Chapter 4

Chapter 4 - Defining Performance and Choosing a Measurement Approach

Learning Objectives

4.1 Define what is and is not performance.

4.2 Understand the evaluative and multidimensional nature of performance.

4.3 Identify the various factors that determine performance including declarative
knowledge, procedural knowledge, and motivation.

4.4 Gather information about a performance problem and understand which of the
three main determinants of performance need to be addressed to solve the
problem.

4.5 Design a performance management system that includes both task and
contextual performance dimensions.

4.6 Understand that performers should be placed within a context: a performer in a

specific situation engaging in behaviors leading to specific results.

4.7 Adopt a trait approach to measuring performance, which basically focuses on

the performer and ignores the situation, his behaviors, and the results
produced.

4.8 Adopt a behavior approach to measuring performance, which basically

focuses on how the job is done and ignores the performer’s traits and results
produced.

4.9 Adopt a results approach to measuring performance, which basically focuses

on the outcomes of work and ignores the performer’s traits, as well as how
the work is done.

4.10 Understand the situations under which a trait, behavior, or results approach
to measuring performance may be most appropriate.

Chapter Outline

Defining Performance and Choosing a Measurement Approach

Overview
1. Defining Performance
2. Determinants of Performance
3. Performance Dimensions
4. Approaches to Measuring Performance

55
Part II: System Implementation_____________________________________________________________

1. Defining Performance
• What Performance is:
o Behavior
o What employees do
• What Performance is NOT:
o Results or outcomes
o What employees produce
• Behaviors labeled as performance are:
o Evaluative
– Negative
– Neutral
– Positive
o Multidimensional
– Many different kinds of behaviors
– Advance or hinder organizational goals

 How does “contribution to effectiveness of others in the work unit” illustrate

evaluative and multidimensional characteristics?

• Use of Results
o Not all behaviors are
-- Observable
-- Measurable
o Results/consequences are sometimes used
– To infer behavior
– As proxy for behavioral measure

2. Determinants of Performance

Performance = Declarative Knowledge x Procedural Knowledge x Motivation

A. Declarative Knowledge
• Information about
– Facts
– Labels
– Principles
– Goals
• Understanding of task requirements
B. Procedural Knowledge
• Knowing
– What to do
– How to do it

56
 Chapter 4

• Skills
– Cognitive
– Physical
– Perceptual
– Motor

C. Motivation
• Choices
– Expenditure of effort
– Level of effort
– Persistence of effort
 Describe how performance is affected in a common job, such as salesclerk, if any
of these are low or missing: declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, or
motivation.
 Discuss how the 5 steps of deliberate practice listed below would lead to
excellence.

1. Approach performance with the goal of getting better and better

2. As you are performing, focus on what is happening and why you are doing
things the way you do
3. Once your task is finished, seek feedback on your performance from
expert sources, and the more the sources the better
4. Build mental models of your job, your situation, and your organization
5. Repeat steps 1-4 continually and on an ongoing basis

Implications for Addressing Performance Problems

• Managers need information to accurately identify source(s) of performance
problems
• Performance management systems need to:
• Measure performance
• Provide information on source(s) of problems

 What can happen if the manager is unable to accurately identify the source(s) of
performance problems?

Factors Influencing Determinants of Performance:

• Individual characteristics
– Procedural knowledge
– Declarative knowledge
– Motivation
• HR practices
• Work environment

57
Part II: System Implementation_____________________________________________________________

 Give examples where each of the above factors may negatively affect
performance.
3. Performance Dimensions

Types of multidimensional behaviors (overview)

• Task performance
• Contextual performance
– Pro-social behaviors
– Organizational citizenship

Task performance (definition)

• Activities that transform raw materials into the goods and services produced by
the organization
• Activities that help with the transformation process by
– replenishing the supply of raw materials
– distributing its finished products
– providing important planning, coordination, supervising, or staff functions

Contextual performance (definition)

• Behaviors that contribute to the organization’s effectiveness by providing a
good environment in which task performance can occur, such as:
– persisting with enthusiasm and exerting extra effort
– volunteering to carry out tasks that are not part of the job
– helping and cooperating with others
– following organizational rules and procedures
– endorsing, supporting, and defending organizational objectives
 What kinds of behavior did TRW emphasize? Why?

Main Differences Between Task and Contextual Performance

• Task Performance
– Varies across jobs
– Likely to be role prescribed
– Influenced by
• Abilities
• Skills
• Contextual Performance
– Fairly similar across jobs
– Not likely to be role prescribed
– Influenced by
• Personality

58
 Chapter 4

Reasons to include Task and Contextual Performance Dimensions in a PM System

• Global competition
• Customer service
• Teamwork
• Employee perception of PM system
• Supervisor views
 What was the payoff for O2 Ireland in focusing on both task and contextual
performance dimensions in their PM system?

4. Approaches to Measuring Performance

Job Performance in Context (see figure in slides)

Overview
• Trait Approach
– Emphasizes individual traits of employees
• Behavior Approach
– Emphasizes how employees do the job
• Results Approach
– Emphasizes what employees produce

Trait Approach to Assessing Performance

• Emphasis on individual
– Evaluate stable traits
• Cognitive abilities
• Personality
– Based on relationship between traits and performance
• Appropriate if
– Structural changes planned for organization
• Disadvantages
-- Improvement not under individual’s control
-- Trait may not lead to desired behaviors or results

Behavior Approach to Assessing Performance

• Appropriate if
– Employees take a long time to achieve desired outcomes
– Link between behaviors and results is not obvious
– Outcomes occur in the distant future
– Poor results are due to causes beyond the performer’s control
• Not appropriate if above conditions are not present

59
Part II: System Implementation_____________________________________________________________

 How might the behavior approach be appropriate for situations as different as the
NASA Mars Exploration Program, a night assembly line, and a retail store?

Results Approach to Assessing Performance

• Advantages
– Less time involved in defining/measuring results
– Lower cost to track results
– Data appear to be objective
• Most appropriate when
– Workers are skilled in the needed behaviors
– Behaviors and results are obviously related
– Results show consistent improvement over time
– There are many ways to do the job right

 Why would a basketball player’s performance be assessed by results?

Defining Performance and Choosing a Measurement Approach: Summary

 Defining Performance
 Determinants of Performance
 Performance Dimensions
 Approaches to Measuring Performance

 How did The Limited, Inc. use these measurement approaches effectively?
 How does HomeLoanCenter.com use these measurement approaches?

Review Learning Objectives

Worked Solutions for End-of-Chapter Cases

Case Study 4.1: Diagnosing the Causes of Poor Performance

1. Procedural knowledge is hindering Heather’s performance. While she is excellent at

designing training courses, she does not possess the interpersonal skills to effectively
deliver the training classes.
(Suggested points: 2 [4.3])

2. Note to grader: A good answer focuses on development of Heather’s skills. One

example: Provide individual coaching with Heather on how she can deliver a more
concise message, coach other individuals, and be approachable in class. Possibly,
videotaping her teaching a class and having her critique her own performance would
help. (Note to grader: An outstanding response would include something about
developing an action plan for Heather so that she knows exactly what she needs to do to
perform. However, this is not covered in detail until Chapter 8.)
(Suggested points: 3, [4.4])

60
 Chapter 4

Case Study 4.2: Differentiating Task from Contextual Performance

Task Performance Behaviors:

 Develop and execute a business plan in accordance with BMS strategies.
 Set goals and expectations of performance for employees in division.
 Set priorities for the sales division and allocate resources accordingly.
 Articulate the company vision and communicate your division’s role in achieving
the mission.

Contextual Performance Behaviors:

 Live by the BMS pledge.
 Embrace diversity.
 Build strong relationships across the organization.
 Seek out and suggest organizational improvements.
 Cooperate with team members.
(Suggested points: 5, [4.5])

Case Study 4.3: Choosing a Performance Measurement Approach at Paychex, Inc.

Behavior Approach to Measuring Performance is Most

Appropriate When. . .
X Employees will take a long time to achieve the desired outcomes
The link between behaviors and results is not obvious
Outcomes are distant in the future
X Poor results are due to causes beyond the performer’s control

Results Approach to Measuring Performance is Most Appropriate

When. . .
X Workers are skilled in the needed behaviors
X Behaviors and results are obviously related
Results show consistent improvement over time
X There are many ways to do the job right

Based on the table above, the recommendation is that Paychex use a combination of
results and behaviors when measuring performance. Sales should be used as a main
measure of performance. But, the importance of developing good relationships within
the industry is also extremely important, and the results of doing so may not pay off
immediately or translate directly into sales. In addition, since the account executive’s
manager is not always able to observe their performance, then the company will have to
infer that obtaining sales quotas is due to the account executive engaging in the
appropriate behaviors.
(Suggested points: 5, [4.10])

61
Part II: System Implementation_____________________________________________________________

Additional Cases and Worked Solutions

Case Study: Laura’s Sweet Stuff Bakery

Laura Schulz has operated Laura’s Sweet Stuff Bakery for the past 5 years. By 5:00 a.m.
every weekday morning, customers are dropping in both to enjoy the cozy smells and to
purchase fresh warm donuts and other goodies to enjoy with their coffee before going to
work. After 5 years of this schedule where she began baking by 3:00 a.m., Laura is very
tired.

Laura has decided to hire an apprentice baker and a cashier to provide early morning
counter help. She knows that she must stop treating her bakery as an extension of herself
and begin operating a business. She has a friend with an MBA who told her to establish a
performance measurement system so that she can tell whether her two new employees are
good employees or not.

It all seems so complicated. Laura has contacted the local Business School Co-op
Program and asked for advice. Your professor assigned you to answer Laura’s questions
for 20% of your grade. When you meet with Laura, she tells you that she will need you
to explain with examples related to her bakery “because I’m not good at theory.” She
presents you with the following questions (to begin with):

1. What is performance and how does this term relate to my employees?

(Suggested points: 5, [4.1])

2. Why is all of this so complicated?

(Suggested points: 5, .5[4.2], .5[4.6])

3. Explain what kinds of performance I should be measuring and why.

(Suggested points: 10, .5[4.5], .5[4.10])

Answers:

1. Performance is what your employees do on the job. It is their behaviors. It is not

the results of their behaviors. So, performance would be what your baker does
when she makes donuts and what your cashier does when she talks to customers
and gives them their change.

2. It does seem complicated, because you will need to evaluate (or judge) their
behaviors as to whether they are good, bad, or indifferent (positive, negative, or
neutral). So, if your cashier doesn’t wash his hands before handling food, that
would be bad/negative because the health department could fine you and
customers might look for a shop that has cleaner habits.

62
 Chapter 4

This brings me to the multidimensional aspect of behaviors. Both of your staff

members will have lots of different kinds of behaviors, some of which will be
positive and others of which will be negative. For example, when you are
evaluating how your baker performs (or behaves), you’ll be looking at how
reliable she is, how efficient she is, whether she follows your recipes properly,
how careful she is about keeping track of supplies, how well she gets along with
you and the cashier, cleans up after herself, etc. Each of these behaviors will have
an impact on your business, along with lots of other behaviors.

Since you are hoping to get some rest by hiring these two employees, you won’t
be able to watch all of their behaviors. In some cases, you will have to deduce
their behaviors from the results of their actions.

In addition, it will be important to look at two different facets or characteristics of

performance: task and context. Tasks vary across jobs. The baker bakes and your
cashier deals with customers. Both may pick up muffins and other goodies and
put them on trays or in bags. Contextual performance is defined as those
behaviors that contribute to the organization’s effectiveness by providing a good
environment in which task performance can occur. Contextual performance
includes behaviors such as persisting with enthusiasm and exerting extra effort as
necessary to complete one’s own task activities successfully (e.g., being punctual
and rarely absent, expending extra effort on the job); volunteering to carry out
task activities that are not formally part of the job (e.g., making constructive
suggestions, perhaps the baker waiting on customers if the cashier is in the
restroom, etc.), etc. Abilities and skills are used in task performance; personality
has an impact on contextual performance.

To begin with, you need to think about each of your employees. They are
performing in your bakery, doing certain behaviors that get various results.
Ideally, you want some positive consistency in the results, such as good
relationships with your customers, profits, having good employees stay so you
don’t have to spend time training new ones, etc. To get good results, you will
need consistent, good performance--so you need to decide what behaviors you
want to see. Some of these behaviors will be “on task,” related to getting your
products into your customers’ tummies. Some of the behaviors will be directed at
putting smiles on your employees’ and customers’ faces; e.g., helpful and friendly
behaviors toward the customers and each other so that customers enjoy being in
your shop. So, you’ll need to define both task and contextual behaviors that you
want to see from your employees.

3. Now, there are three ways of measuring performance. I don’t recommend that you
use the traits method, because it measures personality and abilities. Since
people can’t do much to change their personality or their abilities, this method
tends not to be seen as fair and can lead to poor morale with your employees. I
think a combination of the two remaining methods might work for you. One of
these methods measures behavior and I believe this will work for aspects of the job
like friendliness toward customers and helping out on tasks that aren’t your job
when there’s a rush, etc. (contextual behaviors). Mostly, you should measure

63
Part II: System Implementation_____________________________________________________________

results, since it will be easy to track attendance, production and sales, and whether
you keep your repeat customers. If your employees know their jobs, are skilled in
the procedures you set, and are motivated to go “the extra mile” for the bakery, you
will be able to sleep in some mornings with a big smile on your face, knowing that
your performance measurement system will alert you to any potential problems in
plenty of time.

You said these were your questions “to begin with.” How else can I help you in
getting this system going?

Case Study: St. Jessica’s Urban Medical Center Emergency Room

St. Jessica’s Urban Medical Center has adopted the following core values,1 which are
posted on signs in most hallways and lobbies.
 Integrity: We are honest and direct and respect our commitments.
 Stewardship: We respectfully manage our natural, human, and financial
resources.
 Spirituality: We acknowledge the central role of spirituality in facilitating mental,
physical, and emotional health.
 Imagination: We are creative and innovative in all we do.
 Respect: We respect all persons and honor the heritage and missions of our
sponsoring organizations.
 Excellence: We strive to exceed the clinical quality, customer service, and cost
performance expectations of our customers.
 Compassion: We are sensitive and responsive to persons in need.

You are the director of the emergency room at St. Jessica’s Urban Medical Center. Two
weeks ago, Tuesday morning was exceptionally busy, since the City Central Hospital had
been refusing ambulances and many patients were arriving at your facility instead of at
the usual site.

At about 10:15 a.m., an ambulance delivered Lucy Jones, a middle-aged woman who was
a passenger in a motor vehicle accident. The car had been rear-ended by a construction
truck while waiting at a stop light. Lucy had been in a shoulder harness seatbelt, but she
was still shaken. Her body had been rapidly shaken forward and back. She was
conscious, had very high blood pressure (180/110), said she had pain near her left
shoulder blade and numbness in her left hand, and she was clearly upset and frightened.
She did not have any breathing problems except a cough, which she attributed to a cold
and asthma. She was not bleeding and was capable of walking, according to the
paramedics who had checked her at the scene of the accident. Lucy was assigned to
Room 3 where Edith Smith was her nurse.

1
Although this is a fictional facility and case, we have borrowed from the Centura Hospitals Web site for a
comparable listing of core values. http://www.centura.org/centurahealth/default.aspx?page_id=7 Accessed
September 4, 2005

64
 Chapter 4

The following week, Lucy Jones complained to the hospital director that she believed the
emergency room was operated in a way that was not reassuring to patients and could be
dangerous, citing potential for infection and injury. You received a memo from the
director asking what happened and what you are going to do about it. After checking the
records and talking to various staff and the patient, you determine that the following
events took place:

When she arrived, Edith asked Lucy to change into a hospital gown, removing her
outer clothes, shoes, and socks. She took Lucy’s blood pressure and temperature
and asked about her medical history, medications, and current pain, writing the
information in the patient record. Edith left Lucy and worked with other patients,
such as the 92-year-old man in a wheelchair who had fallen and had a broken
collarbone. When Edith checked back in Room 3, Lucy asked if she could use the
restroom. Edith said, “Yes,” and pointed to the patient toilets across the room.
Lucy clutched the open back of her hospital gown around her and walked barefoot
to the restroom. When she emerged, she walked up to Edith and told her that the
restroom floor was very dirty and sticky and needed to be cleaned. Edith
responded, “I’m not Housekeeping,” and walked away. Lucy returned to Room 3
and climbed back onto her cot and waited for the doctor to examine her.

After Dr. Scott examined Lucy, he told her that she probably had some strains,
which should be treated with heat or ice and suggested she use an over-the-
counter anti-inflammatory pain medication (such as ibuprofen) every 6 hours over
the next few days. He ordered X-rays to reassure Lucy that there was nothing
more seriously wrong.

Edith returned and told Lucy that there would be a wait for the X-rays, but they
would take her as soon as possible. Lucy asked for water and Edith said that no
water was allowed until after the X-rays, in case surgery was necessary. Lucy
asked to take her outer clothing, shoes, and socks with her to X-ray. Edith
responded that these items could be left in Room 3. Lucy pointed to the signs on
the walls that say the hospital is not responsible for personal items and repeated
her request. Edith said, “Oh, all right. I’ll get you a bag.” She brought a bag to
Lucy, who climbed off the cot, placed her personal belongings in the bag, climbed
back onto the cot, and sat waiting to be taken to X-ray.

When Lucy was brought back from X-ray about an hour later, no room was
available and her cot was placed in the hallway where her husband found her. At
her request, he told Edith that his wife had some questions. Edith rolled her eyes
and sighed loudly while walking to the cot where she said, “You have some
questions?” “Yes,” Lucy said, “What happens next?” Edith replied, “We already
told you.” Lucy responded, “I’ve had a bad morning and I don’t remember what
you told me.” “We’re taking you to X-ray,” said Edith. “I’ve already been to X-
ray and now I’m back,” responded Lucy. “I’m one of those people who need
details and I want to know what will be happening next.” Edith responded, with
her hands on her hips, “We’re waiting for the X-rays to be examined. We’re
waiting for the results.” Lucy replied, “That makes sense. Thank you.”

65
Part II: System Implementation_____________________________________________________________

Edith walked back to the central desk area and talked to the doctor. She walked
back to Lucy’s cot and said, “Well, the X-rays showed nothing wrong, so the
doctor is writing up your discharge instructions and you can go.” Lucy asked if
she could take some of the ibuprofen that she had in her purse, since her left side
was starting to stiffen up and the doctor had suggested this kind of medication
over an hour earlier. Edith said, “We can’t give you anything without doctor’s
orders but, if you want to take responsibility for taking medicine you have in your
purse, you can do that.” She had already turned away when Lucy asked for water.
Edith shrugged her shoulders and brought Lucy a small cup of water and the
discharge paperwork. Lucy swallowed two pills and the water.

Speaking rapidly, Edith reviewed the three-part form with Lucy and asked her to
sign in two places. She tore off and kept the original and gave Lucy the yellow
copy underneath. Lucy looked at the page and commented that she could not read
part of it because the writing was too light. Edith took the paper back quickly,
wrote different words over the original writing (making parts illegible), handed
the paper to Lucy, and walked away.

Lucy put on her shoes and socks and climbed down from the cot. Clutching her
hospital gown around her and carrying the bag of clothes, she walked back into
the patient restroom that she had complained about earlier. After she was dressed,
she walked up to Edith and said, “I know you don’t have a high opinion of me and
I’m sorry for offending you. It’s been a tough morning. I do have one favor to
ask.” Edith replied, “What?” Lucy replied, “Don’t let any more patients walk
barefoot into that restroom. It’s still dirty.” Holding her husband’s arm, she
walked away and Edith went back to work.

During the next week, Lucy followed the doctor’s directions. Use of the
ibuprofen, rest, and a visit to a physical therapist eliminated the stress, stiffness,
and pain within the week. She described her experiences at the emergency room
to many friends, describing the sticky restroom floor and Edith’s behavior,
exclaiming that she would never approve being taken to that emergency room
again. Several friends expressed concern that walking barefoot over the floor
could have also exposed her to broken glass, as well as a variety of drugs and
infections.

In addition to collecting information on the specific incident and its results, you also
reviewed the following job description for a Registered Nurse2:

29-1111.00 - Registered Nurses

Assess patient health problems and needs, develop and implement nursing care
plans, and maintain medical records. Administer nursing care to ill, injured,
convalescent, or disabled patients. May advise patients on health maintenance and
disease prevention or provide case management. Licensing or registration
required.

2
This job description is adapted from the more detailed job description for a Registered Nurse found at
http://online.onetcenter.org/link/summary/29-1111.00 Accessed September 4, 2005.

66
 Chapter 4

Tasks
 Maintain accurate, detailed reports and records.
 Monitor, record, and report symptoms and changes in patients’ conditions.
 Record patients’ medical information and vital signs.
 Consult and coordinate with health care team members to assess, plan,
implement, and evaluate patient care plans.
 Prepare patients for, and assist with, examinations and treatments.

Knowledge
 Medicine: Knowledge of the information and techniques needed to diagnose
and treat human injuries, diseases, and deformities.
 Psychology: Knowledge of human behavior and performance; individual
differences in ability, personality, and interests.
 Customer and Personal Service: Knowledge of principles and processes for
providing customer and personal services. This includes customer needs
assessment, meeting quality standards for services, and evaluation of customer
satisfaction.
 English Language: Knowledge of the structure and content of the English
language.

Skills
 Active Listening: Giving full attention to what other people are saying, taking
time to understand the points being made, asking questions as appropriate, and
not interrupting at inappropriate times.
 Reading Comprehension: Understanding written sentences and paragraphs in
work-related documents.
 Critical Thinking: Using logic and reasoning to identify the strengths and
weaknesses of alternative solutions, conclusions, or approaches to problems.
 Speaking: Talking to others to convey information effectively.
 Time Management: Managing one’s own time and the time of others.
 Service Orientation: Actively looking for ways to help people.
 Social Perceptiveness: Being aware of others’ reactions and understanding
why they react as they do.
 Writing: Communicating effectively in writing as appropriate for the needs of
the audience.

Abilities
 Problem Sensitivity: The ability to tell when something is wrong or is likely
to go wrong. It does not involve solving the problem, only recognizing there is
a problem.
 Oral Expression: The ability to communicate information and ideas in
speaking so others will understand.

67
Part II: System Implementation_____________________________________________________________

 Oral Comprehension: The ability to listen to and understand information and

ideas presented through spoken words and sentences.
 Inductive Reasoning: The ability to combine pieces of information to form
general rules or conclusions (includes finding a relationship among seemingly
unrelated events).
 Written Expression: The ability to communicate information and ideas in
writing so others will understand.
 Deductive Reasoning: The ability to apply general rules to specific problems
to produce answers that make sense.
 Written Comprehension: The ability to read and understand information and
ideas presented in writing.

Work Activities
 Assisting and Caring for Others: Providing personal assistance, medical
attention, emotional support, or other personal care to others such as patients.
 Documenting/Recording Information: Entering, transcribing, recording,
storing, or maintaining information in written or electronic/magnetic form.
 Getting Information: Observing, receiving, and otherwise obtaining
information from all relevant sources.
 Updating and Using Relevant Knowledge: Keeping up-to-date technically
and applying new knowledge to the job.
 Organizing, Planning, and Prioritizing Work: Developing specific goals and
plans to prioritize, organize, and accomplish the work.
 Making Decisions and Solving Problems: Analyzing information and
evaluating results to choose the best solution and solve problems.
 Working Directly with the Public: Dealing directly with the public.
 Communicating with Supervisors, Peers, or Subordinates: Providing
information to supervisors, coworkers, and subordinates by telephone, in
written form, e-mail, or in person.
 Establishing and Maintaining Interpersonal Relationships: Developing
constructive and cooperative working relationships with others, and
maintaining them over time.

Work Context
 Contact with Others: This job requires the worker to be in contact with others
(face-to-face, by telephone, or otherwise) in order to perform it.
 Face-to-Face Discussions: This job requires face-to-face discussions with
individuals or teams.
 Exposure to Disease or Infections: This job requires frequent exposure to
disease/infections.
 Physical Proximity: This job requires the worker to perform job tasks in close
physical proximity to other people.
 Work with Work Group or Team: It is important to work with others in a
group or team in this job.

68
 Chapter 4

 Frequency of Decision Making: The worker often makes decisions that affect
other people, the financial resources, and/or the image and reputation of the
organization.
 Importance of Being Exact or Accurate: It is critically important to be very
exact or highly accurate in performing this job (potentially life and death).
 Indoors, Environmentally Controlled: This job usually requires working
indoors in environmentally controlled conditions
 Impact of Decisions on Coworkers or Company Results: The decisions an
employee makes can often impact the results of coworkers, clients, or the
company.

Interests
 Social: Social occupations frequently involve working with, communicating
with, and teaching people. These occupations often involve helping or
providing service to others.
 Realistic: Realistic occupations frequently involve work activities that
include practical, hands-on problems and solutions.

Work Styles
 Dependability: Job requires being reliable, responsible, and dependable, and
fulfilling obligations.
 Integrity: Job requires being honest and ethical.
 Self-Control: Job requires maintaining composure, keeping emotions in
check, controlling anger, and avoiding aggressive behavior, even in very
difficult situations.
 Concern for Others: Job requires being sensitive to others’ needs and feelings
and being understanding and helpful on the job.
 Cooperation: Job requires being pleasant with others on the job and
displaying a good-natured, cooperative attitude.
 Adaptability/Flexibility: Job requires being open to change (positive or
negative) and to considerable variety in the workplace.
 Attention to Detail: Job requires being careful about detail and thorough in
completing work tasks.
 Stress Tolerance: Job requires accepting criticism and dealing calmly and
effectively with high-stress situations.
 Initiative: Job requires a willingness to take on responsibilities and
challenges.
 Independence: Job requires developing one’s own way of doing things,
guiding oneself with little or no supervision, and depending on oneself to get
things done.

Work Values
 Achievement: Occupations that satisfy this work value are results-oriented
and allow employees to use their strongest abilities, giving them a feeling of
accomplishment.

69
Part II: System Implementation_____________________________________________________________

 Relationships: Occupations that satisfy this work value allow employees to

provide service to others and work with coworkers in a friendly non-
competitive environment.

1. Discuss which factors of this job description define performance.

(Suggested points: 5, .5[4.1], 5[4.5])

2. Critically evaluate Edith’s contextual and task performance in the situation described
above.
(Suggested points: 10, [4.5])

3. Critically assess the determinants of Edith’s performance in the context of this

scenario.
(Suggested points: 10, [4.3])

4. If Edith has a performance problem, explain which determinants of her performance

should be addressed.
(Suggested points: 10, [4.4])

5. For the job description provided above, evaluate the approaches to measurement of
performance and recommend an appropriate approach.
(Suggested points: 5, [4.10])

6. Critically assess Edith’s performance in the scenario provided by using each of the
approaches to performance measurement and the job description above.
Traits approach: (Suggested points: 10, [4.7])
Behavior approach: (Suggested points: 10, [4.8])
Results approach: (Suggested points: 10, [4.9])

Answers:

1. Since performance consists of behaviors, the factors in the job description that
define performance include those activities listed under Tasks and Work
Activities. These would be considered task performance dimensions. The
sections labeled Work Context and Work Styles provide information that would be
considered contextual performance dimensions.

2. Task performance: In general, Edith performed the tasks defined for her job
correctly. There might be some question about her establishing interpersonal
relationships, although she had no reason to believe a relationship with an
emergency room patient needed to be developed or maintained.

Contextual performance: Her interactions with the patient Lucy Jones led to the
following problems:
 Her decision to let Lucy walk barefoot to the restroom could have exposed the
organization to liability for injury or infection. It did expose the organization
to negative word-of-mouth publicity.
 Edith appeared to have difficulty handling the stress of the morning.

70
 Chapter 4

 Her comments were very short and did not express concern for the patient’s
needs.
 Her reaction to being told about the dirty restroom showed both a lack of self-
control and a lack of initiative.

3. Edith needs declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, and motivation to do

her job. In addition, the unusually busy work environment may have impacted
her performance that morning.

Declarative knowledge: As a registered nurse, Edith has completed all the

training required for her position. She performed most tasks efficiently. She
probably had full knowledge of the hospital’s goals, since they are posted in the
halls and lobbies.

Procedural knowledge: Edith appears to have most of the skills required for the
job. She may lack some of the interpersonal skills necessary for full procedural
knowledge.

Motivation: Edith was very busy and was expending substantial effort on her
tasks. It is possible that she was so focused on the tasks that she forgot that she
was dealing with stressed and frightened patients. She appeared to lack
motivation to stay pleasant even when the patient’s injuries did not appear to
require urgent care.

4. Edith does have a performance problem, since her actions consistently indicated a
certain lack of consideration for the patient’s safety and peace of mind. She may
need training and practice in the skills of active listening, service orientation, and
social perceptiveness defined in the job description. It is difficult to tell from one
incident whether Edith lacked motivation and/or lacked skill. More observation is
required.

5. There are three different approaches to measuring performance. Employee

performance is measured using a single approach or a combination of approaches.

A. The traits approach evaluates the individual performer’s abilities and

personality styles. Generally, such traits are stable over the individual’s life
and not subject to change. In the registered nurse job description, traits to be
evaluated could include knowledge, skills, abilities, interests, work styles, and
work values. It would be very appropriate to develop screening tools to assess
and hire people with the required traits for the position; however, there are
several disadvantages to evaluating performance based on traits.

To begin with, performance is what the employee does--not what the

employee is capable of doing or is interested in doing. Possession of a trait is
no guarantee of performance. In addition, employees may feel that, since
improvement in their abilities and interests is not something they can control,
it is not fair to measure their performance based on their traits. In general, the

71
Part II: System Implementation_____________________________________________________________

traits approach to measurement is not appropriate for a position like registered

nurse (RN).

B. The behaviors approach looks at an employee’s behavior, or what an

employee does. Since performance is what an employee does, one’s initial
response might be that it is always appropriate to use this approach. In
general, it is best to use a behavior approach to performance measurement if
the following conditions are met:
a. Employees take a long time to achieve the desired outcome
b. The link between behaviors and results is not obvious
c. Outcomes are distant--in the future
d. Poor results are due to conditions beyond the employee’s control

In the job description for registered nurse, behaviors are described under
Tasks and Work Activities. In this case, several of the conditions leading to
use of a behavior approach may apply, especially b and d. There is not a clear
link, for example, between patient health and a nurse’s behavior, unless the
RN’s behavior is neglectful or in violation of standards. Even then, some
patients will regain their health! Whether patients get better or worse may
have little to do with how well the RN performs his or her tasks.

C. The results approach measures outcomes. This approach can be useful in

assessing the performance of a number of employees--both because results
can be tracked more easily and at a lower cost than monitoring behavior and
because the surface objectivity of such measurement is usually perceived to be
a fair way to assess employee performance. The best times to use such an
approach are when:
a. Workers are skilled in the needed behaviors
b. Behaviors and results are obviously related
c. Results show consistent improvement over time
d. There are many ways to do the job right

There are several ways in which the results approach could be appropriately
used in assessing the performance of a registered nurse. RNs are expected to
be skilled performers and there are many ways to perform the job correctly.
As noted earlier, behaviors and results may not always be related; however, in
most cases, if RNs perform their jobs correctly, most patients will benefit from
their care. It is not clear how results could improve over time with an RN’s
performance.

As a result, I would recommend a performance assessment system that

measured both behaviors and results for the position of registered nurse.
Some tasks could be measured in a results fashion; e.g., “accuracy and detail
of documentation in patient records” and “updating and using relevant
knowledge.” On the other hand, behavior should be assessed in areas such as
“interpersonal communication,” “problem-solving,” and “caring for others.”

6. A. Traits Approach

72
 Chapter 4

Knowledge
In general, Edith appeared to have the necessary knowledge of medicine and
the English language. It is possible that she did not have necessary knowledge
of psychology or customer service when dealing with members of the public
who are stressed, frightened, and in pain.

Skills
Her active listening skills, especially, were not apparent in the scenario
provided. There was no information provided with which to assess her
reading and writing skills. She did not appear to use critical thinking, service
orientation, or social perceptiveness skills appropriately in the scenario. She
appeared to lack problem sensitivity. She spoke clearly and appeared to
understand the oral information presented to her.

Work Styles
In general, her work styles appeared inappropriate to the situation:
 Her response of “I’m not Housekeeping” demonstrated a lack of
self-control, stress tolerance, and initiative.
 She did not demonstrate concern for the patient’s needs or a
cooperative attitude.
 Several incidents demonstrated lack of attention to detail:
-- Allowing Lucy to walk barefoot on the ER and bathroom
floors
-- Telling Lucy she could leave her clothing in Room 3 when
posted signs warned otherwise
-- Writing over the already written discharge instructions so
that some words were illegible

B. Behaviors Approach
Edith interviewed Lucy and accurately documented her symptoms and vital
signs. She provided Lucy with the necessary instruction to get ready for the
physical examination and the X-rays. She worked with other patients and
promptly arranged for treatments and procedures ordered by the doctor. She
documented and recorded information. She did not offer assistance to Lucy in
changing clothes and in getting down from the cot. She did not provide
emotional support.

C. Results Approach
 Lucy got better over the next week.
 The documentation of Lucy’s treatment is in order.
 Lucy complained about her observation of unsafe and dirty conditions to
the hospital director.
 Lucy described her negative perception of the hospital’s emergency room
to many friends and acquaintances, which damaged the reputation of the
hospital in her network.

73