Direct measurements of the heart rate are relatively easy.

Preload, afterload, and contractility are more

difficult to assess clinically. In assessment of cardiovascular performance, the following hemodynamic
measurements are commonly measured or calculated: Arteriovenous oxygen content difference [avDO2 ]:
This is the difference between the arterial oxygen content (CaO2 ) and the venous oxygen content (CvO2 ).
Body surface area (BSA): Calculated from height and weight, it is generally used to index measured and
derived values according to the size of the patient. Cardiac index (CI): calculated as cardiac output/BSA, it is
the prime determinant of hemodynamic function. Left ventricular stroke work index (LVSWI): It is the
product of the stroke index (SI) and [Mean arterial pressure (MAP)−pulmonary artery occlusion pressure
(PAOP)], and a unit correction factor of 0.0136. The LVSWI measures the work of the left ventricle (LV) as
it ejects into the aorta.

Physical factors such as temperature, pressure, altitude, and humidity affect gases in particular and, thus,
should be well understood by the critical care practitioner. A number of useful tables, formulas, and figures
follow. Thermal injuries are commonly considered environmental events, and, thus, these formulas and
figures are included in this chapter as well. 1. Temperature Temperature conversion calculations are often
done in the management of critically ill patients. Degrees Celsius (°C) and Fahrenheit (°F) are most
commonly utilized