BIOLOGY

Skeletal System  Organic – made of collagen

fibers which provide flexible
Functions
strength (C, H, O)
o Skeletal system has four components  Inorganic – hydroxyapatite
- Bones (calcium phosphate crystal)
- Cartilage that provides height-bearing
- Tendons strength
- Ligaments  Bone cells
o Bones are organs composed of bone tissue - Osteoblasts produce bone matrix and
- Nerve tissue become osteocytes
- Vascular tissue  Osteoblasts connect to one
another through cell
Function of Bones
processes and surround
 Support: form the framework that themselves with bone matrix
supports the body and cradles our soft to become osteocytes
organs  Osteocytes are located in
 Protection: provides a protective case for lacunae and are connected to
the brain, spinal cord, and vital organs one another through
 Movement: provide levers for muscles canaliculi (connected
 Storage: reservoir for minerals (calcium networks of the lacunae that
and phosphorus) and fats distribute nutrients)
 Blood cell production: hematopoiesis - Osteoclasts break down bones
occurs within the marrow cavities of bones - Osteoblasts originate from
osteochondral progenitor cells
Cartilage - Osteoclasts originate from stem cells
and red bone marrow
- Chondroblasts produce cartilage and
become chondrocytes (maintains the  Osteon (Haversian system)
tissue) - Functional unit of a bone
- Chondrocytes are located in lacunae - Made of haversian canal, osteocytes
surrounded by matrix and canaliculi
- Matrix of cartilage contains collagen  Haversian canal
fibers (for strength) and proteoglycans - Where capillaries penetrate
(traps water so they can recoil from - Gets the waste of osteocytes and
pressure) capillaries are the ones that drain the
- Perichondrium (a type of membrane) waste
surrounds cartilage Osteogenesis
 Outer layer contains
fibroblasts - Process of forming bones
 Inner layer contains - Also called ossification
chondroblasts  Osteochondral progenitor cells
- Origin of osteoblasts
Bone Histology - Osteoblasts aggregate on a pre-
 Bone matrix existing surface like cartilage or bones
- Approx. 35% organic and 65%  Osteoblasts
inorganic material - Will form aggregates with each other

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- Osteoblasts have produced the bone
matrix then they develop into
osteocytes
 Production of bone matrix
- Organic and inorganic
- Must be enough
 Osteocytes
- Cannot divide
- Maintains bone tissue
Bone tissue is classified as woven or
lamellar bone, according to the organization of
collagen fibers.
 Woven bone
- Has collagen fibers oriented in many
directions
- Immature bones
- Remodeled to form lamellar bone
 Lamellar bone
- Mature bone
- Arranged in thin layers called lamellae
- Collagen fibers arranged in parallel
Bones can be classified according to the
amount of bone matrix relative to the amount of
space present within the bone.
 Cancellous bones (spongy)
- Beams of bone that interconnects to
form a lattice-like structure with
spaces filled with bone marrow and
blood vessel
- Have many spaces
- Internal layer is a honeycomb of
trabeculae filled with red or yellow
bone marrow
 Trabeculae
 Network-like pattern with
spaces
 Oriented along lines of stress
and provide structural
strength
 Where blood vessels insert
 For conservation of nutrients
 Compact bones
- Dense with few spaces
- External layer
- Abundant matrix (solid/compact)
- Canals within compact bone provide a
means for the exchange of gases,
nutrients and waste products
- From the periosteum, perforating
canals carry blood vessels to control
canals (Haversian canal)
- Canaliculi connect central canals to
osteocytes
Bone Shape
1.) Long bones – longer than they are wide;
mostly upper and lower limbs
2.) Short bones – about as wide as they are
long (ex. carpals, tarsals)
3.) Flat bones – relatively thin, flattened shape
and usually curved (ex. certain bones of the
skull, ribs, sternum, scapulae)
4.) Irregular bones – do not fit into any other
categories (ex. vertebrae, pelvic girdle and
facial bones)
Bone Anatomy
Structure of a long bone
o Diaphysis
 Tubular shaft that forms the
axis of the long bone
 Composed of compact bone
that surrounds the medullary
cavity
 Yellow bone marrow (fat) is
contained in the medullary
cavity
 Not to the same extent, but
certain bones also contain red
marrow
o Epiphyses
 Expanded ends of the long
bone exterior is compact
bone and interior is spongy
bone
 Joint surface is covered with
articular cartilage
 Epiphyseal line separates the
diaphysis and epiphyses
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 Epiphyseal plate is the site of
bone growth
Structure of flat, short, and irregular bones
- Flat bones contain an interior
framework of cancellous bone
sandwiched between two layers of
compact bone
- Short and irregular bones have a
composition similar to the ends of
long bones
Bone Membrane
 Periosteum
- double layer of protective membrane
covering the outer surface of a bone
- outer fibrous layer is dense regular
connective tissue which contains
blood vessels and nerves
- inner osteogenic layer contains
osteoblasts, osteoclasts and
osteochondral progenitor cells
 Endosteum
- Delicate membrane covering internal
surfaces of bones
- Contains osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and
osteochondral progenitor cells
Muscular System
Functions of the Muscular System
1. Body movement (skeletal muscle)
2. Maintenance of posture (skeletal muscle)
3. Respiration (skeletal muscle)
4. Production of body heat (skeletal muscle)
5. Communication (skeletal muscle)
6. Constriction of organs and vessels
(smooth muscle)
7. Heartbeat (cardiac muscle)
Functional Characteristics of Muscle
1. Contractility – ability to shorten forcibly
2. Excitability – the ability to receive and
respond to stimuli
3. Extensibility – ability to eb stretched or
extended
4. Elasticity – ability to recoil and resume
the original resting length
Types of Muscle Tissue
 Skeletal muscle tissue
- Responsible for most body
movements
- Maintains posture, stabilizes joints,
and generates heat
 Smooth muscles (visceral)
- Found in the walls of hollow organs
and tubes and moves substances
through them
- Help maintain blood pressure
- Squeezes or propels substances
through organs
 Cardiac muscle
- Found in the heart and pumps blood
throughout the body
Skeletal Muscle Tissue
- Fascia is a general term for connective tissue
sheets which separate and compartmentalize
individual or groups of muscles are:
 Epimysium (outermost) – an
overcoat of dense collagenous
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 BIOLOGY
connective tissue that surrounds the
entire muscle
 Perimysium – fibrous connective
tissue that surrounds group of muscle
fibers called fascicles (bundles)
 Endomysium – fine sheath of
connective tissue composed of
reticular fibers surrounding each
muscle fiber
Function:
- The connective tissue of muscles
provides a pathway for blood vessels
and nerves to reach muscle fibers
- A lot of blood passes through these
muscles because they need a lot of
oxygen and nutrients to make the
body move
- It blends with other connective tissue
based structures such as tendons
which connect muscle to bone
(tendons are connected to the muscle
because they have similar structures
and to reassure that there is no natural
weakpoint)
Terminology:
 Sarcolemna – muscle cell plasma
membrane
 Sarcoplasm – cytoplasm of a muscle cell
 Myo, mys, and sarco – prefixes used to
refer to muscle
Muscle contraction depends on two kind sof
myofilaments: actin and myosin. Myofibrils are
densely packed, rod-like contractile elements that
make up most of the muscle volume.
Red Muscles
- Also called ‘Slow Twitch’ muscles
- Dense with capillaries and rich in
mitochondria and myoglobin, giving
the muscle tissue its characteristic red
color
- Can carry more oxygen and sustain
aerobic activity using fats or carbs as
fuel
- Slow twitch fibers contract for a long
period of time but with little force
(they contract slowly)
- Aerobic respiration
White Muscles
- Also called ‘Fast Twitch’ muscles
- Contract quickly and powerfully but
tire easily, sustaining only short
anaerobic bursts of activity before
muscle contraction becomes painful
- They contain less capillaries,
mitochondria, and myoglobin
- Anaerobic respiration (lactic acid
formation)
Circulatory System
Blood
- helps maintain homeostasis in several
ways:
1. Transport of gases, nutrients, waste
products
2. Transport of processed molecules
3. Transport of regulatory molecules
4. Regulation of pH and osmosis
5. Maintenance of body temperature
6. Protects against foreign substances such as
microorganisms and toxins
7. Blood clotting prevents fluid and cell loss
and is part of tissue repair
- a connective tissue; most medically
important tissue: a basis for
diagnosing diseases
- body’s only fluid tissue
- composed of liquid plasma and
formed elements
- formed elements include:
 Erythrocytes (RBCs)
 Leukocytes (WBCs)
 Plasma
- Hematocrit – percentage of RBCs out
of the total blood volume
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- blood is a sticky, opaque fluid with a  Leukocytes, white blood cells (WBCs) -
metallic taste. most of the remaining 5% of formed
- color varies from scarlet to dark red elements; only complete cells; 5 types of
- temperature is 38°C. WBC’s
- blood accounts for approximately 8%  Thrombocytes, platelets – just cell
of body weight. fragments
- average volume: - Most of these formed elements
 5-6L (1.5 gallons) for men survive in the body for only a few days
 4-5L for women. Red Blood Cells
Plasma
-biconcave discs, anucleate, essentially
-pale yellow fluid containing over 100
no organelles
solutes
- they are dedicated to respiratory gas
- mostly water (91%)
transport
- contains proteins (7%):
 filled with hemoglobin (Hb),
 Albumin (58% of plasma
a protein that functions in gas
proteins): helps maintain
transport
osmotic pressure (osmotic
- very attracted to oxygen
pressure prevents fluid in
- they are an example of how its
blood from diffusing on to
structure fits its function
the underlying tissues)
- Biconcave shape has huge surface area
 Globulins (38% of plasma
relative to volume
proteins): immunity:
- structural characteristics contribute to
antibodies and complement;
its gas transport function
transport: bind to molecules
- Biconcave shape also allows RBCs to
such as hormones; clotting
bend or fold around their thin center.
factors.
 Their thin center gives RBCs
 Fibrinogen (4% of the plasma
their flexibility
proteins) – converted to
 allow them to change shape as
fibrin during clot formation.
necessary
- also contains other substances (2%)
Hemoglobin (Hb)
 Ions (electrolytes): sodium,
- accounts for about a third of the
potassium, calcium, chloride,
RBC’s volume
bicarbonate
- consists of the protein globin, made
 Nutrients: glucose,
up of two alpha and two beta chains,
carbohydrates, amino acids
each bound to a heme group
 Waste products: lactic acid,
 Each heme group bears an
urea, creatinine
atom of iron, which can bind
 Respiratory gases: oxygen and to one oxygen molecule
carbon dioxide
 Heme molecules transport
Formed Elements
oxygen (iron is required)
 Erythrocytes, red blood cells (RBCs) -  Oxygen content determines
about 95% of formed elements; no nuclei blood color:
or organelles Oxygenated: bright red
Deoxygenated: darker red

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 Globin molecules transport
carbon dioxide
- One RBC contains 250mil Hb groups
thus it can carry 1B molecules of O2
Transport of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
 Oxygen
 transported bound to hemoglobin
(98.5%)
 dissolved in plasma (1.5%)
 each Hb molecule binds four
oxygen atoms in a rapid reversible
process
 Carbon Dioxide
 dissolved in plasma (7%)
 transported in bicarbonate
(HCO3-) (70%)
 chemically bound to hemoglobin
(23%)
Transport and Exchange of Carbon Dioxide
- Carbon dioxide diffuses into RBCs
and combines with water to form
carbonic acid (H2CO3) which quickly
dissociates into hydrogen ions and
bicarbonate ions
- In RBCs, carbonic anhydrase
reversibly catalyzes the conversion of
carbon dioxide and water to carbonic
acid
Erythropoiesis – red blood cell production
Hematopoiesis – blood cell production
White Blood Cells
- only blood components that are
complete cells
- are less numerous than RBCs
- make up 1% of the total blood volume
- can leave capillaries via ameboid
movement and move through tissue
spaces
- Two functions of WBCs:
 Protect the body against
invading microorganisms
 Remove dead cells and debris
from tissues by phagocytosis
- Named according to their appearance
in stained preparations
 Granulocytes: contain large
cytoplasmic granules
 Agranulocytes: very small
granules that cannot be easily
seen with the light
microscope
Granulocytes: neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils
- contain cytoplasmic granules that stain
specifically (acidic, basic or both) with
Wright’s stain
- are larger and usually irregular in shape
- have lobed nuclei
- are phagocytic cells
 Neutrophils
- most common type of WBC
- Contain peroxidases, hydrolytic
enzymes, and defensins (antibiotic-like
proteins)
- our body’s bacteria slayers
- active in phagocytosis
- Pus is accumulation of dead
neutrophils, cell debris and fluid at
sites of infections
 Basophils
- account for 0.5% of WBCs
- elevated during allergic
reactions/inflammation
- have large, purplish-black (basophilic)
granules that contain:
o Histamine – inflammatory
chemical that acts as a
vasodilator and attracts other
WBCs (antihistamines
counter this effect)
o Heparin – prevents the
formation of clots
 Eosinophils
- account for 1-4% of WBCs
- elevated during parasite infection
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- have red-staining, bilobed nuclei - they leave the circulation, enter

connected via a broad band of tissue and differentiate into
nuclear material macrophages
- have red to crimson (acidophilic) - highly mobile and actively
large, coarse, lysosome-like phagocytotic
granules - activate lymphocytes to mount
an immune response
Agranulocytes: lymphocytes. monocytes
- lack visible cytoplasmic granules
- are similar structurally, but are functionally
distinct and unrelated cell types
- have spherical (lymphocytes) or kidney-
Lymphocyte Basophil Monocyte Neutrophil Eosinophil
shaped (monocytes) nuclei
 Lymphocytes
Platelets
- account for 25% or more of
WBCs - fragments of megakaryocytes with a blue-
- produces antibodies staining outer region and a purple
- have large, dark-purple, circular granular center
nuclei with a thin rim of blue - function in clotting by two mechanisms:
cytoplasm 1. Formation of platelet plugs which
- are found mostly enmeshed in seal holes in small vessels (for small
lymphoid tissue (some circulate in wounds)
the blood) 2. Formations of clots which help seal
Types of Lymphocytes off larger wounds in the vessels (for
o B cells – stimulated by large wounds)
bacteria or toxins; give rise to - Thromboxanes are present in their
plasma cells, which produce granules
antibodies
o T cells – protect against
viruses and other intracellular
microorganisms; attack and
destroy the cells that are
infected
 Monocytes
- account for 4-8% of leukocytes
- largest leukocytes
- active and can leave the capillaries
and on to the underlying
membrane to kill pathogens that
were not able to reach the
bloodstream
- abundant pale-blue cytoplasm
- Have a purple-staining, U or
kidney shaped nuclei

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