Part I

1. Overview of Satellite
Communications
2. Orbital Mechanics Lakshmanan. M
APS/SENSE
VIT University
Developments in Communication
• Two developments in the 20th century
▫ Automobile
▫ Telecommunication.
 Telegraph and Telephony using copper wire

 High frequency radio (or) Short wave radio.

▫ Intercontinental telephone links

 Artificial earth satellite – more than 35 years.

▫ Telephone and email
▫ Hundreds of TV channels
Article by Arthur C.
Clarke in British Radio
magazine “Wireless
World” in 1945  about
the origin of Satellite
Communication
Global Communication
• In 1965
 First geostationary satellite  Early bird
▫ Provide telephone service across the Atlantic
ocean fulfilling Clarke‟s vision of 20 years earlier.
▫ Long distance telephone service.

• In the late 1960‟s launch vehicles had

been developed that could place a 500kg
satellite in GEO, With a capacity of 5000
telephone circuits
 Marking the start of an era of expansion for
telecommunication satellites.
•Geo stationary orbit (GEO)
 Preferred for all high capacity
communication satellite systems.
▫ Because a satellite in GEO appears to be
stationery over a fixed point on the ground.
▫ Establish links to one third of the earth‟s
surface using fixed antennas.
▫ DBS–TV and the distribution of video
signals for cable television networks.

• By 2001  200 GEO communication

satellites.
• GEO satellite  grows steadily in lifetime,
weight, size, cost.

• Largest satellite
▫ KH & Lacrosse surveillance (USA)
 Weight 13,600kg.

• By 2000 Commercial telecommunication

satellites
▫ Weight = 10,000kg,
▫ Life time 15 years.
▫ Carry 60 transponders
▫ Generate 12kw power.
• GEO satellites  Supplemented by LEO &
MEO.

• LEO  138 satellites.

▫ Provide satellite telephone, and data services
over continents (or) over the entire world.
▫ Imaging & surveillance.

• GPS  uses 24 MEO satellites.

▫ Navigation purposes.
▫ GPS Receiver in cars and cellular telephones.
▫ Car location & phone location.
Band Frequency Range

L 1 – 2 GHz

S 2 – 4 GHz

C 4 – 8 GHz

X 8 – 12 GHz

Ku 12 – 18 GHz

K 18 – 27 GHz

Ka 27 – 40 GHz

V 40 – 75 GHz

W 75 – 110 GHz
Introduction to Satellite Communications
• 1957  Russian satellite -- Sputnik I.
▫ First artificial satellite.
▫ Carried only a beacon transmitter.
▫ Demonstrated that satellites could be placed in orbit
by powerful rockets.
• 1958  US satellite -- Explorer – I (or)
Score satellite.
▫ Stored data can be transmitted.
▫ Batteries failed after 35 days in orbit.
• 1962  Telstar –I & 1963  Telstar –II
 Communication Satellite -- Uses C Band Transponder.
▫ Uplink = 6389 MHZ
▫ Downlink = 4169 MHZ
▫ Bandwidth = 50 MHZ
 Launched into MEO.
 High energy radiation
 Early failure of the electronics on board.
• April 16,1965  First Intelsat satellite
▫ Intelsat I (Early bird)
 GEO Satellite
 Weight =36kg
 Uplink frequency = 6 GHZ
 Down link frequency = 4 GHZ
 Frequency = 6/4 GHZ.
 Bandwidth = 25 MHZ
▫ Commercial operation between Europe & US.
• Work was begun to develop.

• Launch vehicles that could deliver a

payload to Geo stationary orbit.
 So that it could provide useful
communication capacity.

• In mid 1963  99% of all satellites had

been launched into LEO.
▫ Due to small launchers.
• In 1974
 US domestic satellite WESTAR I
 Canada‟s domestic satellite  Anik I A
• GEO satellites benefited for
 Russia (11 time Zones)
 Indonesia (3000 Islands)

• In 1965
 First commercial satellite by Russia

• End of 1983
 Complete telephone traffic carried by
the US domestic satellite systems.
• In 1985
▫ All telephone traffic moved to terrestrial circuits
▫ C Band was fully occupied
▫ Leading to expansion into Ku band.
▫ Video distribution and VSAT (Very Small Aperture
Terminal)
• In 1995
▫ Ku band filled.
▫ Ka band satellite systems would be needed to the
digital traffic.
 Especially high speed Internet data
• Ka band operated by 2001 in Europe using the
satellite Astra 1H. and operated by 2003 in US.
• Inmarsat
▫ International Maritime Satellite organization
 Provide service to ships and aircraft at a high
cost.

• Satellite Navigation system

▫ Global positioning system (GPS).
 By 2010, aircraft navigation of US depended
mostly on GPS.
 Blind landing systems
 Navigation of ships in coastal waters and bad
weathers.
• Till 2000
▫ Approximately 200 GEO satellites in operation.

• Larger GEO satellites

▫ Serving one third of the earth‟s surface
▫ Carry 4 Gbps of data.
▫ Can transmit up to 16 DBS TV signals.

• Apstar V
▫ Satellite serving Asia.
 Mass = 4845kg
 Initial power = 10.6KW
 38 C band transponders. With 60W output power.
 16 Ku band transponders at 141W each.
• By 2000 end
▫ 14 million DBS–TV customers in US
▫ High capacity of GEO satellites results from
the use of high power terrestrial transmitters
and relatively high gain earth station
antennas.

▫ Earth station antenna gain proportional to

communication capacity

▫ Fixed directional antennas delivers the

data at a lower cost than low gain
antennas.
 Overview of Satellite Communications
• Radio waves
▫ Travel in straight lines at the microwave frequencies
used for wide band communications.
▫ A repeater is required to convey signals over long
distances.

• Satellite communication systems exist because

earth is a sphere

• Satellite
▫ Can link places on the earth that are thousands of km
apart.
▫ Good place to locate a repeater.
• Repeater
▫ Receiver linked to the transmitter using
different radio frequencies
▫ Receive a signal from one earth station,
amplifies it, and retransmit it to another earth
station.
• Communication satellites in GEO
▫ At an altitude of 35,786 km.
▫ Typical path length from an earth station to a Geo
satellite is 38,500km.
▫ Signals reaching the satellite and signals received on
earth from a satellite are weak.
• Because of the limits on the weights of GEO
satellites and the electrical power generated using
solar cells
▫ Severe restrictions in the weight and size of the
antenna.
▫ Very large receiving antennas in the earth station,
with the diameters of up to 30m, were needed to
collect sufficient signal power to drive video signals
(or) multiplexed telephone channels.
• Now, the satellites have become larger, heavier
and more powerful.
▫ Smaller earth station antennas have become
feasible.
▫ DBS-TV receiving systems uses dish antennas of
size 0.5m in dia.
• Satellite system operate in millimeter and
microwave frequency bands,
 Between 1 and 50 GHZ.

• Above 10GHZ , rain causes significant

attenuation on the signal.
 Probability that the rain satellite and in the path
between the satellite and the earth station.
 Must be considered in the system design.

• Above 20GHZ, attenuation in heavy rain with

thunderstorms can cause sufficient
attenuation that the link will fail.
• For the first 20 years of satellite communications
▫ Analog signals were widely used.
 Most commonly used  FM
▫ Wide band FM

• Wide band FM
▫ Operate at low carrier to noise ratio (C/N) in the
5dB to 15dB range.
▫ For video and telephone signals – should be
delivered with S/N of 50dB.
▫ Adds (S/N) improvement to the original (C/N).
▫ Penalty for the improvement
 Occupies much larger bandwidth than the base band
signal.
• Moves to the digital signals.

• C Band  Major analog satellite transmission

system.

• Ku-Band  Digital satellite transmission system

• Not only digital TV, now HDTV, Telephony, data,

DBS-TV, radio broad casting and navigation with
GPS uses digital signaling techniques.

• LEO & MEO Mobile communication systems

▫ Digital signaling techniques taking the advantage of
voice compression at 4.8 kbps and audio and video
compression at the rates less than 6.2 mbps.
Orbital Mechanics
• How earth orbit is achieved

• Laws that describe the motion of an

object orbiting another body.

• How satellites maneuver in space

• Determination of the look angle to a

satellite from the earth.
Developing the equations of the orbit
• Fundamental Newton‟s equations that describe the
motion of a body.

• Newton‟s law of motion can be encapsulated into four

equations,
1. s = ut + (1/2)at2 Note that the acceleration can be
2. v2 = u2 + 2at positive or negative, depending on
3. v = u + at the direction it is acting with
4. F = ma respect to the velocity vector.
• Where S is the distance travelled from t=0,
• u is the initial velocity of the object at time t=0,
• v is the final velocity of the object at time t,
• a is the acceleration of the object,
• F is the force acting on the object,
• m is the mass of the object.
• F = ma  understands the motion of a satellite in a
stable orbit.

• A = F/m  ratio of the force acting on the body to the

mass of the body.

• For a given force,

▫ Lighter the mass of the body, higher the acceleration
will be in a stable orbit,

• Two main forces acting on a satellite,

▫ Centrifugal force
▫ Centripetal force

• If the two forces are equal, the satellite will remain in a

stable orbit.
• Centrifugal force
▫ due to the kinetic energy of the satellite.
▫ attempts to fling the satellite into a
higher orbit.

• Centripetal force
▫ due to the gravitational attraction of the
planet about which the satellite is
orbiting.
▫ attempts to pull the satellite down
towards the planet.
 FOUT=mv2/r

FIN=GMEM/r2

ME
• Two opposite forces on a satellite in a stable orbit
• FIN  centripetal force (or) gravitational force
▫ Directed towards the center of the gravity of the earth.
▫ Inversely propositional to the square of the distance
between the center of the gravity of the satellite and the
earth, where the satellite is orbiting.

• FOUT the centrifugal force or the kinetic energy

▫ Directed diametrically opposite to the gravitational
force.
▫ Proportional to the velocity of the satellite.

• When these inward and outward forces are balanced,

the satellite moves around the earth in a “free fall”
trajectory
• i.e.) the satellites orbit.
• The acceleration due to gravity „a‟ at a distance r
from the center of the earth is,
a = /r 2 km/s2
▫ Where the constant  is the product of the
universal gravitational constant and the mass of
the earth ME

• The product GME is called as Kepler‟s constant

and has the value,  = 3.986x105 km3/s2

• And G = 6.672x10-11 NM2/kg2 (or)

6.672x10-20 km3/kg s2
• Any Force, F = ma

• Since centripetal force,

FIN = m x /r2
FIN = m x GME/r2

• Centrifugal acceleration is given by,

a=v2/r
FOUT=m x v2/r

• If the forces on the satellite are balanced,

FIN = FOUT
M x /r2 = m x v2/r
v=(/r)1/2
Which is the velocity of the satellite in a circular orbit.
• If the orbit is circular, the distance travelled by a
satellite in one orbit around the earth is 2𝑟
where r is the radius of the orbit from the
satellite to the center of the earth.

• The time to travel that distance, i.e.) period of

the satellite‟s orbit „T‟ is given by,
T = distance/velocity
= 2r/v
= 2r3/2/1/2
=2r/(/r)1/2

T = 2r3/2/1/2
 Satellite Orbital Orbital Orbital period
height velocity (hr) (min) (s)
(km) (km/s)

Intelsat (GEO) 35,786.03 3.0747 23 56 4.1

New-ICO(MEO) 10,255 4.8954 5 55 48.4

Skybridge (LEO) 1,469 7.1272 1 55 17.8

Iridium (LEO) 780 7.4624 1 40 27.0

Mean earth radius is 6378.137 km and GEO radius

from the center of the earth is 42,164.17 km
• Uses the Cartesian co-
ordinate system with the
earth at the center and
the reference planes
coinciding with the
equator and the polar
axis

• The initial coordinate

system that could be
used to describe the
relationship between the
earth and a satellite.
• A Cartesian coordinate
system with the
geographical axes of
the earth as the
principal axis is the
simplest coordinate
system to set up.

• The rotational axis of

the earth is about the
axis cz, where c is the
center of the earth and
cz passes through the
geographic north pole.
• Axes cx, cy, and cz are
mutually orthogonal
axes, with cx and cy
passing through the
earth‟s geographic
equator.

• The vector r locates the

moving satellite with
respect to the center of
the earth.
• The satellite mass „m‟ is located at a vector
distance r, from the center of the earth,

• Then the gravitational force F on the satellite is

given by,
−𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚𝑟
𝐹= 3 1
𝑟
Where ME is the mass of the earth
G=6.672 x 10-11 NM2/kg2

• But F=ma

• Equation 1 can also be written as,

𝑑2 𝑟
𝐹= 𝑚 2 2
𝑑𝑡
• From Equations 1 & 2 ,
−𝑟 𝑑2𝑟
3
𝜇=
𝑟 𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑2𝑟 𝑟
2
+ 3𝜇 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑟
• This is a second order linear differential equation and its
solution involves six undetermined constants called the orbital
elements.

• Orbit described by these orbital elements can be shown to lie

in a plane and to have a constant angular momentum.

• The solution to the above equation is difficult

▫ Since the second derivative of r involves the second derivative of
the unit vector r 𝑟 .
• To remove this dependence,

▫ a different set of coordinates

can be chosen to describe
the location of the satellite
such that the unit vectors in
the three axes are constant.
▫ The orbital plane coordinate
system.

• In this coordinate system,

the orbital plane of the
satellite is used as the
reference plane.
• The orthogonal
axes, x0 and y0 lie in
the orbital plane.

• The third axis, z0, is

perpendicular to
the orbital plane.
• The geographical z-axis
of the earth (which
passes through the true
North Pole and the
center of the earth, c)
does not lie in the same
direction as the z0 axis
except for satellite orbits
that are exactly in the
plane of the geographical
equator.
• This Co-ordinate system uses the plane of the
satellite‟s orbit as the reference plane (Orbital plane
Co-ordinate system).

• Expressing in terms of the new co-ordinate axes x0,

y0, and z0 as
𝑑2 𝑥0 𝑑2 𝑦0 𝜇 𝑥0 𝑥0 + 𝑦0 𝑦0
𝑥0 2
+ 𝑦0 2
+ 2 2 =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑑 𝑥0 + 𝑦0 3/2

3
• The above equation is easier to solve if it is
expressed in a polar Co-ordinate system rather than
Cartesian Co-ordinate system.
• Polar coordinate system in the plane of the
satellite‟s orbit.

• The plane of the orbit coincides with the

plane of the paper.
• The axis z0 is straight out of the paper from the
center of the earth, and is normal to the plane
of the satellite‟s orbit.
• The satellite‟s position is described in terms of
the radius from the center of the earth r0 and
the angle this radius makes with the x0 axis, Φo.
• Using the transformations,
𝑥0 = 𝑟0 cos 0 𝑥0 = 𝑟0 cos 0 − 0 sin 0
𝑦0 = 𝑟0 sin 0 𝑦0 = 0 cos 0 + 𝑟0 sin 0

• Equating the vector components

of r0 and 0,equation 3 becomes,

2
𝑑 2 𝑟0 𝑑0 𝜇
2
− 𝑟0 =− 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑟0
4
𝑑 2 0 𝑑𝑟0 𝑑0
𝑟0 2
+2 =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
5
 ro is the radius of the satellites orbit,

𝑝
𝑟0 =
1 + 𝑒 cos 0 − 𝜃0

Where 0 is a constant and e is the eccentricity of the

ellipse whose semi latus rectum p is
ℎ2
𝑝=
𝜇
Where h is the magnitude of the orbital angular
momentum of the satellite.

• Thus, Equation of the orbit is an ellipse Kepler‟s

first law of planetary motion.
 𝑑 2 0 𝑑𝑟0 𝑑 0
• Consider 𝑟0 +2 =0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑 2 𝑑0
𝑟0 =0
𝑟0 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2 𝑑 0
𝑟0 = a constant
𝑑𝑡

2 𝑑 0
𝑟0 =ℎ 6
𝑑𝑡

Where h is the angular momentum

Squaring
2
4 𝑑 0
𝑟0 = ℎ2
𝑑𝑡
2
𝑑 0 ℎ2
𝑟0 =  7
𝑑𝑡 𝑟03
 𝑑 2 𝑟0 ℎ2 −𝜇
Sub in eqn. (4) − = 8
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑟03 𝑟02
1 1
• For eliminating „t‟, Use 𝑢 =  𝑟0 =
𝑟0 𝑢
• Differentiating w.r.t 0
𝑑𝑟0 −1 𝑑𝑢
= . 9
𝑑 0 𝑢2 𝑑 0
𝑑𝑟0 𝑑𝑟0 𝑑 0 𝑑𝑟0 ℎ
• But = . =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑 0 𝑑𝑡 𝑑 0 𝑟02
𝑑 0 ℎ
Since = {from eqn. (6)}
𝑑𝑡 𝑟02
−1 𝑑𝑢 ℎ
= . . 2
𝑢2 𝑑 0 𝑟0
{from eqn. (9)}
𝑑𝑟0 𝑑𝑢
= −ℎ .  10
𝑑𝑡 𝑑 0
 𝑑 2 𝑟0 𝑑 𝑑𝑟0
• Similarly =
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑0 𝑑𝑟0
= . .
𝑑0 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 𝑟0 𝑑 ℎ 𝑑𝑢
2
= 2 ∗ −ℎ.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑0 𝑟0 𝑑0

2 𝑑 0 𝑑𝑟0 𝑑𝑢
• Since 𝑟0 . = ℎ and = −ℎ .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑 0

𝑑 2 𝑟0 −𝑑 2 𝑢
= ℎ2 𝑢 2 11
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑 20
• Sub in equation (8)
−𝑑 2 𝑢 ℎ2 𝜇
ℎ2 𝑢2 .− 3 = − 2
𝑑 20 𝑟0 𝑟0
𝑑 2𝑢 1 𝜇
ℎ2 𝑢 2 . 2 + =
𝑑 0 𝑟03 𝑟02
1
• Since 𝑢 =
𝑟0
1 𝑑2 𝑢 1 𝜇 1
. 2 + = . 2
𝑟0 𝑑 0
2 𝑟03 2
𝑟0 ℎ
2
𝑑 𝑢 1 𝜇
2 + 𝑟 = ℎ2
𝑑0 0
𝑑2 𝑢 𝜇
+𝑢 =  12
𝑑 0 ℎ2
• Solution to the above equation is
𝜇
𝑢= + C cos(0 )
ℎ2
𝜇
𝑢= + C cos(0 − 𝜃0 )  13
ℎ2

Where C and 𝜃0 are the constants to be determine from

boundary conditions.
1
𝑟0 =
𝑢
ℎ2
1 𝜇
𝑟0 = 𝜇 = 2
+ 𝐶 cos 0 − 𝜃0 ℎ
ℎ 2 1+𝐶 cos 0 − 𝜃0
𝜇
𝑝
𝑟0 =  14
1+𝑒 cos 0 −𝜃0
 ℎ2
• 𝑝=  semi latus rectum
𝜇2
𝑐ℎ
•𝑒=  eccentricity of the ellipse.
𝜇

𝑝
• 𝑟0 = is the equation of the orbit which
1+𝑒 cos 0 −𝜃0
is an ellipse.

• If e=0 then the orbit becomes circular

• 𝜃0 Serves to orient the ellipse with respect to the

orbital plane axes 𝑥0 & 𝑦0 .
• Always choose 𝑥0 & 𝑦0 so that 𝜃0 is zero.

• Therefore the equation of the orbit is

𝑝
𝑟0 =
1 + 𝑒 cos 0
Describing the orbit of a satellite
𝑝
• The equation of the orbit is 𝑟0 =
1+𝑒 cos 0
• From the fig
a  Semi major axes of the ellipse
b  Semi minor axes of the ellipse
1
•𝑎=
1−𝑒 2
1
• 𝑏 = 𝑎 1 − 𝑒2 2 (𝑜𝑟)
𝑎 1 − 𝑒2
• The point O is the center of the earth and the point C
is the center of the ellipse.
• The two centers do
not coincide unless
the eccentricity, e, of
the ellipse is zero (i.e.,
the ellipse becomes a
circle and a = b)
• Two terms
▫ Apogee
▫ Perigee
 • The point in the orbit where the satellite is closest to
the earth is called as the Perigee.
• The point where the satellite is farthest from the
earth is called as the Apogee.
• The perigee and
Apogee are always
exactly opposite to each
other.

• To make 𝜃0 equal to
zero,𝑥0 axis is chosen
so that Apogee and
perigee lie along it and
𝑥0 axis is the major axis
of the ellipse.
• The differential area swept out by the vector 𝑟0
from the origin to the satellite in time dt is given
by,
2 𝑑 0
𝑑𝐴 = 0.5𝑟0 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐴 = 0.5ℎ 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 0 ℎ
(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 = )
𝑑𝑡 𝑟02

• Thus the Radius vector of the satellite swept out

equal areas in equal times.

• Kepler's second law of planetary motion.

• The figure shows two shaded portions of the
elliptical plane in which the orbit moves, one is
close to the earth and encloses the perigee while
the other is far from the earth and encloses the
apogee.
• While close to perigee, the satellite moves in the
orbit between times t1 and t2 and sweeps out an area
denoted by A12.
• While close to apogee, the satellite moves in the
orbit between times t3 and sweeps out an area
denoted by A34.
• If t1 – t2 = t3 – t4,
then A12 = A34.
• Area of the ellipse = 𝜋𝑎𝑏

• Area of the ellipse = Area swept out in one orbital

revolution,
3
2𝜋𝑎2 4𝜋2 𝑎3
𝑇= 1  𝑇2 =
𝜇
𝜇2

• Square of the period of revolution is proportional to the

cube of the semi major axis.

• Kepler‟s third law of planetary motion.

• If the orbit is circular, then

4𝜋 2𝑟3
𝑇2 =
𝜇
• Consider A apogee distance & P perigee distance

• Apogee distance, A= a(1+e)

• Perigee Distance, P = a(1-e)

𝐴−𝑃
• Eccentricity, 𝑒=
2𝑎
𝐴+𝑃
• Semi Major Axis, 𝑎 =
2
• Semi Minor Axis, 𝑏 = 𝐴𝑃
1. The sum of apogee and perigee distances of a
certain elliptical satellite orbit is 50,000 km. and the
difference of apogee and perigee distance is 20,000
km. Determine the eccentricity.
Answer: 0.4
2. The semi major axis and the semi
minor axis of an elliptical satellite orbit
are 20,000 km and 16,000 km.
Determine the apogee and perigee
distances.

• A= 32,000 km, 16,000 km

• A= 32,000 km since a=20,000 km.

• P=8000 km
Locating the satellite in the orbit
• Equation of the orbit can be written as
𝑝
𝑟0 =
1+𝑒 cos 0
𝑝
• But, 𝑎 =
1−𝑒 2
𝑝 = 𝑎 1 − 𝑒2

𝑎 1 − 𝑒2
𝑟0 =
1 + 𝑒 cos 0

• The angle 0 is measured from the 𝑥0 axis and is

called as the true anomaly.
• Anomaly  a measure used by the astronomers to
mean a planet‟s angular distance from its perihelion
(closest approach to the sun) measured as if viewed
from the sun.

• Anomaly  Positive angle oriented to the velocity

vector of the satellite.
 i.e.) Measure the angle from the perigee to the
instantaneous position of the satellite.

• The rectangular Co-ordinates of the satellite are given

by,
𝑥0 = 𝑟0 cos 0
𝑦0 = 𝑟0 sin 0
• The orbital period T is the time required for the
satellite to complete one revolution travelling a total
of 2𝜋 radians.
• The average angular velocity 𝜂 is
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝜂= = 3
𝑇 2𝜋 𝑎 2
𝜇
𝜇
𝜂= 3
𝑎 2

• If the orbit is an ellipse, the instantaneous angular

velocity will wary with the position of the satellite
around the orbit.
• If the elliptical orbit is
enclosed with a
circumscribed circle of
radius „a‟

• Then an object going

around the
circumscribed circle
with a constant angular
velocity η would
complete one revolution
in exactly the same
period T as the satellite
requires to complete one
(elliptical) orbital
revolution.
 • Locate the point (A)
where a vertical line
drawn through the
position of the satellite
intersects the
circumscribed circle.

• A line from the center of

the ellipse (C) to this
point (A) makes an angle
E with the 𝑥0 axis.

• E  Eccentric anomaly of the satellite.

• E is related to 𝑟0 by,
𝑟0 = 𝑎 1 − 𝑒 cos 𝐸  𝑎 − 𝑟0 = 𝑎 𝑒 cos 𝐸
• Relating eccentric anomaly E to the average angular
velocity η,
𝜂 𝑑𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒 cos 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 1
• Let 𝑡𝑝 be the time of perigee.
 Time of closest approach to the earth
 i.e.) The time when the satellite is crossing the 𝑥0 axis and
the time when E is zero.
• Integrating the equation (1)
𝜂 𝑡 − 𝑡𝑝 = 𝐸 − 𝑒 sin 𝐸
𝑀 = 𝐸 − 𝑒 sin 𝐸
Where M is the mean anomaly of the satellite.
• Mean anomaly – arc length that the satellite would
have traversed if it moves on the circumscribed circle
at the average angular velocity (η)
3. Calculate the period of the satellite orbit when the altitude is
250 km and the orbit is circular. Also find the linear velocity
and angular velocity of the satellite along its orbit.

Radius of the orbit, a = 6378 + 250 km

a= 6628 km
4𝜋2 𝑎3
𝑇2 =
𝜇
= 2.88 × 107 𝑠 2

• Circumference of orbit = 2𝜋𝑎

=41,644.952 km/s

𝜇
• Linear Velocity of the satellite, 𝑉 = = 7.75 km/s
𝑟

2𝜋
• Angular Velocity of the satellite, 𝜂 = = 1.1708 × 10−3 km/s
𝑇
Procedure to determine the Co-ordinates
𝑟0 , 0 & 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 of the satellite in the
orbital plane
𝜇
1. Calculate η, 𝜂 = 3
𝑎 2
2. Calculate M, 𝑀 = 𝜂 𝑡 − 𝑡𝑝
3. Solve for E, 𝑀 = 𝐸 − 𝑒 sin 𝐸
4. Find 𝑟0 from E, 𝑟0 = 𝑎 1 − 𝑒 cos 𝐸
𝑎 1−𝑒 2
5. Solve for 0 from 𝑟0 =
1+𝑒 cos 0
6. Calculate 𝑥0 & 𝑦0 from
𝑥0 = 𝑟0 cos 0
𝑦0 = 𝑟0 sin 0
References
• Timothy Pratt, Charles Bostian and Jeremy
Allnutt, “Satellite Communications”, John Wiley
& Sons, Ltd.

• Ray E. Sheriff and Y. Fun Hu, “Mobile Satellite

Communication Networks”, John Wiley & Sons,
Ltd.

• Louis J. Ippolito, Jr., “Satellite Communications

Systems Engineering”, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.