces (Gif) Parallel and non-paralie forces. 2. What is the difference between collinear and concurrent foress ? 3. State and explain the following laws of forces = (i) Law of parallelogram of forces (i) Lawof triangle of forces (iii) Law of polygon of forces. Derive an expression for the resultant in magnitude and direction of two coplanar concurrent forces using cosine Jaw method. Explain in detail the method of finding resultant in magnitude and direction of three or more forces acting at a point by analytical and graphical method. 6. Explain the procedure of resolvinga given force into two components at right angles to each enher. 7. Three collinear forces Fy, F2 and Fy are acting on a body. What will be the resultant of these forces, if (a) all are acting in the same direction (6) force F; is acting in opposi n. 8 State the law of paratlelogram of forces and show that the resultant R = VP* « Q when the two forces P and Q reacting at right angles to each other. Find the value of R if the angle between the forces is zero.ENGINEERING MECHANICS (B) Numerical Problems “Three collinear horizontal forces of magnitude 300 N, 100 N and 250 N are acting on rigid body. Determine the resultant of the forces analytically and_ graphically when : (i) all the forces are acting in the same direction ; (Gi) the Force 100 N acts in the opposite direction. {[Ans. (2) 650 N. (i) 450 N] “Two forces of magnitude 15 N and 12.N are acting ata point. The angle between the forces is 60°. Findthe resultant is magnitude. {Ans. 20.43 N] A force of 1000 N is acting at a point, making an angle of 60° with the horizontal. Determine the components of force along horizontal and vertical directions. [Ans. 500 N, 866] A simall block of weight 100 N is placed on an inclined plane which makes an angie of 60° with the horizontal. Find the components of this weight () perpendiculas to the inclined plane and (i#) paraltel to the inclined plane. (Ams. 50N, 86.6 N] ‘Two forces Pand @ are acting at a point O as shown in Fig. 2.28. The force P = 264.9 N and force Q = 195.2N. If the resultant of the forces és equal to 400 N then find the values of angles fy, «. TAns. B= 35°, y= 25%, = 60°] ‘A small block of unknown weight is placed on an inclined plane which makes an angle of 30° with horizontal plane. The component of this weight parallel to the inclined plane is 100 N. Find the weight of the block. [Ans. 200 N] {In question 6, find the component of the weight perpen- dicular to the inclined plane. (Ans. 173.2N} ‘The four coplanar forces ate actingat a point as shown in Fig. 2.29. Determine the resultant in magnitude and direction analytically end graphically. [Ans. 1000 N. 6 = 60° with OX] The four coplanar forces are acting at a point as shown in Fig. 230. One of the forces is unknown and its magnitude is shown by P. The resultant is having a ‘magnitude S00 N and is acting along x-axis. Determine the unknown force P and its inclination with x-axis. [Ans ? = 286.5 N and @ = 53° 15'] RESULTANT =500N 200 N Fig. 2.303 Coplanar Parallel Forces 3.1, INTRODUCTION ‘The forces, which are having their line of actions parallel to each other, are known parallel forces. The two parallel forces will not intersect at a point. The resultant of two coplanar concurrent forces (i.e. forces intersecting at the same point) can be directly determined by the method of parallelogram of forces. This method along with other methods for finding resultant of collinear and concurrent coplanar forces, were discussed in earlier chapters. ‘The parallel forcesare having their lines of action parallel to each other. Hence, for finding the resultant of two parallel forces, (two parallel forces do not intersect at a point) the parallelogram cannot be drawn. The resultant of such forces can be determined by applying the principle of moments, Hence in this chapter first theconcepis of moment and principle of moments willbe dealt with. Thereafter the methods of findingresultant of paralfet and even non-paralle! forces will be explained. 3.2, MOMENT OF A FORCE The product of a force and the perpendicular dis- tance of the line of action of the force from a point is known as moment of the force about that point, Let F = A force acting on a body as shown in Fig. 3.1. = Perpendicular distance from the point Q.on the line of action of foree F. ‘Then moment (M) of the force F about O is given by, MsFxr ‘The tendency of this moment is to rotate the body in the clockwise direction about O. Hence this moment is Figs called clockwise moment. If the tendency of a moment is to rotate the body in anti-clockwise direction, then that moment is known as anti-clockwise moment. If clockwise moment is taken ~ ve then anti-clockwise moment will be + ve. In ystem, moment is expressed in N m (Newton metre). LINE OF ACTION OF SORCE, 1 pepmentscutan U ye—g DISTANCE : 40 Fig. 3.2 a344 ENGINEERING MECHANICS shows body on which three forees F, F; and F; are acting. Suppose it is required to find the resultant moments if these forces about point O. Let ry = Perpendicular distance from 0 on the line of action of force F;. rand r3 = Perpendicular distances from O on the lines of action of force Fy and F' respectively. Moment of F; about O = Fy xr (clockwise) (—) Moment of Fz about O = Fx r3 (clockwise) (-) Moment of F3 about O = Fx x ry (anti-clockwise) (+) ‘The resultant moment will be algebraic sum of all the moments, The resultant moment of F, Fy and Fs about O == Fixn-Fixnt Faxn Problem 3.1. Four forces of magnitude 10 N, 20N, 30 N and 40 N are acting respectively along the {Jour sides of a square ABCD as shown in Fig. 3.4, Determine the resultant moment about the point A. Each side of the square is given 2 m. Sol. Given : Length AB = BC =CD 30N Force at B=I0N, Force at C=20N, Force at D=30N, Force at A=40N, ‘The resultant moment about point A is to be determined. ‘The forces at and B passes through point A. on Hence perpendicular distance from A on the lines of 2m —>| action of these forces will be zero. Hence their moments about A will be zero. The moment of the force at C about point A. Fig. 33 40n = Foree at C x 1 distance from A on the line of action of force at C. = (20) x (Length AB). = 20x2.N m= 40N m (anti-clockwise). The moment of force at D about point A. = Force at D x 1 distance from A on the line of action of force at D. = (30'N) x (Length AD). = 30 x 2 Nm = 60 Nm (anti-clockwise). Resultant moment of all forces about A. = 40 + 60= 100 Nm (anti-clockwise). Ans. 3.3. PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS (OR VARIGNON’S PRINCIPLE) Principle of moments states that the moment of the resultant of a number of forces about any point is equal to the algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces of the system about the same point, ‘And according to Varignon’s principle, the moment of a force about any point is equal tothe algebraic stun of the moments of its components about that point,COPLANAR PARALLEL FORCES 45 Proof of Varignon’s Principle Fig, 3.4 Fig. 3.4 (a) shows two forces F, and F; acting at point O. These forces are represented in magnitude and direction by OA and OB. Their resultant R is represented in magnitude and direction by OC which is the diagonal of parallelogram OACB. Let O’ is the point in the plane about which moments of F), Fy and R are to be determined. From point O', draw perpendiculars on OA, OC and OB. Let ry = Perpendicular distance between F; and O'. = Perpendicular distance between R and 0’. r= Perpendicular distance between F and 0’. ‘Then according to Varignon’s principle ; Moment of R about O' must be equal to algebraic sum of moments of F, and F; about O'. or RxersFixnthxn Now refer to Fig. 3.4 (6). Join 00! and produce it to D. From points C, A and B draw perpendiculars on OD meeting at D, E and F respectively. From A and B also draw perpendiculars on CD meeting the line CDat G and H respectively. Let @, = Angle made by F, with OD, 0 = Angle made by Rwith OD, and 8, = Angle made by F; with OD. In Fig. 3.4 (b), OA = BC and also OA parallel to BC, hence the projection of OA and BC on the same vertical line CD will be equal ie., GD = CH as GD isthe projection of OA on CD and CH isthe projection of BCoa cD. Then from Fig. 3.4 (6), we have P, sin @ = AE=GD=CH F, cos @, = OE F, sin ®, = BF =HD F; 00s 82 = OF = ED ‘2 (OB =AC and also OB || AC. Hence projections of OB and AC ‘on the same horizontal line OD will be equal i.e., OF = ED) Let the length 00’ Then x sin@,=ry,xsin@=randx sin 0) = 1 Now moment of R about 0" = Rx (1 distance between O' and R)=R xr =Rxxsin@ ‘= xsin 6)46 ENGINEERING MECHANICS = (Rsin 0) xx =CDxx R sin @ = CD) =(CH+HD)xx = (Fy sin 8, + Fy sin @) xx (2: CH =F, sin ®, and HD = F; sin 03) =F, xxsinO, + F2 xx sin 8 =F xn +Faxry (oxsin @ = ry and.xsin 8) = 72) = Moment of F; about O' + Moment of Fz about 0". Hence moment of R about any point in the algebraic sum of moments of its components (i., F) and ) about the same point, Hence Varignon’s principle is proved. ‘The principle of moments (or Varignon’s principle) is not restricted to only two concurrent forces but s0 applicable to any coplanar force system, i.e., concurrent or non-concurrent or parallel force system, Problem 3.2. A force of 100 N is acting at a point A as shown in Fig. 3.5. Determine the moments of this force about O. Sol. Given : Force at A=100N Draw a perpendicular from O on the line of action of force 100 N. Hence OB is the perpendicular on the line of action of 100 N as shown in Fig. 3.5. Ist Method Triangle OBC isa right-angled triangle. And angle OCB = «0. + OB sin 60° =oc Ee OB = OC sin 60° x 0,866. 598 m Moment of the force 100 N about 0 = 100 x OB = 100 x 2.598 150.8 Nm (clockwise). Ans. 2nd Method ‘The moment of force 100 N about O, can also be deter- «d by using Varignon's principle. The force 100 N is replaced hy its two rectangular components at any convenient point. Here the convenient point is chosen as C. The horizontal and vertical components of force 100 N acting at C are shown in Fig. 3.6. (i) The horizontal component = 100 x cos 60° = 50 N But this force is passing through O and hence has no moment about O. ‘The vertical component = 100 x sin 60° = 100 x 0.866 = 86.6 N This force is acting vertical downwards at C. Moment of this force about O. = 86.6 x OC = 86.6 x3 ( = 259.8 N (clockwise). Ans. OC =3m)COPLANAR PARALLEL FORCES 3.4, TYPES OF PARALLEL FORCES The following are the important types of paralic! forces : 1. Like parallel forces, 2. Unlike parallel forces. 3.4.1. Like parallel forces. The parallel forces which , are known as like parallel forces. In Fig. 3.7, two parallel forces F; and F; are shown. ‘They are acting in the same direction, Hence they are called as like parallel forces. These forces may be equal or unequal in magnitude. 3. Unlike Parallel Forces. The parallel forces: which are acting in the oppositedirection, are known as unlike parallel forces. In Fig. 3.8, two parallel forces F), F;areacting in opposite direction. Hence they are called as unlike parallel forces. These forces may be equal or unequal in magnitude. The unlike parallel forces may be divided into : ‘equal parallel forces, and (ii) unlike unequal parallel (unt forces. Unlike equal parallel forcesare those which areacting in opposite direction and are equal in magnitude, Unlike unequal parallel forces are those which are acting in opposite direction and are unequal in magnitude. 3.5. RESULTANT OF TWO PARALLEL FORCES: 47 Fig.3.7 IF Fig.38 The resultant of following two paralle! forces will be considered : 1. Two parallel forces are like. 2. Two parallel forces are unlike and are unequal in magnitude, 3. Two parallel forces are unlike but equal in magnitude, 3.5.1, Resultant of two like parallel forces. Fig. 3.9 shows a body on which two like parallel forces F, and Fare acting. Itis required to determine the resultant (R) andalso the point at which the resultant Ris acting. For the two parallel forces which are acting in the same direction, obviously the resultant R is given by, R=F\+F, In order to find the point at which the resultant is acting, Varignon’s principle (or method of moments) is used. According to this, the algebraic sum of moments of F; and F about any point should be equal to the moment of the resultant (R) about that point. Now arbitrarily choose any point O along line AB and take moments of all forces about this point. Moment of F, about O = F, x AQ (clockwise) (-) Moment of Fz about O = Fx BO (anti-clockwise) (+ ve) Fig. 3948 ENGINEERING MECHANICS Algebraic sum of moments of F, and F2 about O =- Fx AO + Fy x BO Moment af resultant about O = R x OC (anti-clockwise\(+) But according to principle of moments the algebraic sum of moments of F, and F> about O should be ‘equal to the moment of resultant about the same point O. S| =F) xAO + Fy xBO=4R x CO= (F + F2) x CO =Fi+ Fi) F\(AO + CO) = Fx(BO - CO) Py xAC= Fy xBC (2 AO +CO =AC and BO - CO = BC) or Fi BC F,- AC ‘The above relation shows that the resultant R acts at the point C, parallel to the lines of action of the ven forces F and F) in such a way that the resultant divides the distance AB in the ratio inversely proportional to the magnitudes of F and F. Also the point C lies in line AB i.e., point C is not outside AB. ‘The location of the point C, at which the resultant isacting, can also be determined by taking moments about points A of Fig. 3.9. As the force F; is passing through A, the moment of F about A will be zero. ‘The moment of Fs about A = Fz x AB (anti-clockwise) (+) Algebraic sum of moments of F and F; about 0 = O + Fy xAB= Fx AB (anti-clockwise) (+) The moment of resultant R about A = Rx AC (anti-clockwise\+) i) But according to the principle of moments, the algebraic sum of moments of F and F2 about A should be equal to the moment of resultant about the same point A. Hence equating equations (i) and (ii), F,xAB=RxAC But R= (F, + F2) hence the distance AC should be less than AB. Or in other words, the point C will lie inside AB. 3.5.2, Resultant of Two Unlike Parallel Forces (Unequal in magnitude). Fig 3.10 shows a body on which two unlike parallel forces F, and F> are acting which are unequal in magnitude. Let us assume that force is more than F>. It is required to determined the resultant R and also the point at which the resultant R is acting. For the two parallel forces, which are acting in opposite direction, obviously the resultant is given by, R=F\-Fy 7 Let the resultant 2 is acting at C as shown in Fig. 3.10. In order to find the point C, at which the resultant acting, principle of moments is used. Choose arbitrarily any point O in line AB. Take the moments of all forces (ie., F}, Fz and R) about this point. Moment of F; about O = F; x AO (clockwise) Moment of F, about O = F2 x BO (clockwise) Algebraic sum of moments of F; and F2 about 0 =F, xAO + Fy x BO Moment of resultant force R about 0 = Rx CO (clockwise) = (Fi-F:)xCO = F\xCO-F,xCO Ai)COPLANAR PARALLEL FORCES 4 But according to the principle of moments, the algebraic sum of moments of all forces about any point should be equal to the moment of resultant about that point. Hence equating equations (i) and (ii), we get F, x AO + Fx BO = Fy xCO- Fy x CO or FBO + CO) = F\(CO-AO) FyxBC =F, xAC * BO+CO=BC and CO-AO =AC) or aC, Fi we ACW Fy Fy AC But F; > Fo, hence BC will be more than AC. Hence point O lies outside of AB and on the same side as the larger force Fy. Thus in case of two unlike parallel forces the resultant lies outside the line joining the points of action of the two forces and on the same side as the larger force. The loc: of the point C, at which the resultant R is acting, can also be determined by t: ig Moments about point A, of Fig. 3.10. As the force F; is passing through A, the moment of F about A will be zero. The moment of F; about A = F; x AB (clockwise) (-) Algebraic sum of moments of F and F about A =O + Fy x AB = Fy x AB (clockwise) (-) ‘The moment of resultant R about A should be equal tothe algebraic sum of moments of F, and F; ( = Fy xAB)according to the principle of moments. Also the moment of resultant Rabout A should be clockwi As is acting upwards ["’ Fy > Fp and R = (F,— Fo) so R is acting in the direction of F,}, the moment of resultant R about A would be clockwise only if the points C is towards the left of point A. Hence the point C will be outside the line AB and on the side of F (c., larger force). Now the moment of resullant R about A Rx AC (clockwise) (-) eafié) Equating equations (i) and (ii), Fy xAB=RxAC ~ Fi) xAC ( R=F\-F) As F\, Fz and AB are known, hence AC can be calculated. Orin other words, the location of point Cis known. 3.5.3. Resultant of two unlike parallel forces which are equal in magnitude. When two equal and ‘opposite parallel forces act on a body, at some distance apart, the two forces from a couple which has atendency to rotate the body. The perpendicular distance between the parallel forces is known as arm of the couple. Fig. 3.11 shows a body on which two parallel forces, which are acting in opposite direction but equal in magnitude are acting. “These two forces will form a couple which will have a tendency to rotate the body in clockwise direction. The moment of the couple is the product of either one of the forces and perpendicular distance between the forces. Let F = Force at A orat B a= Perpendicular distance (or arm of the couple) ‘The moment (M) of the couple is given by, M =F x a. ‘The units of moment will be Nm. Fig 3.01 Problem 3.3. Three like parallel forces 100 N, 200 N and 300 N are acting at points A, Band C respectively on a straight line ABC as shown in Fig. 3.12. The distances are AB = 30cm and BC = 40 cm. Find the resultant and also the distance of the resultant from point A on line ABC.50 ENGINEERING MECHANICS Sol. Given : Force at R Force at Force at ioon —20PN ‘ Seon Distance AB = 30 cm, BC = 40 cm. As all the forces ' tare parallel and acting in the same direction, their resultant ' Ris given by Al 8 ote R= 100 + 200 + 300 = 600 N x» — Let the resultant is acting at a distance of x cm from 30em->}+— 40en-—} the point A as shown in Fig. 3.12. Now take the moments of all forces about point A. Fig. 3.12 ‘The force 100 Nis passing A, hence its moment about A will be zero. Moment of 100N force about A = 0 Moment of 200 N force about A = 200 x 30 = 6000 N em (anti-clockwise) Moment of 300 N force about A = 300x AC = 300 x 70 = 21000 N cm (anti-clockwise) Algebraic sum of moments of all forces about A = 0 + 6000 + 21000 = 27000 N cm (anti-clockwise) Moment of resultant R about A = Rx x = 600 xx N em (2 R=600) But algebraic sum of moments of all forces about A = Moment of resultant about A 27000 or 27000 = 600xx or x= 220 Problem 3.4, The three like parallel forces of magnitude 50 N, F and 100 N are shown in Fig. 3.13. If the resultant R = 250 N and is acting ai a distance of 4 m from A, then find () Magnitude of force F. (ii) Distance of F from A. Sol. Given : R=250N Forces at A= 50'N, at B= Fand D = 100N SON F; R=2S0N, Distance AC = 4 m, CD = 3 m. () Magnitude of force F ‘The resultant R of three like forces is given by, R=50+F +100 a al rs 3m—~! =45cm. Ans. 100N or 250 = 50+ F +100 (2 R= 250) ‘ F=250-S0-100=100N. Ans. Fig. 3.13 (i Distance of F from A Take the moments of all forces about point A. Moment of force 50N about A =0 force 50 Nis passing through) Moment of force F about = A=Fxx (anti-clockwise) Moment of force 100 N about A = 100 x AD = 100x 7= 700 Nm (anti-clockwise) Algebraic sum of moments of all forces about A =04Fxx+700Nm =Fxx4700Nm (anti-clockwise)COPLANAR PARALLEL FORCES sl Moment of resultant R about A =Rx4=250x4=1000Nm (anti-clockwise) But algebraic sum of moments of all forces about A must be equal to the moment of resultant R about A. : Fxx+700= 1000 or Fx.x= 1000-700 = 300 300 oo Rs Too (: F=100N) or =3m. Ans. Problem 3.5. Four parallel forces of magnitudes 100N, 150.N, 25N and 200 Nare shown in Fig. 3.14, Determine the magnitude of the resultant and also the distance of the resultant from point A. 1OON ISON 25N 200N rN 8 D bo—0.9m —mfe— 1.2m ——>+=--0.75m >] Fig 3.14 Sol. Given : Forces are 100 N, 150 N, 25 N and 290 N. Distances AB =0.9m,BC=12m,CD=0.75 m. Asall the forces are acting vertically, hence their resultant R is given by- R=100- 150-25 + 200 (Taking upward force + ve and downward as — ve) =300-175 = 125N +ve sign shows that R is acting vertically upwards. To find the distance of R from point A, take the moments of all forces about point A. Let x= Distance of R from A in metre. As the force 100 N is passing through A, its moment about A will be zero. Moment of 150 N force about 150 xAB 50 x 0.9 (clockwise) (-) 25 x AC = 25% (0.9 + 1.2) 25 x 2.1 (clockwise) (-) = - $2.5 Nm. = 200xAD 200 x (0.9 + 1.2 + 0.15) = 200 x 2.85 (anti-clockwise) (+) = 570 Nm Algebraic sum of moments of all forces about A ~135 ~ 52.5 + 570 = 382.5 Nm wi) +e sign shows that this moment is anti-clockwise. Hence the moment of resultant R about A must be 382.5Nm, ie., moment of R should be anti-clockwise about A.'The moment of R about A will be anti-clockwise if Ris acting upwards and towards the right of A. Now moment of R about A=Rxx.ButR = 125 = 125 xx (anti-clockwise) (+) =4125xx lil) 135. Nm Moment of 25 N force about Moment of 200 N force about A52 ENGINEERING MECHANICS Equating (i) and 382.5=125xx or x= Resultant (R = 125.N) will be 125 N upwards and is acting at a distance of 3.06 m to the right of point 3.6, RESOLUTION OF A FORCE INTO A FORCE AND A COUPLE A given force F applied to a body al any point A can always be replaced by an equal force applied at another point B together with a couple which will be equivalent to the original force. This is proved as given below : Let the given force F is acting at point A as shown in Fig. 3.15 (a). ) (b) ©) Fig. 3.15, This force is to be replaced at the point B. Introduce two equal and opposite forces at B, each of magnitude F and acting parallel to the force at A as shown in Fig. 3.15 (b). The force system of Fig. 3.15 (6) is equivalent to the single force acting at A of Fig. 3.15 (a). In Fig. 3.15 (6) three equal forces are acting. The two forces i.e., force F atA and the oppositely directed force F at B(i.e., vertically downward force at B) from acouple. The moment of this couple is F x x clockwise where xis the perpendicular distance between the lines of action of forces at A and B. The third force is acting at B in the same direction in which the force at A is acting. In Fig. 3.15 (c), the couple is shown by curved arrow with symbol M. The force system of Fig. 3.15 (c) is equivalent to Fig. 3.15 (b). Orin other words the Fig. 3.15 (c) is equivalent to Fig. 3.15 (a). Hence the given force F acting at A has been replaced by an equal and parallel force applied at point B in the same direction together with a couple of moment F x.x. ‘Thusa force acting at a point in a rigid body can be replaced by an equal and parallel force at any other point in the body, and a couple. Problem 3.6. A system of parallel forces are acting ona rigid bar as shown in Fig. 3.16. Reduce this system to : (8) a single force 725N SON 67Z5N ton (id) a single force and a couple at A (lif) a single force and a couple at B. lp 2 Sol, Given : Forces at A, C, D and B are 32.5 N, ISON, 67.5N and 10 N respectively. Distances AC = 1 m,CD = | mandBD= 1.5 m. (0 Single force system. The single force system will consist only resultant foree in magnitude and location. All the forces are acting in the vertical direction. and hence their resultant (R) in magnitude is given by R= 32.5 - 150 + 67.5-10=-GON. Ans. Fig. 3.16COPLANAR PARALLEL FORCES 53 Negative sign shows that resultant is acting vertically downwards. Let.x= Distance of resultant from A towards right. To find the location of theresultant take the moments of all forces about A, we get Moment of resultant about A. = Algebraic sum of moments of all forces about A or Rxx=-50 x AC + 67.5 xAD- 10 xAB (Taking clockwise moment —ve and anticlockwise moment +ve) or (60) xx = 50x 14675 %2-10%35 = 60N Gh a8) R=601 or - 60x =~ 150 + 135 ~ 3: 50 50 A 60 Hence the given system of parallel forces is equivalent to a > 0.833 a— ingle force 60 N acting vertically downwards at point E at a distance of 0.833 m from A shown in Fig. 3.16 (a). Fig. 3.16 (2) (i) A single force and a couple at A. ‘The resultant force R acting at point £ as shown in Fig. 3.16 (a) can be replaced by an equal force applied at point A in the same direction together with a couple. This is shown in Fig. 3.16 (c). ‘The moment of the couple = 60 x 0.833 Nm (clockwise) =-49.98Nm. Ans. (- ve sign is due to clockwise) (iii) A single force and a couple at B. First find distance BE. But from Fig. 3.16 (6), the distance Besa AE =3.5- 8835 265m fh = 60x0.833Nm sna x 0.833 m. Ans. hy (eo) R=6ON A_¥E 266r 60N @ © Fig 3.16 Now if the force R = 60 N is moved lo the point &, it will be accompanied by a couple of moment 60 x BE or 60 x 2.667 Nm. This is shown in Fig. 3.16 (e). ‘The moment of the couple = 60 x 2.667 Nm (anti-clockwise) 160.Nm. Ans.54 ENGINEERING MECHANICS . GENERAL CASE OF PARALLEL FORCES IN A PLANE Fig. 3.17 shows a number of parallel forces acting on a body in one plane. The forces F), F2 and F, are acting in one direction, whereas the forces F; and Fs are acting in the opposite direction. Let Ry = Resultant Fy Fe Fs Fa Fs A B c 0 E Fig. 3.17 of forces Fy, Fy and Fs and R2 = Resultant of forces F; and Fs. The resultants Ry and R2 are acting in opposite direction and are parallel to each other. Now three important cases are possible. 1. R, may not be equal to Rp. Then we shall have two unequal parallel forces (R, and Rz) acting in the opposite direction. The resultant R of these two forces (Ry and Rz) can be easily obtained. The point of application of resultant R can be obtained by equating the moment of R about any point to the algebraic sum. of the moments of individual forces about the same point. 2. Ry is equal to Ry. Then we shall have two equal parallel forces (Ry and Ra) acting in the opposite direction. The resultant R of these two forces will be zero. Now the system may reduce to a couple or the system is in equilibrium. To distinguish between these two cases, the algebraic sum of moments of all forces (F), Foy «Fs) about any point is taken. If the sum of moments is not zero, the system reduces a resultant couple. The calculated moment gives the moment of this couple. 3. Ry is equal to Ry and sum of momeats of all forces (F), Fa, Fa, Fs. Fe...) about any point is zero, then the system will not be subjected to any resultant couple but the system will be in equilibrium. Problem 3.7. Determine the resultant of the parallel force system shown in Fig. 3.18. 4N 6N 8N 16N 12N 8 Cc D ‘6m 2m im, Fig. 3.18, Sol. Given : Forces at A, B,C, D and £ and 4 N, 8N, 8 N, 16 N and 12 N respectively. Distances AB =0.6m, BC=09m, CD=12m, and DE=06m. Since all the forces are vertical and parallel, hence their resultant is given by R=-4+8-8+16-12=0 As the resultant force on the system is zero, there will be two possibilities. The system has a resultant couple or the system is in equilibrium. To dis between these two possibilities, take the sum of moments of all forces about any point. Let us take the moments about point ACOPLANAR PARALLEL FORCES 35 Algebraic sum of moments of all forces about A = 4.048 xAB-8x AC +16 x AD —12xAE = 048 x0.6-8x (0.6 + 0.9) + 16 x (0.6 +0.9 + 1.2) -12 x (06 +0.9+ 1.2 +0.6) =0448- 124 16x2.7-12x3.3Nm = 48-12 + 43.2-39.6 = 48-516 -3.6 Nm As the algebraic sum of moments of all forees about any point is not zero, the system will have a resultant couple of magnitude — 3.6 Nm ie.. a clockwise couple. Ans. Problem 3.8. Determine the resultant of the parallel forces acting on a body as shown in Fig. 3.19. 20N 20N 4QN 30N ION Sol. Since all the forces are vertical and parallel, hence their resultant is given by R=-20+20+.40-30-10=0 ‘Taking moments of all forces about the point A, we get Resultant moment = 20 x 0 +20 x 2 + 40 x 2.5 -30x 3-10 x5 =0+4 40 + 100-9050 = 140-140=0 ‘As the resultant moment is zero and also the resultant force on the body is zero, the body will be in equilibrium. Ans. 3.8. EQUIVALENT SYSTEM An equivalentsystem for a given system of coplanar forces, isa combination of a force passing through a given point anda moment about that point. The force is the resultant of all forces acting on the body. And the moment is the sum of all the moments about that point. Hence equivalent system consists of (a single force R passing through the given point P and Gi) a single moment Mr where =the resultant of all force acting on the body. My, = sum of all moments of all the forces about point P. Problem 3.9. Three external forces are acting on a L-shaped body as shown in Fig. 3.20. Determine the equivalent system through point O. Sol. Given: Force at A= 2000N, Angle = 30° Force at B= 1500N Force at C= 1000N Distance OA = 200 mm, OB = 100mm and BC = 200 mm Angle COA = 90° Determine the equivalent system through O. This means find56 ENGINEERING MECHANICS (8) single resultant force, R (ii) single moment through O. ‘Taking.x-axis along OA and y-axis along OC. The force at A is resolved into two components. ‘Component along x-axis = 2000 x cos 30° = 1732 N ‘Component along y-axis = 2000 x sin 30° = 1000'N Resolving all forces along X-axis ie., ‘oF, 000 cos 30° — 1500 — 1000 =— 768 N Similarly ZF, = — 2000 x sin 30° = — 1000 (Eve sign is due to downward) ~. Resultant, R=ViF? +E? = V(~ 768)" + (— 1000)? = VSB5BIA% TOOOODD = 1260.88 N Taking moments of all forces about point O, ‘Mo = (~2000 sin 30) x 200 + 1500 x 100 + 1000 x 300 — 200000 + 150000 + 300000 = 250000 Nmm = 250 Nm . Equivalent system through point O is R= 126088 N M =250Nm Problem 3.10. Fig. 3.21 shows two vertical forces and a couple of moment 2000 Nm acting on a horizontal rod which is fixed at end A, (@ Determine the resultant of the system. 4000N 2500N (ii) Determine an equivalent system through A. Sol. Given: Force at C= 4000 N, Force at B = 2500 N Moment at D = 2000 Nm a 2001 8 Distance AC=1m, BC =1.5m coe CD =08m, BD=0.7m Fig. 3.21COPLANAR PARALLEL FORCES 57 ( Resultant of the system This means to find the resultant of all the forces and also the point at which the resultant is acting. There are two vertical forces only. Hence resultant, R = 4000 - 2500 = 1500 N acting downward The point at which the resultant is acting is obtained by taking moments about point A. For moments there are two forces (4000 N at C and 2000 N at B) and also a moment at D. Moment of force 4000 N about point A = 4000 x 1 = 4000 Nm (clockwise) Moment of force 2500 N about point A = 2500 x (1 + 1.5) = 2500 x 2.5 5250 Nm (anti-clockwise) Moment at D = 2000 Nm (clockwise) . Sum of all moments about A = 4000 (clockwise) — 6250 (anti-clockwise) + 2000 (clockwise) 250 (anti-clockwise) ‘The resultant isacting vertically downward. If it is acting towards rightof A, then it will give clockwise moment. But we want anti-clockwise moment. Hence the resultant must act towards the left of A. Let x = Distance of resultant force (1500 N) from A 2. Moment of resultant force (R) about A 500 xx & 1500 x x= 250 250 1500 7-166 m. Ans. Hence resultant of the system is 1500 N | acting at a distance of 0.166 mleft to. A. Ans. (ii) Equivalent system through A ‘This means to find a single resultant force and a single moment through A. Single resultant force, R= 1500N Single moment through, A = 250 Nm. Ans. HIGHLIGHTS Parallel forces are having their lines of action parallel to each other. ‘The moment of a force about any point is the product of force and perpendicular distance between the point and line of action of force. Anti-clockwise moment is taken 4ve whereas clockwise moment is taken — ve. Varignon’s principle states that the moment of a force about any point is equal to the algebraic sum of moments of its components about that point, Like parallel forces are parallel to cach other and are acting inthe same direction, whereas the unlike parallel forces are acting in opposite direction. 6& The resultant of two like parallel forces is the sum of the two forces and acts at a point between the fine in such a way that the resultant divides the distance in the ratio inversely proportional to the magnitudes of the forces. 7. When two equal and opposite parallel forces act on a body at some distance apart, the two forces form a couple which has a tendency to rotate the body. ‘The moment of this couple is the product of either one of the forces and perpendicular distance between the forces. aeope -58 ENGINEERING MECHANICS 8. Agiven force F applied to-a body atany point A can always be replaced by an equal force applied at another point Bin the same direction together with a couple. 9. If the resultant of a number of parallel forces is not zero, the system can be reduced to a single force, whose ‘magnitude is equal to the algebraic sum of all forces, The point of application of this single force is obtained by equating the moment of this single force about any point to the algebraic sum of moments of all forces acting on the system about the same point. 10. If the resultant of a number of parallel forces is zero, then the system may have a resultant couple o may be in equilibrium. If the algebraic sum of moments of all forces about any point is not zero, then system will have a resultant couple. But if the algebraic sum of moments of all forces about any point is zero. the system will he in equilibrium, EXERCISE 3 A. Theoretical Questions 1. Define the terms : Coplanar parallel forces, like parallel forces and unlike parallel forces. 2. Define and exp! 3. (@) State the Varignon’s principle. Also give the proof of Varignon’s principle (6) Differentiate between : (® Concurrent and non-concurrent forces, (i) Coplanarand non-coplanar forces, (ii) Moment of a force and couple. 4. Define moment of a force about a point and show that the algebraic sum of the moments of two coplanar forces about a point is equal to the moment of theit resultant about that point, 5. What are the different types of parallel forces ? Distinguish between like and unlike parallel forces. 6 Prove that the resultant of two like parallel forces F) and F is F + F2. Also prove that the resultant divides the line of joining the points of action of F and F internally in the inverse ratio of the forces. 7. Prove that in case of two unlike parallel forces the resultant lies outside the line joining the points of action of the two forces and on the same side as the larger force. 8 Describe the method of finding the line of action of the resultant of a system of parallel forces. 9. The resultant of a system of parallel forces is zero, what does it signify ? 10. Describe the method of finding the resultant of two unlike parallel forces which are equal in magnitude. LL, Prove that a given force F applied to a body at any point A can always be replaced by an equal force applied at another point B together with a couple. 12, State the principle of moment. 13. Indicate whether the following statements are True or False. (0 Force is an agency which tends to cause motion. (i) The tension member of a frame work iscalled a street. (ii) The value of g reduces slightly as we move from poles towards the equator. (i) Coplanar forces are those which have the same magnitude and direction. (¥) A couple consists of two unequal and parallel forces acting on a body, having the same line of action. (vi) A vector diagram of a force represents its magnitude, direction, sense and point of application. (i) The force of gravitation on a body is called its weight. (viti) The centre of gravity of a body is the point, through which the resultant of parallel forces passes in whatever position may the body be placed. [Ans. (2) True (ii) False (ii) True (iv) False (v) False (vi) False (vii) True (vif) True.] the moment of a force. Differentiate between clockwise moment and anti-clockwise moment.COPLANAR PARALLEL FORCES B. Numerical Problems Four forces of magnitudes 20 N, 40 N, 60 N and 80 N are acting respectively along the four sides of a square ABCD as shown in Fig. 3.22. Determine the resultant ‘moment about point A. Each side of square is 2 m. [Ans. 200 Nm anti-clockwise] A force of SON is acting at a point A as shown in Fig 3.23. Determine the moment of this force about O. ° [Ans, 100 Nm clockwise] ‘Three like parallel forces 20.N, 40 N and 60 N are acting at points, A,B and C respectively on astraight line ABC. “The distances are AB = 3 m and BC = 4m. Find the resultant and also the distance of the resultant from point Aon line ABC. (Ans. 120, 45 m] ‘The three like parallel forces 101 N, F and 300 N are acting as shown in Fig. 3.24. Ifthe resultant R = 600 N and is acting ata distance of 45 cm from A, then find the ‘magnitude of force F and distance of F and A. (Ans. 200 N, 30 cm] Four parallel forces of magnitudes 100 N, 200 N, 50 N and 400 NV are shown in Fig 3.25. Determine the mag- nitude of the resultant and also the distance of the resu- tant from point A. [Ans. = 350 N, 3.07 m} Fig. 3.22 R=600N 4 300n ' ' t! D : A B Cc Fa hss —eosasel Fig. 3.24 YOON 100ON 200N SON 400N Lied t fe tmefaL5m—efeim »| Fig. 3.25 50oo ENGINEERING MECHANICS 6. Asysiem of parallel forces are acting on a rigid bar as shown in Fig. 3.26. Reduce this system to : (@ assingle force, [Ans. () R= 120 N at 2.83 m from A (ii) a single force and a couple at A (i) R= 120 Nand My =—340 Nm (Git) asingle force and a couple at B. (ili) R= 120 N and Mp = 120 Nm} 20N 100N 40N BON a D im —f+ im efe— 2m —ef Fig. 3.26 7. _ Five forces are acting on a body as shown in ig. 3.27. Determine the resultant. [Ans. & = 0, Resultant couple = 10 Nm] 20N 20N 40N SON 10N A 8 Ic 2.5m Sm) Im 2m —»} Fig. 327 8. Determine the resultant of the parallel forces shown in Fig. 3.28. [Ans. Body is in equilibrium) JON 40N 30N 1ON ION 2m 5m) 1.0m 0.5m, Fig. 328aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM 63 Now let us apply the three conditions of equilibrium : (@ ZF, = Oas there is no horizontal force acting on the body @ SFy= Oke, Fy+Fy=Fy (iii) EM = Oabout any point. Taking the moments of F, F, and F' about point A, EM, =- Fx AB + Fyx AC (Moment of Fis anti-clockwise whereas moment of F, is clockwise) For equilibrium, ZM, should be zero bey Fx AB + F3xAC=0 If the distances AB and AC are such that the above equation is satisfied, then the body will be in equilibrium under the action of three parallel forces. 4.3.3, Four force system. The body will be in equilibrium if the resultant force in horizontal direction is zero (i.e., ZF, = 0), resultant force in vertical direction is zero (i¢., EF, = 0) and moment of all forces about any point in the plane of forces is zero (i.e., EM = 0). Problem 4.1. Two forces F; and F;are acting on a body and the body isin equilibrium. If the magnitude of the force F is 100 N and its acting at O long x-axis as shown in Fig. 4.4, then determine the magnitude and direction of force F>, Sol, Given: Force, F\=100N ‘The body is in equilibrium under the action of two forces F, and Fp. When two forces are acting on a body and the body is in ‘equilibrium, then the two forces should be collinear, equal and ‘opposite. : F,=F,=100N ‘The force Fy should pass through O, and would be acting in the opposite direction of F;. Problem 4.2. Three forces F , Fz and Fy are acting on a body as shown in Fig. 4.5 and the body is in equilibrium, If the magnitude of force F; is 400, N, find the magnitudes of force F, and F. Sol. Given: Force, Fy = 400 N. As the body is in equilibrium, the resultant force is x-direction should be zero and also the resultant force in y-direction should be zero. (0 For EF, = 0, we get F cos 30° — F, cos 30° =0 ~ fer | Fig. 4.4 or Fi~F,=0 O or Fi=Fz 4 (ii) For EF, =0, we get F, sin 30° + F,sin 30° 400 = 0 or F, x05 + Fy x05 = 400 or F,x05+F)x05=400 (" Fp=Fi) F=400N or F,=400N. Ans. . Also F,=F,=400N. Ans, Fig 4saa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM “7 1000.7" 1902.2N 1001.9 N 2003.4N Fig. 4.8 d) ingle made by the resultant with x-axis is given by Ry _ - 1705.1 tan = 5h = 363 ane R= 12503 % @= tan 1.363 = 53.70 ‘The net moment* about point O, My = 2003.4 x 4 + 1000.7 x 3 ~ 1299 x 2~ 1502.2 x 3-750 x 3 = 8012.16 + 3002.1 ~ 2598 ~ 4506.6 - 2250 = 11014.26 - 9354.6 = 1659.55 Nm Asthenet moment about 0 is clockwise, hence the resultant must act towardsright of origin O, making an angle =53,7° with x-axis as shownin Fig. 4.8(e). ‘The components R, and R, are also negative. Hence this condition is also satisfied. (ii) Intercepts of resultant on x-axis and xo F yeatis [Refer to Fig. 48 ()). y) * Let x = Intercept of resultant along x-axis. y = Intercept of resultant along y-axis. Ry (=1705.1N) “The moment ofa force about a point is equal tothe sumof the moments ofthe componentsof the RX=1250.3 force about the same point. Resolving the resultant {R) into its component R, and Ry at F. Moment of R about 0 = Sum of moments of Ryand Ry at But moment of R about O = 1659.66 Fig. 48 () (Mo = 1659.66) 1659.66 = R,xO+ Ry xx (as Ry at F passes through O hence it has no moment) “Considering clockwise moment positive and anti-clockwise moment as negative. AtA, the X component ol 1001.9 1N passes through @ and hence has no moment.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM n Let R} =the resultant of all vertical forces and acting at a distance x em from P. = 1000 + 1299 + 707 + 250 = 3256 N Taking moments of all vertical forces about point P, RY xx = 1299 x 4 +707 x 8 + 250 x 12= 13852 13852 _ 13852 ee 086 =4.25em Now consider the system for horizontal forces only Horizontal force at P = 0 Horizontal force at Q = 1500 x cos 60° = 750 N Horizontal force at R = 1000 x cos 45° = 707 N Horizontal foree at $= $00 x cos 30° = 433 N Resultant of all horizontal forces will be, Rip = 0 + 750+ 707 + 433 = 1890 N ‘The resultant R* of Ry-and Rj, will also pass through point X which is at a distance of 4.25 em from P. Re = VRE + RiP = V32562 + 1890" = 3764. Ans. ‘The resultant will make an angle @ with PS and is given by RY _ 3256 int i097 1723 x 6 =tan™ 1,723 = $9.9° ‘Thus the resultant of 3764 N makes an angle 59.9° with PS and passing through point X which is at a distance of 4.25 cm from point P. This result confirms closely with the values obtained by graphical method. 4.4. ACTION AND REACTION From the Newton’s third law of motion, we know that to every action there is equal and opposite reaction. Hence reaction if always equal and opposite to the action. Fig, 4.10 (a) shows a ball placed on a horizontal surface (or horizontal plane) such that it is free to move afong the plane but cannot move vertically downward. Hence the ball will exert a force vertically w TION Aa a ‘SUPPORT (@) (6) « Fig. 4.10aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM 75 (a) () Fig. 4.14 In AHDC, ZCDH = 30° and ZDCH = 90°. Hence ZDHC will be 60°. Now in AHBL, ZBLH = 90° and angle LHB = 60°. Hence ZHBL will be 30°. Similarly, ZGBL may be calculated. This will be equal to 60°. For the equilibrium of the ball, 2F,=0 and 3F,=0 For ), we have Re sin 30° — Ry sin 60° = 0 or Resin 30° = R, sin 60° or Re=Rax a = 1.732 Ry i) For ZF, = 0, we have 120 ~ Ry cos 60° - Re cos 30 or 120 = Ry cos 60° + Re cos 30° R= 1.732R4) 24 x OS + (1.732 Ry) x 0.866 5 Ry + 1.5 Ry = 2Ry y= Deon. Ans. Substituting this value in equation (i), we get Rc= 1.732 60 = 103.92N. Ans. Problem 4.12.A circular roller of radius 5 cm and of weight 100 N rests ona smooth horizontal surface and is held in position by an inclined bar AB of length 10 cm as shown in Fig, 4.15. A horizontal force of 200 N és acting at B. Find the tension (or Force) in the bar AB and the vertical reaction at C.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM 81 alii) ( sino-F) or Rc = 1333.33 N. Ans. Equilibrium of sphere No. 1. The sphere | has points of contact at A, B and D. Let Rg = Reaction at point A = Reaction at point B ‘The free-body diagram of sphere No. 1 is shown in Fig. 4.18 (d). The reactions R4, Rp and Rp will pass through the centre F of the sphere No. 1. For EF, = 0, we have Ry—Rpsin@=0 or Ry =Rpsin® |OOON Ro = 1333.33N. Ans. For ZF, =0, we have Ry— 1000 Rp cos 8 =0 Mea) Ry = 1000 + Rp cos 8 5000 3 3 = 1000 + 50 <2 ( ous -3 =2000N. Ans. Problem 4.16. Two smooth circular cylinders, each of weight W = 1000 N and radius 15 cm, are connected ai their centres by a string AB of length = 40 cm and rest upon a horizonial plane, supporting above thema third cylinder of weight = 2000 N and radius 15cm as shown in Fig. 4.19. Find the force S in the string AB and the pressure produced on the floor at the points of contact D and E. 2000 N 2000N 1000N \OOON 1000N ah) Cee (et ON E (a) Fig. 4.19aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM 89 (c) What are the conditions that must be satisfied in order that a body may have plane motion ? (a) Discuss the various laws governing the equilibrium of coplanar forees. 7. Three concurrent forces are acting on a body which is in equilibrium, then the resultant of the two forces should ‘be equal and opposite to the third force. Prove this statement. 8. State and explain the Lami’s theorem. 9. What do you mean by action and reaction ? Give examples. 10, Explain and define the term : "Free-body Diagram’. Draw the free-body diagram of a ball of weight W, placed on a horizontal surface. LL, State the conditions of equilibrium of a system of forces acting on a body as applicable to (f) graphical method, and (if) analytical method. (B) Numerical Problems 1. Thiee forces F;, Fp and F3 are acting on a body as shown in Fig. 4.27 and the body isin equilibrium. If the magnitude of force F is 250 N, find the mag- nitudes of force F; and F2. fAns F 25 Nand F = 215.6 N] 2 Three forces of magnitudes P, 100 Nand 200N are acting a a point O as shown in Fig. 4.28. Determine the magnitude and direction of the force P. [Ams. P = 147 Nand 68°] 3, Thiee parallel forces F), Fp and Fy are acting on a body as shown in Fig. 4.29 and the body is in equi- librium. If force F = 300 N and Fy = 1000N and the distance between F, and F = 2.0 m, then determine the magnitude of force Fz and distance of F3 from force F). [Ans, 1300 N, 0.6 m]aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.SUPPORT REACTIONS: 93 5.2.4, Smooth Surface Support. Fig. 5.4 shows a body in contact witha smooth surface. The reaction will always act normal to the support as shown in Fig. 5.4 (a) and 5.4 (b). BoDY Re Steet IRa sunracé @ Oy Fig. 5.4 Fig. 5.5 shows arod AB resting inside a sphere, whose surface are smooth. Here the rod becomes body and sphere becomes surface. The reactions on the ends of the rod (.c., a point A and B) will be normal to the A sphere surface at A and B. The normal at any point on S oF BODY the surface of the sphere will always pass through the centre of the sphere. Hence reactions Ry and Rp will have directions AO and BO respectively as shown in Fig. 5.5. 5.2.5, Fixed or built-in Support. Fig. 5.6 shows the end A of a beam, which is fixed, Hence the support at A is known as a fixed support. In case of fixed support, the reaction will be inclined, Also the fixed support will provide a couple, A Fig. 5.6 5.3. TYPES OF LOADING The following are the important types of loading : (a) Concentrated or point toad, w (6) Uniformly distributed toad, and (©) Uniformly varying load, 5.3.1, Concentrated or point load. Fig. 5.7 shows a, iB beam AB, which is simply supported at the ends A and B. Aload ¢ W is acting at the point C. This load is known as point load (or concentrated load). Hence any load acting at a point on a beam, is known as point load.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.SUPPORT REACTIONS. 7 5. Now in Fig, 5.13 (a), extend the lines of action of the loads (3 kN and 6 kN), and the two reactions, | onthelineof action of the reaction R,. Through 1, draw the line 1-2 parallel to pO, intersecting the line of action of load 3 KN at point 2. 6. From point 2, draw fine 2-3 parallel to gO, intersecting the line of action of load 6 KN at 3. Similarly, from point 3, draw a line 3-4 parallel to rO, intersecting the line of action of reaction Rg at point 4. 7.Join 1 to 4. The fi ine. From the vector diagram, from point O, draw line Os paralle! to line 1-4. 8, Measure the length sp and rs. The length sp represents the reaction Ry and length rs represents the reaction Rp. By measurement, sp=4em and rs =Scm : Ry = Length sp x scale=4x1KN=4KN. Ans. Ry = Length rs x scale = 5x 1KN=SKN. Ans. Problem 5.2.A simply supported beam AB of length 9 m, carries a uniformly distributed load of 10 kN/m for a distance of 6 m from the left end. Calculate the reactions at A and B. 1-4 is known as cl Sol. Given : Length of beam om Rate of U.D.L. 10kN/m Length of UD.L. 6m Total load due to U.D.L. = (Length of U.D.L.) x Rate of U-D.L. =6x10=60kN 10 kN/m 6m — 9m Fig.5.14 This toad of 60 KN will be acting al the middle point of AC i.e,, ata distance of 5 = 3 m from A. Let Ry= Reaction atA and Rp= Reaction at B Taking the moments of all forces about point A, and equating the resultant moment to zero, we got Ryx9—(6x10)x3=0 oF SRy-180=0 ” =20kN. Ans. Also for equili BF, “0 or Ry +Rp=6 x 10= 60 Ra = 60— Ry =62-20= 40 KN. Ans. Problem 5.3. A simply supported beam of length 10 m, carries the uniformly distributed load and 1wo point loads as shown in Fig. 5.15. Calculate the reactions Ry and Rp. Sol. Given Length of beam =10m Length of U.D.L. 4m Rate of U.D.L. = 10kNimaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.SUPPORT REACTIONS 101 Also for the equilibrium of the beam, we have Ry + Ry = 800 + 2000 + 1000 = 3800 Ry = 3800 — Rp = 3800-2200 = 1600. Ans. Problems.7.A beam AB of span m, overhanging on one side upto alengthof 2m, carries a uniformly distributed load of 2 kNim over the entire length of 6 m and a point load of 2 kNim as shown in Fig. 5.20. Calculate the reactions at A and B. Sob. Given : Span of beam =4m Total length =6m Rate of U.D.L. =2kN/m ‘Total load due toUD.L, — =2x6=12 kN 2kN 2 kN/m A 4m . Ra Fig. 5.20 ‘The load of 12 kN (:e., due to U.D.L) will act al the middle point of AC, ie., at a distance of 3.m froma. Let Ry = Reaction at A and Ry= Reaction at B. ‘Taking the moments of all forces about point A and equating the resultant moment to zero, we get Ry x4—(2%6)x3-2x (442 =0 or 4Ry -36-12=0 or 4Rp = 36 + 12= 48 48 y=" =12KN, Ans. Also for equilibrium, EFy=0 or RytRy=1242=14 . Ryn 14—Ry= 14-12=2KN, Ans. 5.7. PROBLEMS ON ROLLER AND HINGED SUPPORTED BEAMS In case of roller supported beams, the reaction on the roller end is always normal to the support. All the steel trusses of the bridges is generally having one of their ends supported on rollers. The main advantage of such a support is that beam, due to change in temperature, can move easily towards left or right, on account of expansion or contraction. In case of a hinged supported beam, the reaction on the hinged end may be either vertical or inclined, depending upon the type of loading. The main advantage of a hinged end is that the beam remains stable, Hence all the stee! trusses of the bridges, have one of their end on rollers and the other end as hinged, Problem 5.8.A beam AB 1.7 m long is loaded as shown in Fig. 521. Determine the reactions at A and B. Sol. Given : Length of beam = 1,7 maa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.SUPPORT REACTIONS 105 PB q ° D 8 (@) Space diagram (®) Vector diagram Fig. 5.23 (vili) From 0 in vector diagram, draw a line paratlel to closing line 1-5. Now through s, draw a line st vertical (as the reaction Rg is vertical), intersecting the fine through O atz. Join to p. (ix) The length st represents the reaction Rg in magnitude and direction whereas the length tp gives the magnitude and direction of reaction Ry. At point A, draw a line parallel to fp as shown in Fig. 5.23 (a). By measurement, we get and Problem 5.10. A beam AB 10 m long is hinged at A and supported on rollers aver « smooth surface inclined at 30° to the horizontal at B. The beam is loaded as shown in Fig. 5.24. Determine reactions at A and B. Sol. Given: Length of beam Let and Rg = Reaction at B AEN gay SKN Fig. 5.24 The reaction Ry will be normal to the support as the beam at B is supported on the rollers, But the support at B is making an angle 30° with the horizontal or 60° with the vertical as shown in Fig. 5.24. Hence the reaction Ry is making an angle of 30° with the vertical.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.SUPPORT REACTIONS 109 Load on EF = 250 N/m = 250 x Length EF in metre = 250 x 0.6 = ISON Fig. 5.27 (@) The loaa on EF will be acting at the middle point of EF ie., at a distance of 0.6/2 = 0.3 m from E or ata distance of 0.6 + 0.3 = 0.9 m from A. The point 8 is placed on roller at an angle of 20° with the horizontal, Hence reaction at B will be normal to the surface of the roller. ‘The perpendicular distance from A on the line of action of Rg = AO = AB cos 20° = 180 x cos 20° em = 1.8.c0s 20° m as shown in Fig. 5.27 (a). For equilibrium of the beam, the moments of all forces about any point should be zero. Taking moments of all forces about point A, we get (Horizontal component at D] x AD~ [Horizontal component at C] x AC + Load on EF x 90 — Rg x AO =0 oF (100 cos 30) x 80 —(70 x sin 45) » 40 + 150 x 90 — Rp x 180 cos 20 = 0 (Note, The vertical components at D and C, passthrough the pointA. Hence moments of these vertical components about A are zero) or 6928 ~ 1979.6 + 13500~ 169.14 Ry or 1848.4 = 169.14Rp Ra Rp cos 20° Ry = 24484 _ 10907 168.14 Let Ry = Reaction at the point A The reaction atA can be resolved intwo components ie, Rae and Ray For equilibrium, BF, =0 or Ryx + 100 cos 30° — 70 sin 45° — Rysin 20 = 0 - or Rar = Rp sin 20° + 70 sin 45° — 100 cos 30° Ra sin 20° = 109,07 x 0.342 +70 x 0.707 ~ 100 x 0.866 Fig. 5.2706) = 37.3 + 49.49 - 86.6 = 0.19 N For equilibrium, ZF, =0 or Ray + 100 sin 30° + 70 cos 45° + Rg cos 20° = 150 or Ray = 150-— 100 sin 30° — 70 cos 45° — Ry cos 20° = 150 - 50 ~ 49.49 109.07 x 0.9396 = - 51.98 N (ve sign means, Ry, will be acting vertically downward)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.SUPPORT REACTIONS: 3 9, A beam AB of span 6 m is hinged at A and supported on rollers at end B and carries load as shown in Determine the reactions atA and B. [Ans. Ryy = 5.87 KN, Ray = 3.222 KN. Ry = 6kKN kN otm-ohe—15m—efe— 2m —efe= 1.5m Fig. 5.32 10. A beam AB of span 8 m is subjected to the uniformly distributed load of 1 kN/m over the entire length and the moment 32 kN/m at C as shown in Fig, 5.33. Determine the reactions at the both ends. [Ass Ry = 0, Ry = 8 KN] 32kN-m m Fig. 5.33 11. Assimply supported beam AB is subjected to a distributed load increasing from 1500 N/m to 4500 N/m from end A toend B. The span AB = 6 m. Determine the reactions at the supports. Fig. 5.34 samate = 20006 [Hint. Area of rectangle = 1500 x6 = 9000 N, Ares of triangle = =°C*S = 9900 N.C.G. of rectangle from A=3m,CS. of triangle from A= 3x6 =4m. EMy = 0, 6 Rp = 9000 x 3 + 9000 x 4 = 63000 Rp = 10500 N. Ry = (9000 + 9000) — 10500 = 7500 N}aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ANALYSIS OF PERFECT FRAMES 7 Now let us consider the equilibrium of the various joints. Joint B Let F, = Force in member AB F,,= Force in member BC Let the force F is acting towards the joint B and the force F; is acting away* from the joint B as shown in Fig. 6.6. (The reaction Ry is acting vertically up. The force F; is horizontal. The reaction Re will be balanced by the vertical component of F;. The vertical component of F, must act downwards to balance Rg. Hence F must act towards the joint B so that its vertical component is downward. Now the horizontal component of F is towards the joint B. Hence force F must act away from the joint to batance the horizontal component of F,). Fig. 6.6 Resolving the forces acting on the joint B, vertically F, sin 60° = 15 1515 F i= go = daee = 17-32KN (Compressive) As F, is pushing the joint B, hence this force will be compressive. Now resolving the forces horizontally, we get F,= F, cos 60° = 17.32 x 3 = 8.66 KN (tensile) ‘As Fis pulling the joint B, hence this force will be tensile. Joint C Let Fy = Force in the member AC F,= Force inthe member BC ‘The force F has already been calculated in magnitude A and direction. We have seen that force Fis tensile and hence it will pull the joint C. Hence it must act away from the joint C as © shown in Fig. 6.7. Fs Resolving forces vertically, we get Fy sin 30° = 5kN 8 @ nm 3% 5 : Fax Sap = 1OKN (Compressive) fest AS the force Fy is pushing the joint C, hence it will be compressive. Fig 6.7 Problem 6.2. A truss of span 7.5 m carries a point load of I KN at joint Das shown in Fig. 6.8. Find the reactions and forces in the members of the truss. Sol. Let us first determine the reactions R, and’ Ry ‘Taking moments about A, we get Ry x 7.5 = $x i 5 Re= 7575 .667 KN “The direction of Fz can also be taken towards the joint B. Actually when we consider the equilibrium of the joint B, ifthe magnitude of F and F2 comes out to be positive then the assumed direction of F and F are correct. But if any ‘one of them is havinga negative magnitude then the assumed direction of thal force is wrong. Correct direction then will be the reverse of the assumedaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ANALYSIS OF PERFECT FRAMES 121 Resolving forces, horizontally, we get or ise or — Fy + Fs = 10.392 x 2 = 20.784 or Fe4 P= 20784 (0 -Fa2F) Fy = 20284 «10.392 4N and Fas ~Fs=—10.392 kN The magnitude of F, is ve, hence the assumed direction of F;, is wrong. The correct direction F, will be as shown in Fig. 6.15 (a). as Fs = 10.392 (Compressive) and Fo= 10.392 (Tensile) Now consider the joint £. Joint E Let Fy = Force in member ED Let F; is acting as shown in Fig. 6.16. ‘The forces F; and Fs are known in magnitude and directions. They are compressive hence they will be pushing, the joint E as shown in Fig. 6.16. Resolving the forces along BED, we get Fy + 12.008 60° = Fy or Fy Fy-12x05 = 20-6 = 14 kN (Compressive) As F; is positive hence the assumed direction of F; is correct. Problem 6.4, A truss of span 9 mis loaded as shown in Fig. 6.17, Find the reactions and forces in the member of the truss. Sol. Let us first calculate the reactions Ry and Rp, Fig 6.16 Fig. 6.17aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ANALYSIS OF PERFECT FRAMES 125 Member Force in member AC 10KN (Comp.) AG oO ce 125 KN (Tens.) cD 75 KN (Comp.) DG 10 KN (Comp.) DE 8.25 kN (Comp) DH 1.25 KN (Tens.) GH 7SKN (Tens.) EH o EF 8.25 kN (Comp.) AB oO HE 13.75 KN (Tens) BF 11 KN (Comp.) Problem 6.5. plane truss is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. 6.19. Determine the nature and magnitude of the forces in the members 1, 2 and 3. Sol. First calculate the reactions Ry and Rp ‘Taking moments about A, we get Rg x4=1x 1000 y= 12 = 250N Ry = 1000 - 250 = 750 N From figure, we know that ese z = V3? 42.25? = 3. 608 08 00 = 575 AC = V3? + 2,25? = 3.75) and Fig. 6.19aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ANALYSIS OF PERFECT FRAMES 129 Now consider the equilibrium of joint 3. Joint B Joint D calculated. They are 1666.66 N and 1000 N respectively as shown in Fig. 6.21 (a). or or or Resolving vertically, we get F gp = 1000 N (Compressive) Fea = Fea = 1333.33 (Tensile) Now consider the joint D. The forces in member CD and BD have already been Let Fo, = Force in member DA, and Fg = Force in member DE Fig. 6.21 (a) Resolving forces vertically, we get 1000 + 1666.66 sin @ = F4p sin ® + Frp sin® 1000 + 1666.66 x 0.6 = Fup x 0.6 + Fep x 0.6 1000 1666.66 = 3333.32 of) Fan + Fen = 06 Resolving forces horizontally, we get 1666.66 cos @ + Fap cos 8 = Fep cos 6 1666.66 + Fyp = Feo ot Fe - Fay = 1666.66 (ii) Adding equations (i) and (ii), we get gp = 3333.32 + 1666.66 = 4999.98 4999. Fay = 3 = 2499.99 = 2500 N (Compressive) Substituting this value in equation (i), we get Fap + 2500 = 3333.32 & Fap = 3333.32 — 2500 = 833.32 N (Tensile) Now the forces are shown in a tabular form below : Member Force in the member Nature of force | AB 1333.33 N Teasile i BC 1333.33 N Tensile | cD 1666.66 N Compressive | DE 2500 N Compressive AD 83332N Teasile BD 1000 N Compressive loads (with or without vertical loads), 6.5.3. Method of Joints applied to Trusses carrying Horizontal Loads. If a truss carries horizontal inged at one end and supported on rollers at the other end, then the support reaction at the roller supported end will be normal, whereas the support reactions at the hinged end will consists of : (() horizontal reaction and (if) vertical reaction. The horizontal reaction will be obtained by adding algebraically all the horizontal loads ; whereas the vertical reaction will be obtained by subtracting the roller support reaction from the total vertical loads. Now the forces in the members of the truss can be determined.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ANALYSIS OF PERFECT FRAMES 133 Joint F ‘The forces Ff and Frc are known in magnitude and directions. The assumed directions of the forces Fog and Fe are shown in Fig. 6.23 (d). Resolving the forces vertically, we get 5S x sin 6 + Foe sin 8 =3 SsinO+3 sin@ or For=- Fig. 623 4) Resolving the forces h tally, we get 12 +5 cos @ = Foy + Fpg.cos 8 or 1245x082 Fop+0 or 12442 For Fop = 12+ 4= 16 KN (Tensile) Now consider the joint D. Joint D “The forces Fie and Fp are known in magnitude and direction. The assumed directions of Fpg and Fpg are shown ig. 6.23 (c)- Resolving vertically, we get Fog O= Foe x sin 8 =0 o Fog =0 Resolving forces horizontally, we get Fig. 6.23 (e) Fog = Fep =8 KN S Fig = 8 KN (Compressive) Now consider the joint G. Joint G The forces Fig and Fg are known in magnitude and direction. The assumed directions of Fee and Fep are shown 6.23(), ig the forces vertically, we get Fog sin 8 = Fg sin 0+ 6=6 6 sin 6” 0.6 = 10KN (Tensile) 1g forces horizontally, Fop = 16~ Fog cos ® = 16-10 x0.8=8kN (Tensile) or Foe=aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ANALYSIS OF PERFECT FRAMES 137 In this method, a section line is passed through the members, in which forces are to be determined as shown in Fig. 6.25. Thesection lineshould be drawn in such a way that it does not cut more than three members in which the forces are unknown, The part of the truss, on any one side of the section line, is treated as a free body in equilibrium under the action of external forces on that part and forces in the members cut by the section fine. The unknown forces in the members are then determined by using equations of equilibrium as YF =0. SF =0 and IM=0. (a) Given Truss hy Lett Part (e) Right Pant Fig. 6.25 If the magnitude of the forces, in the members cut by a section line, is posi direction is currect. If magnitude of a force is negative, then reverse the direction of t Problem 6.11. Find the forces in the members AB and AC of the truss shown in Fig, 6.26 using method of section. Sol, First determine the reaction Ry and Re. The distance of line of at point Bis AB x cos 60° or 2.5 x fe then the assumed t Force. Taking moments about point B, we get Rox $= 20 «1.25 = 201.25 5 and Ry=20-5=1SkN Now draw a section line (1.1), cutting the mem- bers AB and BC in which forces are to be determined. Now consider the equilibrium of the left part of the truss. This part is shown in Fig. 6.27. Let the directions of Fa and Fc are assumed as shown in Fig. 6.27. Now taking the moments of all the forces acting ‘om the left part about point C, we get 15 «5 +(Fyy x AC)" = 0 Re =5KN (2 ‘The perpendicular distance between the line of action of Fga and point C is equal to AC) Fig 6.27 “The momeat of the force Fay about point G, i also taken by resolving the force Fgq ino vertical and horizontal ‘componentsat point B. The moment ofthe horizontal component about Cis zero, whereas the moment of vertical component will he (Fag x sin 60°) x5 = Fu, x 5 x sin 60° of Fax x 5 x c0s 30°, (sin 60° = cos 30°)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ANALYSIS OF PERFECT FRAMES iw Sol. First calculate reactions Ry and Ry. Taking moments about A, Ry x 16 = 80x 12 2 Ry =Total vertical load — Ry = 80 ~ 60 = 20 kN Let us now find the forces in the members 1, 2 and 3 by the method of section. ‘Take a section ¥-¥ passing through the members |, 2 and 3. Now consider the equilibrium of lett portion shown in Fig. 6.31 (a). Let F), Fz and Fare the forces in the members 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Their assumed directions are also P NY: shown in Fig. 6.31 (a). ‘Taking moments of all forces (here Ry, Fy, F>and F;) about point D, we get Ryx4eFy x45 Ryx4_20x4 45 45 = 17.78 KN (Tens Now taking the moments about C, we get Fi Ic). Ans, Fig, 6.31 (a) Ry 8 = Fy « Perpendicular distance between F; and point ait ‘To find the perpendicular distance between the line of action of Fy and point C,, first find angle CDH DE _45 tan 0 = FCF ao stan! $3 248.37" a O stan! 248.37" and tan os 22 2 7.125° 497712 3 LCDH = 0+ 0. = 4837 + 7.125 From triangle DEC, we know that CD =V4S? +4? = 602maa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ANALYSIS OF PERFECT FRAMES 145 Now taking the moments about A, we get Rgx 12=2KAC +1 XAD+ 1X AE x 3464 + 1 x 6.928 + 1x4 = 17.856 Now draw the section line (1-1), passing through members DG, DF and EF in which the forces are to be determined. Consider the equilibrium of the right part of the truss. This part is shown in Fig. 6.33 (a). Let Fo@ Fro and Fey are the forces in members DG, FD and EF respectively. Let their directions are assumed a shown in Fig. 6.33 (a). Taking moments of all forces acting on right part about point F. we get Ry x 4+ Fog x FG or 1.49 x4 4 Fig x (4 x sin 30°) = 0 (2 FG x sin 30°) Fig. 0.33(@) = 149 x4 “ Foo = Tx sin 30 = ve sign shows that the farce Fc is compressive. Fg = 2.98 KN (Compressive). Ans. Now taking the moments about point D, we get Ry x BD cos 30 = Fre x BD x sin 30 or ° Rp x 008 30 = Fre x sin 30 1.49 x cos 30 _ 1.49 x 0.866 sin 30 05 =258KN (Tensile). Ans. Now taking the moments of all forces acting on the right part about B, we get Fri Fro distance between Fp and B = Fro =0. Ans, ance between Fry and B is not zero) 6.7. GRAPHICAL METHOD The force in a perfect frame can also be determined by a graphical method. The analytical methoxs {such as method of joints and method of sections) give absolutely correct results, but sometimesit isnot possible to get the results from analytical methods. Then a graphical method can be used conveniently to get the results. The graphical method also provides reasonable accurate results. ‘The naming of the various members of a frame are done according b 6 1 Bow's notations. According to this notation of force is designated by two capital letters which are written on cither side of the line of action of FORE AS the force. A force with letters A and Bon either side of the line of action Fig oe is shown in Fig, 6.34. This force will be called AB.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ANALYSIS OF PERFECT FRAMES 149 (i) The vector diagram will be started from joint C where forces in two members are unknown. Take any point q and draw a vertical line gr downward equal to load 1000 N to some suitable scale. From r, draw aa line rs parallel to RS and from q draw a line qs parallel to QS, meeting the first line at s. Now qr’ is the vector diagram for the joint C, Now mark the arrows on the joint C. The arrow in the member RS will be towards the joint C, whereas the arrow in the member SQ will be away from the joint C as shown in Fig, 6.38 (4). 10900 10900 1000N 10098 2m [2m He rf | ~ Fe (9 Given Figure (0) Space Diagram (6) Vector Diagsam Fig. 6.38 (4) Now draw the vector diagram for the joints Band D similstly.. Mark the arrows on these joints as shown in Fig. 6.38 (b). Naw measure the various sides of the vector diagram. The forces in the members are given in a tabular form as: Member | ‘| = For amber Nature of force According to given truss | According to Bow"s force inmenver | so notaiion | AB Pr | 1333 N Tensile BC | os 1333 N Tensile cp SR 1666 N Compressive DE i RV 2500 N Compressive AD } vr 833N Tensile BD | st 1000 N Compressive From the vector diagram, the reactions Ry and Ry at A and E can be determined in magnitude and directions. Reaction Ry = rv = 2500 N. be towards point £, Reaction Ry = vp = 2000 N. This will be away from the point A as shown in Fig. 6.38 (b). The reaction, Ry is parallel to vp. HIGHLIGHTS L. ‘The relation beaween number of joints (/)and number of members (n) in a perfect frame is given by n= 2j— 3. 2. Different frame is a frame is which number of numbers are less than (2)—3) whereas a redundant frame is a frame in which number of members are more than (2j 3).aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ANALYSIS OF PERFECT FRAMES 153 8 10, 2 BB 1s, 1s, 16, Determine the forces in the truss shown in Fi of 24 KN. 6.46 which carries a horizontal load of 16 kN and a vertical toad [Ams. AC = 24 kN (Tens.) AD = 1OKN (Comp.) CD =24KN (Tens.) CB = 24KN (Tens.) BD = 30KN (Comp.)] Fig 6.4 Find the forces in the member AB and AC of the truss shown in Fig. 6.39 of question 1, using method of sections. (Ans, AB = 4.33 KN (Comp) AC =2.5 kN (Comp.)] the members marked 1, 3, Sof truss shown in Fig. 6.40 of question 2, using method of sections. (Ans. F, = 333 N Comp.) Fy=STLSN (Tens) F5=577.5N Tens] Find the forces in the members DE, CE and CB of the truss, shown in Fig. 6.41 of equation 3, using method of sections. [Ans DE = 3.5 kN (Comp.) CE =2.598 kN (Comp.) BC = 4.33 kN (Tens.)] Using method of section, determine the forces in the members CD, FD and FE of the truss shown in Fig. 6.42 of question 4. [Ams. CD = 800 N (Comp.) FD = 400 N (Comp.) FE = 600 N Tens.)] Using method of section, determine the forces in the members CD, ED and EF of the truss shown in Fig. 6.47. Ties [Ans. CD =4.216 kN (Comp.) ED = 3.155 kN (Tens) EF = 2.58 kN (Tens)} Fry. 647 Find the forces in the members AB, AC and BC of the truss shown in Fig. 6.39 of question 1, using graphical method. Using graphical method, determine the magnitude and nature of the forces in the members of the truss shown in Fig. 6.40 of question 2. Determine the forces in all the members of a cantilever truss shown in Fig. 6.44 of question 6, using graphical method, Also determine the sections of the cantilever.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA 157. ---—— 2m ———4} t Sen be3em-4 Fig. 72(0) Let Y= The distance of the C.G. of the T-section from the bottom line GF (which is axis of reference) @, = Area of rectangle ABCD = 12 x 3 = 36 cm? ys = Distance of C.G. of area a; from bottom line GF = 10 + 5 =115em ap = Area of rectangle EFGH = 10 x 3 = 30 cm? 2 Distance of C.G. of area a; from bottom'line GF = 2 =5em. he '2em —__—++ A rv oem Fig. 7.2 (6)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA 161 Using the relation, aii + aey2 + ays a +4) +05 50x25 +982% 2.5 +125 x6.67 _ 232.9 . 50+ 9.824125 SS 397 Similarly, let Xbe the distance between c.g. of the lamina and the left line CD. Area | ay =50 em? Sem Area2 cm? Ar 4. ge = 2.5-—om = 1.44 3x 5 Gy ome Atom Area3 a3 = 125 cm? x 2254+5+25= 10cm. Now using the relation, aX + Oxy + ayy 10 x 7.5 + 9.82 x 1.44 + 12.5 x 10 Dome em ay $43 Fay 50 + 9.82 + 12.5 514.14 =9ga7 = 7llem. Hence the C.G, of the uniform lamina is at a distance of 3.22 cm from the bottom line AB and 7.11 cm from the left line CD. Ans. Problem 7.5. From a rectangular lamina ABCD 10 cm x 12 cm a rectangular hole of 3 cm > em xy x 4 emis cut as shown in Fig. 7.6. A } 8 Find the ©. of the remainder lamina. Sol. The section shown in Fig. 7.6, is having a cut hole. The centre of gravity of a section with a cut hole is determined by considering the main section first asa complete one, and then subtracting the area of the cut-out hole, ie., by taking the area of the cut-out hole as negative. Let Fis the distance between the C.G. of the section with a cut hole from the bottom line DC. Area of rectangle ABCD = 10 x 12 = 120 cm’ +, = Distance of CG. of the rectangle ABCD from bottom line DC Y Z WHaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA 165 Substituting the value of x = 4, in equation (i), yed Hence the co-ordinates of point A are 4, 4. Now divide the shaded area into large small areas each of height y and width dx as shown in Fig. 7.8. Then area dA of the strip is given by dA = ydx = (yy —y2) de (iii) where y, nate of point D which lies on the straight line OA ‘yz = Co-ordinate of the point £ which lies on the parabola OA. The horizontal co-ordinates of the points D and E are same. The values of y, and y2.can be obtained in terms of x from equations (if) and (i), e y= xand ya =F Substituting these values in equation (if), 2 tax Ja iv) The distance of the C.G. for the area dA from y-axis is given by, xtex ‘And the distance of the C.G. of the area dA from x-axis is given by, (2 yyy) 2 Yr=xand y= 0) Now let = Distance of C.G. of shaded area of Fig. 7.8 from y-axis F = Distance of C.G. of shaded arca of Fig. 78 from x-axis. Now using equation (7.2 A), es ne wherex? =x aA om 2 =[x-] a [See equation (iv)] fra- “(a )« (7 _xvaries from 010 4) 0 4aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA 169 Problem 7.9. Determine the centre of gravity of the arca of the circular sector OAB of radius Rand central angle a as shown in Fig, 7.10. Sol. The given area is symmetrical about x-axis. Hence the C.G. of the area will fie on x-axis. This means 0. To find X, the moment of small areas are to be taken along y-axis. Divide the area OAB into a large number of ‘riangular elements cach of altitude R and base Rd@as shown shown by OCD in 2d. The area WA of in Fig. 7.10, Such triangular element is which altitude OC = R and base CD this triangular element is given by, OCxCD _RxRd0 dA= 2 2 Redo 2 ‘The C.G. of this triangular element is at G 2s vore2ix where 0G = 5x OCHZxR ‘The distance of C.G. of area dA from y-axis is given by, x" = 0G x cos Rx cos 6 Now using equation (7.2 A),aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA 13 Substituting the value of y? in equation (é), we get Moment of total area about x-axis. 17 2 a? | ty “2. laa EES 3 5-3 Flee) 2 wie a 3 [ow 3 3 The total area A of the given figure is given by A -fu =f yede (iv) 1a From equation (ii), ye [5 (@-2) = Sasa . wv) Now equation (iv) is, Then momient of total area A about x. (vii) ‘The equations (iié) and (vif) give the moment of total area about x-axis. Hence equating these equations, we get abe 3 a0 4 4b 3 ‘nab- 3x" To find, take the moment,of smail area dA about y-axis. ‘The C.G. of area dA is at a distance of x from y-axis. Moment of area dA about y-axis = x.dA Ans. =xy.de Please refer some standard Test Book of Mathematics.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA 177 the plane of area A and parallel to axis X-X. h = Distance between AB and X-X. Consider a strip parallel to X-X axis at a distance y from the X-X axis. Let the area of the strip = dA Moment of inertia of area dA about X-X axis = dAy’. Moment of inertia of the total area about X-X axis, yg or Ig=%dAy* Ai) Moment of inertia of the area dA about AB = dath+ yy Ah? + y* + 2hy). Moment of inertia of the total areaA about AB, yp = LAA? +»? + hy] = YdAl? + SdAy* + EdA hy. As hor #?isconstant and hence they canbe taken outside the summation sign. Hence the above equation becombes [pp = WEA + LdAy? + 2ABAAY. But Ed4 = A. Also from equation (i), BdAy? = fg. Substituting these values in the above equation, we get Tap = 10. A + Ig 2h LdAy. wii) But dA . y represents the moment of area of strip about X-X axis. And ZdAy represents the moments of the total area about X-¥ axis. But the moments of the total area about X-X axis is equal to the product of total area (A) and the distance of the C.G. of the total area from X-X axis. As the distance of the C.G. of the total area from X-X axis is zero, hence ZdAy will be equal to zero. Substituting this value in equation (ii), we get Iyp= A tig+0 or Tag = Ig + Al? (7.8). Thus if the moment of inertia of an area with respect to.an axis in the plane of area (and passing through the C.G. of the area) is known, the moment of inertia with respect to any parallel axis in the plane may be determined by using the above equation. 7.10, DETERMINATION OF MOMENT OF INERTIA ‘The moment of inertia of the following sections will be determined by the method of integration : 1, Moment of inertia of a rectangular section, 2. Moment of inertia of a circular section, 3. Moment of inertia of a triangular section, 4. Moment of inertia of a uniform thin rod. 7.10.1. Moment of Inertia of a Rectangular Section Ast Case. Moment of inertia of the Rectangular section about the X-X axis passing through the C.G. of the section. Fig. 7-15 shows a rectangular section ABCD having width = band depth = d. Let X-Xis the horiozntal axis passing through the C.G. of the rectangular section. We want to determined the moment of inertia of the rectangular section about X-X axis. The moment of inertia of the given section about X-¥ axis is represent by lax.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA 181 ‘Then from equation (7.13), the moment of inertia, of the outer circle about X-X axis = we And momentof inertia of the cut-out circle about XX axis x “6 Moment of inertia of the hollow circular section, about X-X axis, Jc= Moment of inertia of outer circle—moment of inertia of cut-out circle Nye kB Le 2g -Ge=g-a] Similarly, y= a [p'-a4. 7.10.3. Moment of Inertia of a Triangular Section Ist Case, Moment of inertia of a triangular section about its base. Fig. 7.20 shows a triangular section ABC of base width =b and height = k. Consider a small strip of thickness dy at a distance y from the vertex A. ‘Area of the strip, = DE. dy mo) The distance DE in terms of y, 6 and h is obtained from two similar triangles ADE and ABC as (ace) kK >——_f ‘Substituting this value of DE in equation (i), we Fig. 7.20 get Area of strip 2 ody. Distance of the strip from the base = (-y) Moment of inertia of the strip about the base. = Area of strip x (Distance of strip from base)* By hy 22 hv oy. The moment of inertia of the whole triangular section about the base (Ic) is obtained by integrating the above equation between the limits 0 toh. hea f’ 2 h-yeay 0aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA 185 Problem 7.12, Fig. 7.23 shows a T-section of dimensions 10 x 10 x 2 cm. Determine the moment of inertia of the section about the horizontal and vertical axes, passing through the centre of gravity of the section. +} loem A lcm Fig.7.23 Sol. First of all, find the location of centre of gravity of the given T-section. The given section is symmetrical about the axis ¥-Y and hence the C.G. of the section will lie on ¥-Y axis. The given section is split up into two rectangles ABCD and EFGH for calculating the C.G. of the section. Let} =Distance of the C.G. of the section from the bottom line GF a; = Area of rectangle ABCD = 10x 2= 20 cm” ‘Y= Distance of C.G. of the area @; from the bottom line GF = 8 + 1 = 9 cm a = Area of rectangle EFGH = 8 x 2 = 16cm? dom ya = Distance of C.G. of rectangle EFGH from the bottom line GF = Fu Wit Oar _ 20x94 164 _ 1804 64 Using the relation, a ee 38 777 cm. Hence the C.G. of the given section lies at a distance of 6.777 cm from GF. Now find the moment of inertia of the 7-section. Now, Let fg, = Moment of inertia of rectangle (1) about the horizontal axis and passing through its C.G. 4g, = Moment of inertia of rectangle (2) about the horizontal axis and passing through the C.G. of the rectangle (2) ‘Ay = The distance between the C.G. of the given section and the C.G. of the rectangle (1) ~J=9.0-6.777 = 2.223 cm ‘The distance between the C.G. of the given section and the C.G. of the rectangle (2) =) —y2=6.777 - 4.0 = 2.777 cm. fyaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA 189) ae % 10. 2. B. M.O.L. of semi-circle about a line through its C.G. parallel to CD MOLL. of semi-circle about CD — Area x [Distance of C.G. of semi-circle from DC}? = 3925 - 157.1 « 4.247 = 3925 - 2824.28 = 1100.72 em* Distance of C.G. of semi-circle from AB = 25 ~4.24 = 20.76 om M.O.L.of semi-circle about AB = 1100.72 + 157.1 x 20.76 = 1100.72 + 67706.58 = 68807.30 cm* M.O.L of shaded portion about AB = 104,167 68807.30 = 35359.7 em’. Ans. HIGHLIGHTS ‘The point, through which the whole weight of the body acts. is known as centre of gravity. ‘The point, at which the total area of a plane figure is assumed to be concentrated, is known as centroid of that area ‘The centroid and centre of gravity are at the same point. ‘The centre of gravity of a uniform rod lies at its middle point. ‘The C.G. of a triangle lies ata point where the three medians of a triangle meet. ‘The C.G. of a parallelogram or a rectangle is ata point where its diagonal meet each other. The C.G. ofa circle lies at its centre. ‘The C.G. ofa body consisting of different areas is given by ax, +238) + ayes + ay tanya ———— and 5 ‘ay +34 + 0) +03 443+ Co-ordinates of the C.G. of the body from axis of reference where ¥ and 4,3, 3, «= Different areas of the sections of the body X1,2250% Distances of the C.G. of the areas aj, a2, @3, -.... ftom Y-axis YY Distances of the C.G. of the areas at, 25 635 0 from X-axis. Ita given section is symmetrical about X-X axis or Y- Yaxis, the C.G. of the section will lie on the axis symmetry. ‘The moment of inertia of an area (or mass) about an axis is the product of area (or mass) and square of the distance of the C.G. of the area (or mass) from that axis. Itis represented by /. Radius of gyration of a body (ora given lamina) is the distance from an axis of reference where the whole mass (orarea) of the given body is assumed to be concentrated s0 as not to after the moment of inertia about the given axis, Itis represented by k. Mathematically, k= V f ‘According to theorem of perpendicular axis fzz = fy + Iyy where Lyyand fyy = Moment of inertia ofa plane section about two mutually perpendicular axes 4-X and ¥-¥ In the plane of the section, f72 = Moment of inertia of the section perpendicular to the plane and passing through the intersection of X-X and Y-¥ axes. According to the theorem of parallel axis fag = Ig +Ah? where J = Moment of inertia of a given area about an axis passing through C.G. of the area J4q = Moment of inertia of the given area about an axis AB, which is parallel to the axis passing through G +h = Distance between the axis passing through G and axis AB A= Areaof the section Moment of inertia of a rectangular section p (@ about an horizontal axis passing through C.G. = a (about an horizontal axis passing through base = 9aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA 10 mm 10+5=15mm a3=10x20= 200mm’, x5 = 5mm. y: ag= 10 x 10 = 100 mm’, xq= 45 mm, y ain # apie + aaa + oaty _ 1500 + 12000 + 1000 + 4500 (ai + a + 03404) 1000 $4124144S=19mm. Ans. 11 aay2 + @ay3 + aor4 _ 4500 + 2000 - 2000 + 1500 a + ay + ay Oy 1000 34542-2414 26mm. Ans] {A thin homogeocous ‘ire is bent into a tiangular shape ABC such that AB = 240 mi, BC = 260 mm ana AC = 100 mm. Locate the C.G. of the wire with respect to co-ordinate axes. Angle at A is right angle. (Hint. First determine angles c and f. Use sine rule BC sin 90° © si AC x sin 90° _ 100 o> BC 260 a sin B 240 output of machine Pxy-Wxx> Wax or Pxy>(Wxx+Wr) >2We es We Pxy Bes Adi) We ym Substituting this value in equation (ii), we get Output = Wo.09 or But from equation (9.3), net or 50% (iii) Thus the condition for irreversibility or self-locking of a machine is that its efficiency should be less than 50%. Problem 9.1. An effort of 100 N is applied to a machine to lift a load of 900 N. The distance moved by the effort is 100 cm. The load is raised through a distance of 10 cm. Determine the mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and the efficiency of the machine. Sol. Given : Effort applicd, P=100N Load lifted, W=900N Distance moved by effort, y = 100 cm Distance moved by load, x= 10cm (@ Mechanical advantage (M.A.) is given by equation (9.5) as (ii) Velocity ratio (V.R.) is given by equation (9.4) as =% 21, VR.=t= 1 = 100, Ans. (tii) Efficiency (n) is given by equation (9.7) as 90 Fo 09 oF 0.9x 100= 90%, Ans.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.UFTING MACHINES: 245 9.8.2. Expression for Maximum Efficiency Let VR. = Velocity ratio of a machine ‘Then But from Art. 9.5.1, we have fii) ‘With the increase of load, effort increases. With the increase of effort (P), the value of E decreases and hence efficiency increases. If the value of Pis so large that the value of $ is nogligible orzero, the efficiency will be maximum. Hence maximum efficiency will be obtained by putting the value of = Oin equation (ii) 1 Met = (VR) 9.10 B) Problem 9.5. In a lifting machine, an effort of 15 N raised a load of 770 N. What is the mechanical advantage ? Find the velocity ratio if the efficiency at this load is 60%. Ifon the machine an effort of 25 N raised a load of 1320 N, what is the efficiency ? What will be the effort required to raise a load of 500 N ? Calculate the maximum mechanical advantage and the maximum efficiency. (AMIE Winter, 1977) Sol. Given : First Case, Effort, Load, Efficiency, Using equation (9.5), Using equation (9.7), Second Case, Effort, Load, The velocity ratio will be same asaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.LIFTING MACHINES 257 Problem 9.15. The number of teeth on the worm-wheel ofa single-threaded worm and worm wheel is 60, Calculate the velocity ratio if the diameter of effort wheel is 25 cm and that of load drum is 12.5.em. The effort required to lift a load of 600 N by this machine is 20 N. Find the efficiency of the machine, Sol. Given No. of teeth on worm-wheel, T= 60 Dia. of effort wheel =25em <. Radius of effort wheel, 12.5 em. Dia. of load drum Radius of load drum, Effort, P =20.N Load, W = 600N (0 V.R. for a single-threaded worm and worm wheel is given by equation (9.15). 9.8.4, Single Purchase Crab Winch. Fig. 9.5 shows a single purchase crab winch, which consists of an ‘effort axle’ and a load axle. On effort axle, a small toothed wheel known as pinion is mounted. On load axle, a large toothed wheel known as spur wheel is mounted in such a way that the spur wheel meshes with the pinion. Both the axles are suitably mounted on a rigid frame as shown. ‘A rope is fixed to the load axle and is wound a few turns round it. The free end of the rope carries the load W. Effort is applied at the end of the lever which is fixed to the effort axle. By rotating the lever the pinion is rotated when in turn rotates the spur wheel and the rope is wound on the load axle, thus lifting the load attached to the free end of the rope. Let W = Load lifted, P = Effort applied, T, = Number of teeth on the pinion, T, = Number of teeth on the spur wheel, L = Length of lever arm, and D = Diameter of the load axle. Consider one revolution of the lever arm. Distance moved by effort in one revolution = 2nd When lever arm makes one revolution, the pinion also makes one revolution. The spur wheel makes qh qu 5‘ 1x = | revolution. Also the load axle makes =* revolution. Ty thaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.272 ENGINEERING MECHANICS, LetR jormal reaction Force of friction = wR. As the load W is lifted upwards, the force of friction will be acting downwards. All the forces acting ‘on the body are shown in Fig. 9.17 (b). Resolving forces along the inclined plane, F4Wsina=P' cosa or uR+ Wsina =P’ cosa Co FepR) .@ Resolving forces normal to the inclined plane R= Weos a+ P’ sina Substituting the value of R in equation (i), we get iW cos ca +P’ sin a) + Wsin a = PY cos. But wetang= cos @ £8 (Weosa+P sina) +Wsina=P cosa cos > or wit SOS Ey py SD SING Wsina =P cosa cos > cos > Multiplying by cos ¢, we get Wein $ cos c+ P sing sin oc + W sin ox cos $= P’ cos a.cos or W [sin cos ex + sin a. cos 4] = P’ [cos a.cos - sin ar sin 4] or Wsin (a+ 4) =P’ cos (a +4) sin (a +9) Perey Mian (a +e) (9.26) Now P’ is the effort applied at the mean radius of the screw-jack. But in case of screw-jack, effor actually applied at the end of the handle as shown in Fig. 9.1. The effort applied at the end of the handle is P. Moment of P’ about the axis of the screw = P’ x Distance of P’ from the axis of the screw = P’ x Mean radius of the screw-jack d aP xs. Moment of P about the axis of the screw = Px Distance of P from axis =PxL. Equating the two moments, we get P’ x g =PxL did PeP xzpaap XP (9.27) Substituting the value of P” from equation (9.14) into equation (9.15), we get atx wran(a+d) (9.28) 2k Equation (9.16) gives the relation between the effort required at the end of the handle and the load lifted.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is 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unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.328 ENGINEERING MECHANICS. Now let the system shown in Fig. 10.28 (a) be virtually displaced as shown in Fig, 10.28 (b). The total virtual work done consists of work done by moment* M and work done by force F. ©. Total virtual work done = M x 80 + F x &x But according to principle of virtual work, the total virtual work should be zero. oe Mx80+Fxdr=0 Substituting the values of &x from equation (iv) into the above equation, we get 2S Mx60+F| -Rsino0 - x sia 8.cos 038 __ RY gin? (Ey a @ L Cancelling “88 throughout, we get M+F| -Rsino-*—sn0e080 __] 2 L 1-(ppsere Roos @ ~6 LV1- (FY sire or ome tha | Ans. “vi -(iywe HIGHLIGHTS 1. Viral ry displacement. Hence virtual work is the work done by a force on abody due to small virtual displacement (:e., imaginary displacement). 2. Work is the product of force and distance moved by a body in the direction of the force. Work done is given by Work done = P x S... if force and distance are in the same direction = Pcos 8 x S..if force is making angle @ with the direction of motion of body Force and 5S = Distance moved by body. 3. Work done will be zero ifthe force is acting at an angle of 90° with the direction of motion of the body. 4, If the point of application of the force moves in the direction of the force, the work done is positive whereas if the point of application of the force moves in a direction opposite to the force, the work done is negative. 5. The unit of work in M.KS. system is kgf-m whereas in S.1.system the unit of work is Nm (Newton metre). 6. Principle of virtual work states, “If a system of forces acting on a body or a system of bodies be in equilibrium and ifthe system is imagined to undergo a small displacement consistent with the geometrical conditions, then the algebraic sum of the virtual work done by the forces of the system is zero.”” or semeelo where “Work done by moment is equal to the product of moment and angular displacement.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.334 ENGINEERING MECHANICS A 2xN «o,= Angular velocity of the driver = 27 wz = Angular velocity of the driven pulley = a If there is no slip between the belt and the pulleys and also the thickness of the belt is negligible, then peripheral speed of the two pulleys should be same. A\so this will be equal to the velocity of belt. Hence if V is the velocity of belt, then Ve wr S02 2aN2 a and ry = Sete. er 60 “27> 6 *2 60 2 or Nydy = Nady Ma or eR (11.2 A) The above equation is same as equation (11.1). N; In the above equation “= is known as velocity ratio, Also from the above equation it is clear that speed of the pulley is inversely proportional to its diameter. Problem 11.1. Find the speed of a shaft which is driven with the help of a belt by an engine running at 200 r-p.m. The diameter of the engine pulley is 51 om and that of shaft is 30 cm. Sol. Given: Speed of engine (driver), My = 200 rpm. Dia. of engine (driver) pulley, d, =51 cm Dia. of driven shaft, 4,=30¢em Let No = speed of driven shaft. Using equation (111.1), we get 2 x 200 =340 rpm, Ans. Problem 11.2. If in the above equation, the thickness of the belt is 10 mm, then find the speed of the shaft Sol. Giver Thickness, ¢= 10 mm = 1 em Ny = 200 rp.m., d; = 51 em, dp =30 em Let N2= Speed of shaft. Using equation (11.2), we get S141 52 -(021)* = 3, 200=305.4epm. Ans. 11.2.2. Slip of the Belt. When the driver pulley rotates, it carries the belt, due to a firm grip between its surface and the belt. The firm grip between the pulley and the belt is obtained by friction. This firm grip isaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.340 ENGINEERING MECHANICS. Nz, d3 and Ng, ds = Speed and dia. of pulleys 3 and 4 respectively. From equation (11.1), we know that the velocity ratio of pulleys 1 and 2 is given by Nad Mae Similarly, the velocity ratio of pulleys 3 and 4 is given by Ne_ds . wa endl) Multiplying equations (2) and (ii), we get Na Ng Ns But N= Ns as the pulleys 2 and 3 are keyed to the same shaft Ne Gis 11.6) Ni dxd, Ai The above equation can be written as Speed of last follower _ Product of dia. of drivers aia Speed of first driver ~ Product of dia. of followers “te Problem 11.6. With the help ofa belt, an engine running at 200 r.p.m., drives a line shaft. The diameter of the pulley on the engine is 80 cm and the diameter of the pulley on the line shaftis 40 cm. A 100 cm diameter pulley on the line shaft drives a 20 cm diameter pulley keyed to a dynamo shaft. Find the speed of the dynamo shaft when : (i) there is no slip (ii) there is.a slip of 2.5% at each drive. Sol. Given : Engine speed, N; = 200 r.p.m. TT ane == SHAFT {20 .. of driver pulley on engine, . of follower pulley on line shaft, . of driver pulley on fine shaft, of follower pulley on dynamo shaft, d, = 20cm at each drive, 5 =52= 2.5 Let Na = Speed of the dynamo shaft (i) When there is no slip. Ny_ayxdy Ny da x dy Using equation (11.6), we getaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.BELTS, ROPES AND CHAIN DRIVES 349 ‘The ratio of the two tensions may be found by considering an elemental piece of the belt MIV subtending un angle 80 at the centre of the pulley B as shown in Fig. 11.9. The various forees which keep the elemental ORIVEN " . shes PULLEY piece MN in equilibrium are : (® Tension 7 in the belt at M acting tangentially, (i) Tension T + 87 in the belt at N acting tngen- tially, (iii) Normal reaction R acting radially outward at P, where P’is the middle point of MN, (iv) Frictional force F = wR acting at right angles to Rand in the opposite direction of the motion of pulley. Now angle PBM = "2. Also angle TPF = 2 a A146) Resolving all the forces acting on the belt MN in. the horizontal direction, we get Fig. 119 in 8 indo ReaTsin F + (7497) sin Since the angle 56 is very small, sin s can be written as. 2 «Hence the above equation becomes as 56 8 Rata De (T49y x 50 8a 3e BTR tT xD 407 xD 37x 30 2 =7xd0 i) oT x0 2 =Tx08+ ( Noglocting the small quantity Now resolving all the forces vertically, we get 8 oe F =(T +80) cos “5 - Tos > Since 08 is very small, hence cos 2 reduces to unity ie., 1. Hence the above equation becomes as Fo(T+01)-T=oT or pR =oT (: F=pR) or or R= onli 2 4ii) Equating the two values of R given by equations (i) and (ii), we get oraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.BELTS, ROPES AND CHAIN DRIVES 373 Fig. 11.14 (i) Let P = Force required by the man. ‘The two views of the given arrangement are shown in Fig. 11.14. Lot 7; = Tension in the tight side of the rope and is equal to W Tz = Tension in the slack side of the rope and is equal to P. qi Using equation, we get e = el ae *5t = A 2 50.65 5 or = 50.65 C = 900 and T; = P) 9900 PaO a 1T7TN. Ans (ii) Let P* = Power to raise the casting. Using equation, @) But =0.1 x m/s Ty = W = 9000, Tz = P= 177.7) =2.77KW. Ans. 11.12. CHAIN DRIVE When the power istransmitted over a shorter distance than in the case of belt or rope drives, chain-drive are used. Chains are used for transmission of power in bicycles, motor vehicles, road rollers and agricultural machinery etc, Chains are made up of rigid links and of various types. In case of belt and rope-drives, slipping may occur. In arder to avoid slipping stec! chains are used. Hence chain drives are used where positive action is required. The wheels over which chain runsare called sprocket wheels. These wheels have projecting teeth which fit into suitable recess in the links of the chain and thus enables a positive drive to be obtained. 1L13, RELATIVE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CHAIN AND BELT (OR ROPE) DRIVES 1. Chain drive is @ positive drive having no slip whereas a belt drive is not a positive drive in which slip occurs.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.BELTS, ROPES AND CHAIN DRIVES 377 ML 2. 2B. 4, 15, 16, 17. With the help of abelt, anengine running at 150 r-p.m., drives a line shalt. The diameter of the pulley on the engine 70.cm and the diameter of the pulley on the line shaftis 35 cm. A 80 cm diameter pulley on the line shaft drives a 20cm diameter pulley keyed lo a dynamo shaft Find the speed of the dynamo shaft when (i) here is no slip (there is a slip of 3% at cach drive. [Ans. (7) 1200 rpm. (4) 1129 p.m.) ‘Two parallel shafts 12 metres apart are to be connected by a belt running over pulleys of diameters 480 cm and ‘80 em respectively. Determine the length of the belt required ; () ifthe belt is open, and (i) belt is erossed [Ams (() 33.13 m, (433.45 m] A shaft which rotates at a constant speed of 160 r-p.m. is connected by bellingto a parallel shaft 72 cm apart which hasto run at60, 80 and 100 p.m. The smallest pulley on the driver shaft is 4.cm in radius. Determine the remaining, F the two stepped pulleys for; () a crossed belt, and (ii) an open belt. (AMIE, Winter 1975) [Ans. (i) ry = 10.67 em, r5 = 4.89 cm, ry = 9.78 om, r5 = 5.64 and rg = 9.02. em (ii) ry = 10.69, r= 5,74 = 10.16 =6 and 16, mi} A shaft rotating at 200 rp.m. drives another shaft at 300 rp.m., and transmits 8 H.P. through a belt. The ellis 10 cm wide and 1 cm thick. The distance between the shafts is 4 m. The smaller pulley is 50 cm in diameter. Calculate the stress in (i) open-belt, and (i) crossed-belt. Take pw = 0.3. Neglect centrifugal tension. (AMIE, Summer 1985) [Ams (i) 12.68 kgt/em?, (if) 11.847 kgi/em"] An open-belt drive connects two pulleys 120 em and 50 cm dismeter on parallel shafts 4 m apart. The belt has a ‘mass 0.9 kg/m length and maximum tension init is not to exceed 2000 N. The co-efficient of friction is 03. The 120 cm pulley, which is the driver runs a 200 r.p.m. Duc to belt ship on one of the pulleys, the velocity of the driven shaft is only 450 r.p.m. Calculate the torque on each of the two shafts, the powcr transmitted and power Jost in friction. What is the efficiency of the drive. (AMIE, Summer 1979) (Ans. 656.1 Nm ; 273.4 Nm ; 13.73 KW : 1.0725 kW, 03.7%] ‘The maximum allowable tension in a flat belt is 1500 N. The angle of lap is 170° and co-efficient of friction between the belt and material of the pulley is 0.27. Neglecting the effect of centrifugal tension, calculate the net driving tension and power transmitted if the belt speed is 2.mis. [Ans. (9) 826.7 N 5 (i) 1.6534 KW] ‘Two pulleys on parallel shatts are connected by a crossed belt. The diameters of the pulleys are 450 mm and 200 mm. The shafts are 1.95 m spart. Find the length of the belt required and angle of contact between the belt and each pulley. [Ans. (i) = 4.975 m, (i) 8 = 199.2°] In question 12, what power can be transmitted by the above belt when the larger pulley rotates at 100 rev/min, if the maximum permissible tension in the belt is 1000 N and the co-efficient of friction between the beltand pulley is0.25, [Ans 1.37 kW] ‘The maximum permissible stress ina belt is 1-4 Nimm? and ratio of tensions is 2.0. Find the maximum power transmitted by a belt 150 mm x 10 mm ifthe density of leather is 1 Mg/m’. (Aus, 14.75 kW] An open flat belt drive connects two parallel shafts 1.2m apart. The driving and driven shafts rotate at 350 r.p.m. and 140 r.p.m, respectively and the driven pulley is 40 cm in diameter. The beit is S mm thick and 8 cm wide. Cocfficient of friction between belt and pulley is 0.3 and maximum permissible tension inthe betting is 140 Nicm?. Determine : (3) diameter of driving pulley, (i) maximum power that may be transmitted by the belting. ‘nd (i) required initial tension in the belt. Neglect centrifugal iension. (AMIE, Winter 1977) (Ans. (2,16 em, (i) 0.96 kW, (ii) 396 N} ‘A cross-belt drive is to transmit 7.5 KW at 1000 1.p.m. of the smaller pulley. The diameter of the smallest pulley is 25 cm and velocity ratio is 2. The centre distance between the pulley is 125 cm. A flat helt of thickness 6 mm. and of co-efficient fiction is0.3 is used over the pulleys. Determine the necessary width ofthe bet i the maximum allowable siess in the belt is 175 Nicm* and density ofthe belts 1 gmiem” [Ans. 9.0 em] AA V-belt having a lap angle of 180° has cross-sectional area of 62 cm” and runs in 2 groove of included angle of 40°. The density of belt is 0.0013 kg/cm’ and maximum siressis limited to 400 N/cm?, the co-efficientof friction being 0.2. Find the maximum power that can be transmitted, ifthe wheel has a mean diameter of 30 cm and runs at 1000 p.m. [Ans. 30 kW]aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.382 ENGINEERING MECHANICS ¢ dv But => can also be written as dt ay dv ds ay dt ds‘ dt ds dv bu Wyss wa ; ae ‘ dv on By 12.4, EQUATIONS OF MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE Let us consider a body, which is moving in a straight line. Let _w = Initial velocity of the body in m/s inal velocity of the body in m/s ‘Time in seconds, during which velocity changes from u to v ‘5 = Distance travelled by the body in time ¢ @ = Acceleration of the body. 12.4.1, Equation for final velocity Change of velocity “inal velocity — Initial velocity (vu) Change of velocit Time But rate of change of velocity = Acceleration = a =» t -u ew) Rate of change of velocity or at = " veutat 12.4.2. Equation of motion for distance covered (s) “6 " 4 We know average velocity = tial velocity + Final velocity 2 uty : Distance covered, 5 = Average velocity x Time (u+y) ela, 2 Substituting the value of v from equation (12.5), (erurai) +(12.3) (12.4) (12.5) ~(12.6)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.386 ENGINEERING MECHANICS Distance moved by bullet before coming to rest, s=40=0.40m. First calculate the fetardation of the bullet. Let a = Acceleration of the bullet. Using the equation (12.7) 7—u? = 2as or 0-250? = 2a x 0.40 ~250x 250 @ = x 0d) 7 78125 mis? Initial velocity, w= 250 m/s (same as before) Distance moved, = 20cm =0.20m. As the wood is similar and also the resistance is uniform, the acceleration will be same as in the first case. Acceleration, @ = —78125 m/s*. Let_v = Final velocity with which bullet would come out from the wood. Using the equation (12.7), www = Jas or vF— 250? = 2 x (- 78125) x .20 (2 @=~78125 mis?) or v2 = 2502-2 x 78125 x .20 = 62500 — 31250 = 31250 v = {31050 = 176.77 m/s. Ans. Problem 12.4. Three marks A, B and C at a distance of 100 meach are made along a straight road. A car starting from rest and with uniform acceleration passes the mark A and takes 10 seconds to reach B and further 8 seconds to reach the mark C. Calculate (i) the magnitude of the acceleration of the car, (ii) the velocity of the car at A, (iii) the velocity of car at B and (iv) the distance of the mark A from the starting point, (AMIE Winter, 1977) Sol. Given : ‘Three marks A, B and C along a straight road are shown in Fig. 12.1, such that Distance AB = 100 m Distance BC = 100 m Starting car starts from rest and with uniform Point A car starts from rest and with wnif x B c acceleration. Let the car starts from the point O }—100 m—re—100 m—v} ‘Time taken by car from A to B, 1, =10s Fig. 121 ‘Time taken by car from B to C, 4=8s Let a= Acceleration of the car. v4 = Velocity of the car at A, and vg = Velocity of the car at B. For the motion of the ear from A to B Using the equation, suet ataa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.LINEAR MOTION = 391 1. For downward motion 2. For upward motion +8 ut gi 1 re a v?~ a? = gh. 12.5, POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED @ Ifa body starts from rest, its initial velocity is zero, ie,u =0. (ii) Ifa body comes to rest, its final velocity is zero, i.e. ii) Ifa body is projected vertically upwards, the final velocity of the body atthe highest point is zero, ie, (iv) Ifa body starting moving vertically downwards, its initiat velocity is zero, ie., u =0. (8) Acceleration due to gravity is taken positive when a body is moving vertically downwards. But if the body is moving vertically upwards, the acceleration due to gravity is taken negative. Problem 12.8. A tower is 90 m in height. A particle is dropped fram the top of the tower and at the Same time another particle is projected upward from the foot of the tower. Both the particle meet ata height of 30 m. Find the velocity, with which the second particle is projected upward. Sol. Given : Height of tower, h = 90 m. Height at which both particle meet, h,= 20m, Distance travelled by first particle, S,=h-h, =90-30= 60m. Distance travelled by the second particle, Sy=h, = 30m. For the first particle, we have (particle is moving down). Initial velocity, u=0 T Distance, $= 60 m wee Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 m/s? Let the two particles meet after an interval of ‘1 seconds. Using the equation, Fig. 12.2 Sjsursd g® or 6020x144 x981xe [60x2 opr = 3.497. For the second particle, we have (particle is moving up) Time, 123.4978 (the time is same) Distance, 5,=30m Acceleration, —_g = — 9.81 m/s? Let 1 = Initial velocity with which the second particle should be projected up.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.LINEAR MOTION 397 or or SOx (t= 1) + 5 x 980 (¢-1)?= 4.9¢0- 17 mh) But h-h= z xh (given) Substis ring the values of h and h’ from equations (i) and (ii), we get 2 497 -4.9((-1P = 5 x49? Cancelling 4.9 to both sides, 2 P-G-1F 2356 or A-@r1-m=20 aa1ede or 61-3 = 2h 2P-6r+3=0 The above equation is a quadratic equation, The solution of the equation is 626 —4x2x3 6236-14 62 V2 ea ois = A ang So 3M = 2.366 5 and 0.634 s. But r is greater than unity, according to the data given in the problem. & 1 = 2.366 ». Substituting the value of tin equation (i), we get . h= 49 x F = 4.9 x 2366 = 27429 m Height of the tower = h= 27.429 m. Ans. Problem 12.15. An object is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 30 m/s. Four second later, a second object is project vertically upward with a velocity of 40 mis. Determine : (i) the time (after the first object is thrown) when the two objects will meet each other in air. (id) the height from the earth at which the two objects will meet. Sol. Given: Initial velocity of 1st object, u, =30 m/s. Initial velocity of 2nd object, u, = 40 m/s. Lot = Time (after the first object is thrown) when the two objects will meet ‘h = Height at which the two objects will meet The height ‘h’ is covered by the first object in ‘t” seconds whereas the second object covers the same height in (¢— 4) seconds. For the first object heu-+ ge (ve sign as object is moving upward) =30x1-4x981x0 s = 30r- 4.9052 O For the second object h=uft-4)- 38 (t-4P (replace rby (¢- 4) in $= ut— + gr)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is 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unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS. 559, Static ext Using equation (16.16), T= 2" 4 a ry Static extension = Z) x98L= ( 2 ; x 9.81 = 0.559 m. 2x . Weight attached But stiffness, C= Static extension Ww 150 = 0.559 * W = 150 x 0.559 = 83.85 N. Ans. Problem 16.12. The frequency of free vibrations of a weight W with a spring constant ‘k’ is 12 cycles/s. When an extra weight of 20 N is coupled with the weight W, the frequency reduces to 10 cycles per second. Find the weight W and stiffness ‘k’ of the spring. (AMIE, Summer 1988) Sol. Given : Frequency, f, = 12 cycles/s when weight W, = WN Frequency, f, = 10 cycles/s when weight W,, Find : (i) Weight Wand (ii) Spring stiffness k Using equation [16.16 (b)], we have 1 fkxg Paw For the first case, f= 12 cycles/s and weight = W 1 fxg Res 2x For the second case, f= 10 cycles/s and weight = (W + 20) 1 [_kxg nay Yerea5 Dividing equation (i) by equation (ii), we get 1 fkxg 2 dn 10 Squaring both sides, we get 18 or 144 W = 100 W + 2000 100 ~ or 144 W—100W= 2000 or 44. W= 2000 We = 45.45N. Ans, Substituting this value of W in equation (i),aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.564 ENGINEERING MECHANICS WW Gq 4000 G7 MEG * ME O00 * Ms (-: €,= 4000 N/m and C, = 6000 N/m) 2Wp “3° Substituting the value of W, in equation (i), we get 2 SW SW, or 50x981=—* 3 W =50x9.81N) (@ Period of vibration is given by equation (16.16), as [Static extension [04905 a as Fay Odds. Ans. Gi) Angular velocity, @ = 2. ae 4.15 rad/s Maximum velocity is given by equation (16.4), as Var =O XP = 14S x04 = —.5660 m/s = 0.565 m/s. Numerically, Ans. (ii) Maximum acceleration is given by equation (16.8), as Gyge = # Or = # 14.15? 04 = + 8.008 m/s, Ans. Problem 16.16. A helical spring under a weight of 20 N exiends 0.30 mm. A weight of 700 N is supported on the same spring. Determine the period and frequency of vibration of the weight and spring when they are displaced vertically by a distance of0.9 cm and released. Find the velocity of the weight when the weight is 4 mi below its equilibrium position. Take the weight of spring as negligible, Sol. Given : Extension of spring Under a weight, | Weight _ 20N Stiffness of spring, C ae = Fp 70667 N/mm. Weight supported, W, = 700 N % Extension of spring ‘Sitfness of spring a = 10.50 mm = 1.05 em. 2 Static extension, = 1.05 em Amplitude, r= 0.90.cmaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.17 Collision of Elastic Bodies 17.1. INTRODUCTION If the balls of different materials are allowed to fall on a marble floor, they will rebound to different heights due to their elasticity. Elasticity is the property of bodies by virtue of which they rebound after impact. The body, which rebounds to a greater height is known as more elastic, than a body which rebounds to a lesser height. Inelastic body is one which does not rebound at all. ‘Whenever two clastic bodies collide with each other, they tend to compress cach other. Immediately after this, the two bodies attempt to regain its original shape, due to their elasticity. This process, of regain ing the original shape, is called restitution. 172. SOME DEFINITION ‘The important terms, used in collision, are defined as : 172.1. Time of compression. The time taken by two bodies in compression, after the instant of collision, is known as time of compression. 17.2.2. Time of restitution. The time taken by two bodies to regain the original shape, after com- pression, is known as time of restitution. 17.2.3. Time of collision, The sum of time of compression and time of restitution is known as time of collision or period of collision or period of impact. 172.4. Law of conservation of momentum. It states that if the resultant of the external forces acting on a system is zero, the momentum of the system remains constant. This means that the total momentum of the system before collision is equal to the total momentum of the system after collision. The system may consist of one body or two bodies or more. 17.3. TYPES OF IMPACTS Impact means the collision of two bodies which occurs in a very small interval of time and during which the two bodies exert very large force on cach other. The important types of impacts are : @ Direct impact i) Indirect or (oblique) impact. 17.3.1, Direct Impact of two bodies. The two bodies A and B are moving in a horizontal line before collision with velocities u, and u, in the same direction i.e., along x-axis as shown in Fig. 17.1 (a) . If u, >, ,the body A will strike the body B and collision will take place. Let C is the point of collision of the two bodies as shown in Fig. 17.1 (6). The point C is also known as the point of contact. The line joining the centres of these two bodies and passing through the point of contact is known as line of impact. Hence here the line O,-C-0,,is called line of impact. 580aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.584 ENGINEERING MECHANICS 2, For the two bodies moving in the opposite direction, the velocity of approach or separationis the sum of their velocities. 3. Newton’s law of coll n of elastic bodies, also holds good for indirect impact, ie, (0%, 605 @y- v1 £084) = © (14; €05 8, — uy cos A) on17.2) 4. If the velocity in a direction is + ve then the velocity in the opposite direction will be — ve. Problem 17.1. Ball A of mass 1 kg moving with a velocity of 2 mls, strikes directly on a ball B of mass 2kg at rest. The ball A, after striking, comes to rest. Find the velocity of ball B after striking and co- efficient of restitution. Sol. Given: Mass of ball A, m= tke Initial velocity of ball A, u, = 2 m/s Mass of ball B, im, = 2kg, Initial velocity of ball B, u,=0 Final velocity of ball A, y,=0 This is a case of direct impact. Let ¥, = Velocity of ball B after impact, and ¢ = Co-cfficient of restitution. Total initial momentum = my, + mu, = 1% 242x022 kgmis. Total final momentum = mv, +Mmyvy= 1X 042% vy =2v, ke m/s. According to the law of conservation of momentum, Total initial momentum = Total final momentum, te 2=2xy 2 2 v= F=dms, Ans. To find the co-efficient of restitution, the equation (17.1) is used (a=) (1-0) 4 © yam) = G0)" 2 AB Problem 17.2. A body of mass 50 kg, moving with a velocity of 6 m/s, collides directly with a stationary body of mass 30 kg. If the two bodies become coupled so that they move on together after the impact, what is their common velocity. Sol. Given : Mass of first body, m, = 50 kg Initial velocity of first body, uz, = 6 m/s. Mass of second body, m, = 30 kg Initial velocity of second body, 4, = 0. “Total mass of two bodies = (im, + m,) = (50 + 30) = 80 kg. Let V-= Common velocity of the two bodies after impact. Total momentum before impact = mu, + mit, = 50 x 6 +30 x 0 = 300 kg m/s Total momentum after impact = (m, +m,) x V= (50.430) x V= 80 V kg mis But total momentum before impact = Total momentum after impact or 300 = 80x V a Ve ~ =3.75 m/s, Ans.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.COLLISION OF ELASTIC BODIES 597 or 1x3 45x06 = 1% +5yy or 343=0,45v, of v4, 45,= 6 wali) Now using equation (17.1), we get = 0,75 (3- 0.6) = 0.75 x 2.4 = 1.8 yy =18 (ii) ‘Adding equations (i) and (ii), we get Gv, =6418=78 3m/s. Ans. Substituting this value in equation (ii), we get 13-¥, =18 ory v,=-0.5 m/s. Ans. Minus sign indicates that the direction of the first sphere after impact is reversed. Loss of K.E. during impact = Total K.E. before impact - Total K.E. after impact 8-13 =05 1 1 1 = Gy? + 3 mae?) Gyr? + 3 my7) 1 1 1 = [fx 1x34 bx 5x (0.6% - [fx 1x 60.5% 4 px 5x 1.37] be 2-05) = [45 + 0.9] - [0.125 +.4.225] = 54-435 =1.05Nm. Ans. Second Method ‘The loss of K.E. during direct impact can also be obtained by using the expression derived in Prob- fem 17.11. mgm (, = 2)? and) 1x5G-06) ( 20m, +m) 2+) 22a Loss of K.E. 1-0.75%) (10.5625) = L05Nm. Ans. 17,6. IMPACT OF A BODY ON A FIXED PLANE ‘There are two types of impact of a body on a fixed plane. These are : (@ Direct impact of a body on a fixed plane, and (ii) Indirect impact of the body on the fixed plane. 17.7, DIRECT IMPACT OF A BODY ON A FIXED PLANE The fixed plane is at rest before impact and after impact. The mass of the fixed plane is very large. Consider a body having a direct impact on a fixed plane. Let u = Initial velocity of the body, v = Final velocity of the body e = Co-efficient of restitutionaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.604 4 6. 10. , 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, ENGINEERING MECHANICS A vehicle of mass 600 kg and moving with a velocity of 12 m/s strikes another vehicle of mass 400 kg moving 49 mvs in the same direction. Duc to the impact both the vehicles get coupled and move together. Find the ‘common velocity with which the two vehicles move alter impact. [Ans, 10.8 m/s] A body of mass 100 kg, moving with a velocity of 9 m/s, collides directly with a stationsry body of mass 50 kg. IF the wo bodies become coupled so that they move on together after the impact, what is their common velocity. [Ans. 6 m/s] A bullet of mass 100 gm is fired into a freely suspended target of mass 5 kg. On impact, the target along with the bullet moves with a velocity of S m/s in the direction of firing, Find the velocity of bullet. [Ans. 255 m/s} A ball of mass 30 kg moving witha velocity of 4 m/s strikes directly another ball of mass 15 kg moving in the ‘opposite direction with a velocity of 12 m/s. Ifthe co-efficient of restitution is equal to 5/6, then determine the velocity of each ball after impact [Ans. v, = 333 m/s, v, = 10 m/s] ‘Three perfectly elastic balls A, Band C of masses 2kg, 4 kgand 8 kgmove in the same direction with velocities of 4 m/s, 1 mis and 0.75 ns respectively. Ifthe ball sirikes with the ball 8, which in tum strikes with the ball C, prove that the balls A and B will be brought to rest by the impacts. A ball of mass 20 gm, moving with a velocity of 3 m/s strikes on a ball of mass 40 gm moving with a velocity of 1 m/s, The velocities of the two balls are parallel and inclined at 30° to the line joining their centres at the instant of impact. If the co-efficient of restitution is 1/2, find : (0 the direction and magnitude of velocity of ball of mass 20 gm after impact ; and (Gi) the direction and magnitude of velocity of ball of mass 40 gm. (Ans. @ = 60°, », = 1.732 mis, 6, = 16.1*, v= 1.803 m/s] A vehicle of mass 600 kg and moving with a velocity of 10 m/s strikes another vehicle of mass 400 kg, moving at 5 mvs in the same direction. Both the vehicles get coupled together due to impact. Find the common velocity with which the two vehicles will move. Also find the loss of kinetic energy due to impact. [Ans. 8 m/s, 3000 Nm] A ball of mass 5 kg strikes directly on another ball of mass 5 kg which isat rest. Ifthe co-efficient of restitui between the wo bails is equal to 0.707, then prove that the loss of kinetic energy due to impact is equal to half of the initial kinetic energy A sphere of mass 2 kg, moving at 4 mus, strikes directly another sphere of mass 10 kg moving in the same at 2 mvs. Ifthe co-efficient of restitution between the two spheres is 08, then find the loss of kinetic energy during impact. [Ans. 12 Nm] A ball of mass 1 kg is dropped on a horizontal floor from a height of 36m. The ball rebounds due to impact to 4 height of 25 m. Find the value of co-efficient of restitution between the floor and the ball. [Ans. 0.833] A ball is dropped from an unknown height on a horizontal floor from which it rebounds to a height of 8 m. If the co-efficient of restitution between the floor and the ball is 0.667, find the height from which the ball was dropped. {Ans. 18 m] A ball is dropped from a height of 100 cm on a smooth floor, from which it rebounds to a height of 81m, Find : (i) co-efficient of restitution ; and Gi) the expected height of the second rebound. From what height, must a heavy clastic ball be dropped on a floor, so that after rebounding thrice it will reach ys 4 height of 16 metres. Take = (5). [Ans, 64 m] A tall is dropped from a height of 16 m on a horizontal floor, from which it rebounds to height of 9 m. Find the co-etficient of restitution. {Ans. 0.75} A ball moving with a velocity of 4 mvs, strikes on a fixed plane at an angle of 30°. If co-efficient of restitution is 0.5, find (O the direction of the body after impact, and Gi) velocity of the body after impact. [Ans. $= 73.9°, v = 3.61 m/s}aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.WORK, POWER AND ENERGY 61S Angle turned for one revolution = 27 radians “ 6 = 2n radians Torque, T= P x R= 1800 x 0.005 = 9.0Nm ‘Work done is given by equation (18.4). ‘ Work done = Tx 6 = 9x 2nNm=5654Nm, Ans. Problem 18.13. if in Problem 18.12, the shaftis rotating at 200 r.p.m, find the power of ‘the shaft. Sol. Given : From Problem 18.12, P= 1800N, R= 0.005 m, T= 9Nm N= 200 rp.m. Using equation (18.5), we get 20NT _ 2nx200x9 W =" = 188.49 W. Ans. Power a oF 18.7, ENERGY ‘The capacity of doing work is known as energy. It is the product of power and time. The energy is expressed in Nm. It exists in many forms ie., mechanical, electrical, heat, chemical, light etc. In-engineer- ing mechanics, we are only concemed with mechanical energy and the same will be dealt with. 18,8, MECHANICAL ENERGY Ht consists of the following two types : (@ Potential energy (or position energy or datum energy) (i) Kinetic energy. Depending upon the state of rest or that of motion, a body may possess anyone or both of the above energies. 18.8.1. Potential Energy. Potential energy is also known as position energy or datum energy. It is the energy by virtue of position of a body with respect to any given reference or datum. A weight W lying on the top of a tower of height h possesses a potential energy of W x A with respect to the ground, as the weight W is capable of doing W x A work if it falls on the ground. ‘A compressed spring has potential energy, because it can do work in recovering its original shape. Similarly, compressed air also possesses potential energy because it is capable of doing work when allowed to expand. 18.8.2. Kinetic Energy. The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its velocity (or its motion) is known as kinetic energy. It is represented by K.E. The expression for the kinetic energy is derived as follows : Consider a body of mass m starting from rest. Let it be subjected to an accelerating force F and after covering a distance S, its velocity becomes v. Initial velocity, u=0 Now work done on the body = Force x Distance =FKS ali) But Force = Mass x Acceleration Fzmxa Substituting the value of F in equation (i),aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.WORK, POWER AND ENERGY 621 Angle of inclination, 6=30 Co-efficient of friction, = 0.2 ‘As body moves from rest, hence initial vetocity (u) will be zero. er) Fig. 18.15 (a) shows the free-body diagram. The net force in the direction of motion is given by F = Applied force — Wsin @- wR = 300-1962 x sin 30°- 0.2 x Wcos@ (- R= Woos6) = 300 — 98.1 - 0.2 x 196.2 x cos 30° = 300 — 98.1 ~ 33.98 = 167.92 N (i) Let « = acceleration of the body. But Net force = Mass x Acceleration mx a 20xa Fig. 18.15 (a) = 8.396 m/s’, Ans, distance travelled in four seconds 1 Using saute 5 at? a 2 1 =Ox4de 7% 8.396 x 4° = 67.168 m. Ans. (2 u=0) v= velocity after 4 seconds utat 8 48.396 x 4= 33.584 m/s. Ans. (iv) The kinetic energy after 4 second is given by 1 KE. = 2 my? where v = velocity after 4 seconds - i x 20 x 33.584? = 112788 Nm. Ans. (v) Work done on the body in four seconds = Net force x distance moved in four seconds = 167.92 x 67.168 Nm = 11278.8 Nm. Ans. ‘The work done on the body is equal to the change of kinetic energy of the body as proved below : 5 mS mt Change of KE. = 5 = $x 20 «33580-4200 ( u=0) = 11278.8 - 0 = 11278.8 Nm. (vi) Momentum of the body after four seconds = mx v= 20% 33,584 = 671.68 kg m/s. Ans.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.19 Forces in Space 19.1, INTRODUCTION The equations of basic laws of mechanies relate vector quantities (Le., quantities which can be repre- sented by magnitude and direction). In order to learn to handle these laws effectively and to gain more insight into engineering mechanics in general, the knowledge of vector operations is essential. These opera- tions are generally known as vector algebra. In this chapter, we shall present symbols and notations that are associated with vectors. The different vector operations, that are of essential importance in mechanics will also be discussed. 19.2, NOTATION OF A VECTOR All quantities that have magnitude and direction are known as vector quantities. A vector quantity will be represented by a bold face letter (é.¢., with thick capital letter). The force F which is a vector quantity will be represented by F. The alternate way of representing the force vector is by putting an arrow as 7. 19.2.1. Magnitude of a vector. The magnitude of a quantity is always a positive number. Thus the de of a quantity (~ 40) is + 40 units. The magnitude of a quantity mathematically is represented by a set of vertical lines enclosing the quantity. Hence mathematically the magnitude of a quantity (~ 40) is represented as : | ~40 units | = + 40 units Similarly, the magnitude of a vector is a positive number of units corresponding to the /ength of the vector in those units. Hence magnitude of a vector A is represented as : Magnitude of vector A = | A | where | 4 | is a positive scalar quantity. The magnitude* is also represented by 4 (ic. capital letter 4). Magnitude of a vector A=| A| =A. 19.2.2. Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar a given vector m= agiven scalar Vector A multiplied by scalar m = mA where mA = a vector having same direction as A and a magnitude equal to the ordinary scalar product between magnitudes of m and A. 19.3. COMPONENTS OF A FORCE Fig. 19.1 shows a force F acting at the origin O of the system of a rectangular co-ordinates x, y and = The force F is represented by the vector OA. Through point 4, draw planes parallel to co-ordinate planes. Let *Thick bold face capital letter represents vector whereas capital letter represents magnitude of that vector. Hence A isa vector whereas | is the magnitude of vector A. 638aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD » pee BD ee ged ee ee B com ll