Running head: EMERGENCE AND EXPANSION OF GANGS 1

The Emergence and Expansion of Gangs in the United States

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EMERGENCE AND EXPANSION OF GANGS 2

The Emergence and Expansion of Gangs in the United States

Over the years, scholars and academicians have both tackled what precisely constitutes

a gang, and the factors that influence our understanding of its nature. Although gangs have

always been associated with a plethora of delinquent tendencies and criminal behaviors,

Spergel (1995) gave emphasis on the difference between modern gangs and those that

flourished in the earlier times. While the latter used to have a stronger organizational structure

and maintained the value of their social role, modern gangs have been more connected with

violence and crimes.

Gangs, as defined by Miller (1982), are “self-formed association of peers, united by

mutual interests, with identifiable leadership and internal organization, who act collectively or

as individuals to achieve specific purposes, including the conduct of illegal activity and control

of a particular territory, facility, or enterprise” (p. 61). There is an ongoing debate on when

gangs first existed in the United States, but it is believed that gangs were typically composed

of immigrants residing within communities of low-income families.

Several studies have linked the emergence of gangs in the United States to a large wave

of immigrants as early as the 1800s. This population migration predominantly originated from

English territories, with the second and third large waves coming from European countries

(Pincus & Ehrlich, 1999). The said migration has also paved way for gangs to eventually

proliferate, and members stimulate its growth through different methods that usually include

recruitment. Recruitment is a crucial part in expanding their power and territories, as gangs use

their new members to infuse their activities into new cities.

The Emergence of Gangs in New York

Gangs that emerged in the 1800s were mainly comprised of ethnic populations such

as Irish and Jewish. This is not surprising at all, considering that roughly 5 million Irish

immigrants have inhabited parts of the United States by the transition of the century (Barrett
EMERGENCE AND EXPANSION OF GANGS 3

& Roediger, 2005). According to Ley (1975), there were three strong factors that have

promoted the emergence of street gangs in New York. First, the lack of proper organization

in slum areas; second, the construction of retail stores (green groceries “speakeasies”, in

particular); and third, the sudden involvement of politicians in gangs and their activities. The

prevalent marginalization among the early immigrants may have prompted these people to

secure a small area where they can maximize control over the unpredictability of the city. As

New York City was crammed with people coming from different populations, the conflict in

the area eventually become imminent, and these gangs grew rapidly as they were driven by

the desire to exercise control and power over chaotic communities.

Howell and Moore (2010) pointed out that gangs, traditionally, were nothing more

than a group of youths viewed as troublemakers, who engage in small-time delinquent

activities and fight over local territories. Significantly, they also act to protect the

neighborhood they grew up in. However, these gangs were not properly organized and even

lacked sophistication and leadership. Poverty, along with racial tension that comes with

migration, greatly contributed to their growth. There were lack of opportunities for

immigrants to find employment and this also remarkably left an impact to the city's crime

rates (Pizarroa & McGloin, 2006). Liquor stores started to become ubiquitous. Irish pubs

were able to flourish by creating a facade that would allow them to sell products illicitly —

these establishment primarily sell vegetables as a front to cover their real business (Edwards,

2010).

According to Allenderi (2001), it was not until the 1820's that the first archived street

gang with an acknowledged, organized leadership was established. It was called the Forty

Thieves. Majority of the group were foreign-born citizens, mostly of Irish descent. They were

directly linked to cases of murder, robberies and other violent activities within the city. This

was immediately followed by formations of other related gangs such as Plug Uglies, Shirt
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Tails and Dead Rabbits. These names usually have a connection with their distinct fashion.

Plug Uglies, for instance, was named after the members’ plug hats; and the Shirt Tails, being

easily distinguished as they put on their shirts above their trousers. Dead Rabbits, however,

got its name when a dead rabbit was once thrown in the middle of the group's heated meeting.

(Haskins, 1974).

As years passed, new immigrants faced many difficulties concerning their living

conditions. Most of them had to endure unsanitary shelters due to insufficient housing. More

and more ethnic groups settled in New York in quest of the “American Dream”, or the belief

that moving in the city will give them a better chance at life. Unfortunately, this only led to

further deterioration of the economy since New York could no longer sustain the influx

(Sante, 1991). In the early 1900’s, the authorities have officially announced the initiative to

fight and prevent gangs. According to Haskins (1974), this initiative resulted to the arrest,

beating and imprisonment of more than 200 gang members and leaders. This decision only

forced gangs to migrate into other areas, particularly in Boston and Philadelphia, to continue

operating and expanding their power.

Recruitment and Expansion

Gang recruitment is a significantly dynamic process, and as new members come into

picture, others decide to cut their association with the group and all its activities. Contrary to

the common public assumption, it is actually possible to bring one’s membership to an end

without much negative repercussions. The perception that no one gets to leave the gang once

they were in was argued to be a propaganda, or a strategy commonly used by leaders in order

to maintain their control over all members (Decker & Lauritsen, 1996).

Further, the most committed members who have proven their loyalty elucidate the

group’s identity; they are the same people who form its core, and tend to be more involved in

the gang’s activities, both criminal and non-criminal. However, their roles do not necessarily
EMERGENCE AND EXPANSION OF GANGS 5

revolve around daily errands, as they are more active in heavier or more serious illegal tasks

(Klein, 1995). Members with sporadic presence or those who could not fully commit or

attend to gang-related duties or functions, oftentimes, were not acknowledged as full

members. Moreover, the “wannabe’s”, or those who aspire to be part of a gang are usually

younger. They pose more serious threat for the authorities as their desire to enter a gang may

influence their behavior. These aspirants are typically willing to engage in violent crimes in

order to prove their worthiness and be accepted (Spergel, 1995).

Traditional gangs highly correlates leadership with age. Klein (1995) additionally

stated that there had be no particularly dominant theme when it comes to the type of

leadership they honor or follow. Unlike in modern films, there is no single leader that rules

the entire group. Instead, numerous leaders are present, and each of them lead an age-graded

crew, with the elders usually treated as more prominent and superior. A certain leader may be

assigned to spearhead criminal activities, while the other may represent the formal, non-

criminal activities of the group.

For gangs, expansion means strengthening their control over different communities,

which is why gangs started to recruit members that are not from their own ethnic population.

This allows them to compete more constructively and promotes dominance in the illegal

markets (NGIC, 2011). This racial/ethnic mixing was called by the law enforcement as

hybrid gangs. According to Telles and Ortiz (2008), the wave of immigrants has a significant

contribution to the racial/ethnic mixture that still prevails up to the present time. Hybrids

were first reported in the Midwest in the 1980's, with Kansas being a classic example of a

community being a target of gang migration, which shows how gangs eventually expand and

stretch the reach of their power.

Modern-day Prevalence: How Gangs Influence the Younger Generation

EMERGENCE AND EXPANSION OF GANGS 6

A survey conducted by the National Youth Gang Survey in 2010 pointed out gangs to

be one of the major problems the United States is facing (Gordon, et. al., 2014). The study

also learned that gangs are, in fact, cited by nearly every law enforcement agency to be a

crucial problem to many communities. With regards to delinquency, there had been a

conspicuous difference between individuals deemed to be troublesome but are not part of any

group, and those that belong certain gangs. The latter are always associated with heavier

implications in crime and violence. Higginson, et. al. (2016) also stated that an alarming

number of gang-related crimes do not only root from rivalry, but even among the fellow

members of the same group.

Higginson, et. al (2016) narrowed down gang membership into five different classes:

individual, family, peer group, school and the community. Community is perhaps the most

substantial institution that can influence an individual’s possible gang involvement in the

future. The structural characteristics of a local environment where a child is being raised -

particularly where crimes, drugs or firearms are quite rampant - may account for his criminal

tendencies and future behavior. When conventional values are disintegrated by the prevalence

of unlawful behaviors perpetrated by adults, who are supposed to set an ideal example to the

young individuals, these people will be more susceptible to violence. Gangs are formed

because of the lack of equal opportunities for many, and because the members usually have a

limited access to any form of legitimate means to succeed, they become more inclined to

commit crimes.

Race and Social Class: How These Factors Contribute to an Easier Expansion

Race has been a constant subject of various gang-related studies. Scholars suggested

that race is a crucial factor that contributes to the increasing delinquency rate of communities.

For instance, Jankowski (2003) asserted that Latino immigrants who may feel isolated
EMERGENCE AND EXPANSION OF GANGS 7

because of the unwelcoming society pose a greater chance of participating in a gang. This

usually gives them the sense of understanding and connection, particularly because it enables

them to connect on a socio-psychological level - something that lot of immigrants are

struggling to acquire. Looking at the issue from this perspective, it becomes easier for gangs

to gain new members as they deliberately participate to fill certain needs that only those who

have the same situation can understand. This also elucidates why foreign-born citizens are

more inclined to join gangs. Marginalization has caused immigrants to seek for anything that

can make them feel like they are part of something.

Social class also stimulates the instigation of gangs within schools, since educational

institutions accommodate people who hold different views and values. Individuals adjust to

the norms in order to fit in, and when they failed to conform to whatever it is that is socially

accepted, they experience rejection even at a young age. Consequently, those who reject the

standards set by the society may find solace in gangs; they become willing to engage in

negative and unlawful behaviors rather than conform (Spiller, 1965). Having said, it is no

longer astounding to know that based on statistics, one out of five school principals have

actually reported gangs to be a prevailing problem within the school premises (Gordon, et.

al., 2014)

Gangs and Illegal Activities: Drugs, Crimes and Violence

According to Huff (1996), both gang and non-gang youths were more likely to party

or just hang out, and engage in conflicts when, more often than not, confronted. The

difference, however, is that gang members are more prone to fights, with a whopping 93% of

involvement compared to just 20% among the non-members. The striking difference lies

within the young members’ disposition towards drug and alcohol use. They are twice more

likely to be engrossed in alcohol, and 5 times more likely to try and regularly use illegal
EMERGENCE AND EXPANSION OF GANGS 8

drugs. Moreover, youth members are also more likely to sell drugs to make ends meet.

Unsurprisingly, these young individuals are more likely to engage in assaults among their

rivals, with reports about them carrying deadly weapons such as knives and guns even at

school (Huff, 1996).

Examining the nature of a gang from a business perspective, Moore (1990) have

proposed that ascribing each member’s individual act to the entirety of the gang may be a

complicated assumption. The deep-seated members usually pose a more rational attitude

towards the society, or their market, in general. They present more cohesion due to a stronger

sense of centralized leadership and secrecy. On the other hand, the typical street gangs may

be involved in the most spontaneous crimes just because they do not focus on the formality of

the business. Further, most of the small-time members come from heavily marginalized

groups where they are often excluded from the opportunities of the mainstream society. So

instead of succumbing to life difficulties, they opt for illegal alternatives that could help them

survive. They hustle drugs, stolen goods, guns, and simply anything that can help them

persevere in a material-driven, ever-demanding culture (Cureton, 2009).

Conclusion

Since the emergence of gangs in the United States in the early 1800’s, it continued to

evolve and roam around the continent and are still prevalent until the present time. New York

is known for the first-ever recorded gang migration and the prominence of gang culture. This

is also where some of the most famous gangs where born: The Forty Thieves, Plug Uglies,

Dead Rabbits and many others. Gangs eventually crawled their way to other states. It was

until the 1980’s that the South began to experience a stronger presence of gangs in various

southern communities.. Gang membership has further promoted its power and expansion, to
EMERGENCE AND EXPANSION OF GANGS 9

the extent of forming hybrid gangs, which eventually caught the attention of both the law

enforcement and researchers.

Researchers concluded that younger individuals who reside in a community where

gangs are quite ubiquitous have greater tendencies to follow the footsteps of the elder

members, particularly if they are exposed to crimes and violence as they grow up. Youths are

inclined to join gangs because of the need for acceptance; the sense of belonging, power and

most importantly, for their safety.

And since the emergence of gangs entirely rooted from the large waves of

immigrants, it is safe to assume that the modern formation of gangs is still an extension of the

said early immigrants. Despite being linked to crime and violence, gangs were initially

formed to support each other. Presently, they also advocate politicians whom they believe

would help them acquire a better life, particularly because racial and ethnic tension are

factors that never seemed to be resolved.

EMERGENCE AND EXPANSION OF GANGS 10

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