IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 20, NO.
6, NOVEMBER 2005
Selective Harmonic Control: A General Problem
Formulation and Selected Solutions
Jason R. Wells, Student Member, IEEE, Brett M. Nee, Student Member, IEEE,
Patrick L. Chapman, Senior Member, IEEE, and Philip T. Krein, Fellow, IEEE
Abstract—Selective harmonic elimination/control has been a
widely researched alternative to traditional pulse-width modula-
tion techniques. Previous and current work has made fundamental
assumptions that enforce output waveform quarter-wave sym-
metry, presumably in order to reduce the complexity of the
resulting equations. However, the quarter-wave symmetric as-
sumption is not strictly necessary. It restricts the solution space,
which can result in sub-optimal solutions with regards to the
uncontrolled harmonic distribution. A more general formulation
is proposed, removing the quarter-wave symmetry constraint for
two classes of the -level, -harmonic harmonic control problem.
The special cases of two- and three-level harmonic elimination are
presented in detail along with representative solutions for each
harmonic control problem. New solutions previously unattainable
based on quarter-wave symmetric techniques are identified.
Index Terms—Harmonic control, harmonic elimination, har-
monic reduction, harmonics, programmed pulse-width modula-
tion (PWM), selective harmonic elimination (SHE).
I. INTRODUCTION
S ELECTIVE harmonic elimination (SHE) has been a re-
search topic since the early 1960’s, first examined in [1]
and developed into a mature form in [2]–[4] during the 1970’s.
SHE offers several advantages compared to traditional modu-
lation methods [5] including acceptable performance with low
switching frequency to fundamental frequency ratios, direct
control over output waveform harmonics, and the ability to
leave triplen harmonics uncontrolled to take advantage of circuit
topology in three phase systems. These key advantages make
SHE a viable alternative to other methods of modulation in
applications such as ground power units [6], [7], variable speed
drives [8]–[11], or dual-frequency induction heating [12], [13].
In the past, the problem has been formulated from a few dif-
ferent perspectives, all assuming quarter-wave symmetry. The
most familiar formulation constructs an output waveform, two-
level or three-level, by notching a pre-existing square wave with
each notch representing a harmonic controlled [1]–[3]. Another
approach uses a double pulse waveform as a basis function to
create the desired two- or three-level output waveform [14].
Both formulations result in the same Fourier Series representa-
tion for a two-level or three level waveform. The resulting equa-
Manuscript received June 16, 2004; revised March 25, 2005. Recommended
by Associate Editor J. H. R. Enslin.
The authors are with the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
Urbana, IL 61801 USA (e-mail: jwells@uiuc.edu; brettnee@uiuc.edu;
plchapma@uiuc.edu; krein@uiuc.edu).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPEL.2005.857541
0885-8993/$20.00 © 2005 IEEE
1337
tions based on the Fourier series for the two-level waveform are
described by
(1)
where is the th element in a set of controlled harmonics
having elements, is a vector of length , and is the
switching angle. The magnitude of the harmonic content in the
harmonic is . The three-level waveform equations are
(2)
The set of all equations generated from (1) and (2) have multiple
solutions, which can be obtained using numerical methods [15],
[16], using elimination theory [17] or optimization theory [18],
[19]. Another formulation [20], [21], which maintains quarter-
wave symmetry, uses Walsh functions as a basis to create the
desired harmonic elimination waveform. This method results in
a set of algebraic matrix equations.
The quarter-wave symmetry assumption guarantees that the
even harmonics will be zero and that all harmonics will be either
in phase or anti-phase with the fundamental [14]. Although this is
convenient, the quarter-wave symmetry constraint limits the so-
lution space. If the quarter-wave symmetry constraint is relaxed
to a half-wave symmetry constraint, the even harmonics are still
zero but now the harmonic phasing is free to vary. The method
proposed in this paper advances the work done in [22] and uses
quasi-square waves as a basis function for the harmonic elimina-
tionwaveform’screation. Theuse ofquasi-squarewaves provides
a more intuitive approach for the output waveform creation, in
which each quasi-square wave provides two degrees of freedom,
delay angle and phase. When the quasi-square wave’s phase is in-
troduced, the quarter-wave symmetry constraint is removed and
a more general problem formulation is obtained. It can be shown
that this more general problem formulation results in an infinite
number of solutions as the fundamental phasing is varied.
The nonquarter-wave symmetric two-level waveforms have
unique uncontrolled harmonic profiles which vary significantly
from the traditional problem formulation results [15], [17], [22].
As such, some solutions may have merit relative to others with
respect to system losses, ripple characteristics, or some other
system aspect. For example, these unique harmonic profiles can
1338
be chosen such that they place significant energy in triplen har-
monics, a benefit for applications with balanced three-phase
wye-connected loads.
The paper presents the two-level formulation and analyzes
several solutions for cases where triplen harmonics are con-
trolled and not controlled. This analysis will then be extended
to the three-level case and a unique solution which is unobtain-
able with quarter-wave symmetric techniques will be presented.
Finally, a general problem formulation will be presented for
-level, -harmonic controlled systems. It can be shown that
there are two general problem formulations: one for systems
which have access to an output zero state and one for systems
which do not have a zero state.
II. TWO-LEVEL PROBLEM FORMULATION
As discussed in the previous section, the restriction of
quarter-wave symmetry constrains the selective harmonic
control problem. Although this reduces the complexity of the
transcendental equations, it reduces the solution space which
may result in a suboptimal solution for a given application.
Instead, consider a more general formulation of the two-level
selective harmonic control problem posed by (3) and (4), where
is the th element in a set of controlled harmonics , is a
vector of length with each element related to the duty ratio
of the th quasi-square wave as described by [23], is a vector
of length with each element describing the phase shift of the
th quasi-square wave, and and are the desired
real and imaginary components of the th harmonic
(3)
(4)
It should be noted that the harmonic content can also be de-
scribed in polar coordinates such that
(5)
(6)
where is the magnitude and is the phase of the th har-
monic in the set . The number of quasi-square waves is typi-
cally chosen to be equal to the number of harmonics controlled,
although this is not necessary. The two-level nature of the wave-
form requires that a fixed square wave be used in addition to the
quasi-square waves to remove the zero state from the resulting
waveform. This fixed square wave results in continuous sets of
unique solutions as the phasing of the fundamental harmonic is
varied. If is zero, the problem reduces to (1).
Equations (3) and (4) a imply a half-wave symmetry which
guarantees that the even harmonics will be zero. If the problem
is considered in the more traditional framework where switching
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 20, NO. 6, NOVEMBER 2005
angles are being solved for, then each switching event occurs be-
tween 0 and . The second half of the waveform is then obtained
by
(7)
where is the switching angle as typically defined in previous
work.
The problem posed by (3) and (4) can be solved using any of the
techniques that have been previously discussed in the context of
the more restrictive quarter-wave symmetric problem including
standard iterative approaches [15], [16], elimination theory [17],
minimization techniques [18], [19], or genetic algorithms [24].
Any solution to the quarter-wave symmetric problem will also be
a solution to the more complete formulation posed in this paper.
These quarter-wave symmetric solutions can provide a starting
point for finding other solutions with different phasing. The fol-
lowing sections will present solutions to the above problem and
discuss the implications of phase shifting the fundamental with
respect to the fixed square wave.
A. Two-Level Solutions (Triplens Controlled)
In order to examine the implications of the more general for-
mulation of the selective harmonic control problem, this section
presents solutions to the problem when all harmonics are con-
trolled through the 23rd harmonic. In the case in which triplen
harmonics are controlled, this results in 12 harmonics controlled
implying 24 equations (12 for the real components and 12 for
the imaginary components). Since each quasi-square wave intro-
duces two degrees of freedom ( and ), 12 quasi-square waves
are required to achieve the desired harmonic control. This results
in 24 switching events in each half of the switching waveform.
In order to obtain a continuum of solutions, an iterative solver
was started with a guess vector based on the solution to the
quarter-wave symmetric solution. The phase of the fundamental
relative to the fixed square wave, , was then shifted incre-
mentally and the solution obtained. Next, , is incremented
again and the problem is solved using the previous solution as
a guess vector. Shows the switching events in the first half of
the switching waveform for a modulation depth of one as
is varied from 0 to 360 . Several interesting observations can
be made from examination of this plot. First, the solutions at
0 and 180 possess quarter-wave symmetry and are identical
to the solutions previously identified as TC1 and TC2 in [22].
Also notice that the solutions for from 180 to 360 can be
obtained by
(8)
where is the th switching event, is the total number of
switching events in a half-wave, and can take any value from 0
to . Equation (8) denotes angle reversal of the switching wave-
form which implies that this relationship will hold for any set
of solutions and not just the solutions presented in provided that
the phasing of higher order harmonics is not important. Equiv-
alently, (8) can be stated in terms of the quasi-square waves as
(9)
(10)
WELLS et al.: SELECTIVE HARMONIC CONTROL
Fig. 1. Switching angles at a modulation index of 1.0 as
is varied from 0
to 360 with all harmonics controlled through the 23rd.
Fig. 2. Switching waveform at modulation index of 1.0 and
= 150 with
all harmonics controlled through the 23rd.
Fig. 3. Switching waveform at modulation index of 1.0 and
= 210 with approximately 0.8. At modulation depths above 0.8, harmonic
all harmonics controlled through the 23rd.
Finally, notice that there are switching events at 0 and 180 in
every solution due to the fixed square wave that is required for
a two-level waveform.Figs. 2 and 3 show switching waveforms
and harmonic content to illustrate (8) and to provide an example
based on the information in Fig. 1.
1339
Fig. 4. The 25th Harmonic magnitude with all harmonics controlled through
the 23rd.
Fig. 5. The 27th harmonic magnitude with all harmonics controlled through
the 23rd.
Previous work has suggested that if multiple solutions to a
given harmonic control problem exist, there will be a solution
which is optimal in some sense with regard to its uncontrolled
harmonic content distribution [22]. Many previous papers ex-
amine the content of the first several uncontrolled harmonics of
various solutions as a figure of merit. Although this is often not
enough to completely identify which solution is optimal, it is
informative to see how varying affects the uncontrolled har-
monic distribution. Figs. 4–7 display surface plots of the first
four significant uncontrolled harmonics (25th, 27th, 29th, and
31st).
Several interesting observations can be made regarding the
harmonic behavior as is varied. First, the harmonic content
magnitude is largely unaffected at modulation depths below
content begins to shift between various harmonics as is
varied. Fig. 8 illustrates this effect by plotting the magnitude
and phasing of various harmonics at a modulation depth of 1.0.
It is shown that energy is traded between the 25th and 29th
harmonics while the energy in the 27th and 31st remains rela-
tively constant. Also, the magnitude plots have even symmetry
about the 180 axis which is expected due to (8). The phasing
1340 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 20, NO. 6, NOVEMBER 2005
Fig. 6. The 29th harmonic magnitude with all harmonics controlled through
the 23rd.
is varied from 0
Fig. 7. The 31st harmonic magnitude with all harmonics controlled through
the 23rd.
Fig. 8. Various harmonic magnitudes with all harmonics controlled through
the 23rd at a modulation depth of 1.0.
of each harmonic will have odd symmetry about the 180 axis
as a direct result of (8) which is illustrated in Fig. 9 for the 25th
harmonic.
Fig. 9. Harmonic phase of the 25th harmonic with all harmonics controlled
through the 23rd at a modulation depth of 1.0.
Fig. 10. Switching angles at modulation index of 1.0 as
to 360 with all nontriplen harmonics controlled through the 23rd.
B. Two-Level Solutions (No Triplens Controlled)
Similar to the case where triplens are controlled, the half-
wave symmetric problem can be solved using the quarter-wave
symmetric solution as the guess vector as is varied when the
triplens are not controlled. Fig. 10 shows the switching events in
the first half of the switching waveform for a modulation depth
of 1.00 as is varied from 0 to 360 . The solution at 0 is
a standard solution identified as NTC1 in [22]. When is be-
tween 18 and 19 (and also, by symmetry, between 341 and
342 ), there is a discontinuity as the solution jumps from one
continuous solution curve to another curve due to convergence
properties of the iterative solver. The switching waveform takes
on a very different shape on each solution curve as is demon-
strated by two example cases shown in Figs. 11 and 12.
It is informative to examine the first several uncontrolled har-
monics as the phasing of the fundamental is varied. Figs. 13–16
display surface plots of the first four significant uncontrolled
harmonics (25th, 27th, 29th, and 31st). Unlike the case where
triplens are controlled, these figures show a significant relation-
ship between and the magnitudes of various harmonics at any
modulation depth. Also, unlike in Fig. 8 where it can be seen
that energy is being traded primarily between the 25th and the
WELLS et al.: SELECTIVE HARMONIC CONTROL 1341

Fig. 11. Switching waveform at modulation index of 1.0 and = 18 with Fig. 13. The 25th harmonic magnitude with all nontriplen harmonics
all nontriplen harmonics controlled through the 23rd. controlled through the 23rd.

Fig. 12. Switching waveform at modulation index of 1.0 and = 19 with Fig. 14. The 27th harmonic magnitude with all nontriplen harmonics
all nontriplen harmonics controlled through the 23rd. controlled through the 23rd.

29th harmonics in a relatively straightforward fashion, a sim-

ilar plot of these solutions shown in Fig. 17 indicates a much
more complex relationship where energy appears to be shifting
significantly between all of the harmonics. Again, the harmonic
phasing possesses odd symmetry while the magnitude possesses
even symmetry due to (8).
Although the solutions presented in Figs. 10–17 used solutions
obtained by solving the quarter-wave symmetric problem as a
starting point, this basis is not actually required. This implies that
in addition to new solutions obtainable by means of varying ,
there could exist additional solutions with at 0 and 180 which
have not been previously identified. To illustrate this point, Fig. 18
shows one such solution at a modulation depth of 1.0 with
of 0 . For comparison, Fig. 19 shows a traditional quarter-wave
symmetric solution at a modulation depth of 1.0.
Fig. 15. The 29th harmonic magnitude with all nontriplen harmonics
controlled through the 23rd.
III. THREE-LEVEL PROBLEM FORMULATION
The formulation of a more complete three-level harmonic th element in a set of controlled harmonics , is a vector
control problem is very similar to the two-level case presented of length with each element related to the duty ratio of the
in the previous section with only a few minor modifications. th quasi-square wave as described by [23], is a vector of
Consider the problem posed by (11) and (12) where is the length with each element describing the phase shift of the
1342
of 0
Fig. 16. The 31st harmonic magnitude with all nontriplen harmonics
controlled through the 23rd.
Fig. 17. Various harmonic magnitudes with all nontriplen harmonics
controlled through the 23rd at a modulation depth of 1.0.
of 0 with
th quasi-square wave, and and are the desired real
and imaginary components of the th harmonic
(11)
(12)
Again, the number of quasi-square waves is typically chosen to
be equal to the number of harmonics which are desired to be
controlled; though this is not necessarily required. It should be
noted that if is zero, the problem reduces to (2).
Without the fixed square wave, all of the switching events are
free to shift in phase in response to a change of the fundamental
phasing. As a result, in the unique case in which all controlled
harmonics are set to zero except for the fundamental, a con-
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 20, NO. 6, NOVEMBER 2005
Fig. 18. Switching waveform at modulation index of 1.0 and
with all nontriplen harmonics controlled through the 23rd. (Note the lack of
quarter-wave symmetry despite phasing of the fundamental which is consistent
with the quarter-wave problem formulation.).
Fig. 19. Switching waveform at modulation index of 1.0 and
all nontriplen harmonics controlled through the 23rd. (Note the quarter-wave
symmetry).
tinuous unique solution set will not exist in the same fashion
as the two-level case. Instead, there will be a finite number
of half-wave symmetric solutions which will simply be phase
shifted to achieve different . In the more general case, if it is
desired to control the magnitude of several harmonics, it is pos-
sible to generate continuous solution sets by varying different
. Since the selective harmonic control problem tends to be fo-
cused primarily on the unique case in which all controlled har-
monics except the fundamental are eliminated, this paper will
only present one such solution that is not obtainable by the tra-
ditional quarter-wave symmetric problem. Fig. 20 shows and
versus the fundamental modulation depth for one such so-
lution. For reference, the switching waveform at a modulation
depth of 1.0 is plotted in Fig. 21 along with its harmonic content
in Fig. 22.
IV. GENERAL PROBLEM FORMULATION
The previous sections have detailed a more general problem
formulation and selected solutions for the two- and three-level
WELLS et al.: SELECTIVE HARMONIC CONTROL 1343

Fig. 22. Three-level switching waveform harmonic content at a modulation

Fig. 20. Three-level solutions ( , ' ) versus modulation depth with at 0 depth of 1.00 and of 0 with all nontriplen harmonics controlled through the
and all nontriplen harmonics controlled through the 23rd. 23rd.

ratio of the th quasi-square wave as described by [23], is a

vector of length with each element describing the phase shift
of the th quasi-square wave, and are the desired
real and imaginary components of the th harmonic, and is
the magnitude of the th quasi-square wave. The magnitude of
the quasi-square waves, , takes discrete values from a set
which is defined by the available voltage levels in the converter
as

(15)

where is the number of levels in the converter and and

are elements from the set which contains all possible converter
level magnitudes.
Fig. 21. Example three-level switching waveform at a modulation depth of
1.00 and of 0 with all nontriplen harmonics controlled through the 23rd. In the case where the zero state is not available, the problem
formulation is very similar. In addition to the quasi-square
harmonic control problems which are typically encountered. It waves that are used for control of the harmonics, a fixed square
should be noted that these are actually special cases of two wave must be added with magnitude , also chosen from
more general cases which define the -level, -harmonic con- , such that the waveform will be at zero at only a finite number
trol problem. The two cases are distinguished by the presence of instants each cycle. Mathematically, this is described by
of zero-state in the waveform, which is usually a constraint that
arises due to converter topology (i.e., if the waveform being
designed is intended for a single pole of a multi-phase con-
verter application). In the case where a zero state is available,
the problem is defined by

(16)

(13)

(17)

(14) V. IMPLEMENTATION CONSIDERATIONS

where is the th element in a set of controlled harmonics , Although the theory presented offers alternative switching
is a vector of length with each element related to the duty waveforms, the generalized selective harmonic control tech-
1344
nique can still be classified as a programmed PWM method.
As a result, hardware implementation is similar to other pro-
grammed PWM techniques. The basic principle relies on storing
pre-computed switching angles in memory and generating the
PWM output by cycling through the table. This architecture can
be achieved using ASICs, CPLDs, microprocessors, or DSPs
depending on the desired level of performance and flexibility.
Discussion of the tradeoffs in these different architectures is
beyond the scope of this paper; however, the interested reader
can find many descriptions of such systems in the literature
including [5], [25]–[28].
VI. CONCLUSION
This paper has presented a more complete formulation for
the selective harmonic control problem extending the basic
theory set forth by [1]–[4]. Solutions were presented which
illustrate the differences between this formulation and the tra-
ditional quarter-wave symmetric problem formulation. Several
key points were identified related to the solutions of this more
general problem. First, it was shown that solutions with a
fundamental phasing relative to the fixed square wave between
0 and 180 can be used to generate solutions for fundamental
phasing between 180 and 360 provided that higher order
harmonic phasing is not important. Due to this property, the
harmonic magnitudes will have even symmetry and the har-
monic phasing will have odd symmetry with respect to the
fundamental phasing about the 180 axis. It was also shown
that several solutions exist which have not been previously
identified despite claims of completeness in several papers
(although these papers did find all solutions to the problem they
posed). Finally, the solutions presented illustrated that adjusting
the harmonic phasing can result in significant changes in the
uncontrolled harmonic profile of the waveform.
The work presented in this paper may have several implica-
tions regarding traditional harmonic control applications. First,
as suggested by [22], there exists an optimal switching wave-
form for a given harmonic control goal with respect to the un-
controlled harmonic content. This problem formulation gives
the designer much more flexibility in selecting the uncontrolled
harmonic content and may result in improvements in a system
cost function such as system efficiency, electromagnetic com-
patibility, acoustical properties, etc. Investigation of such opti-
mizations is a subject for future research.
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WELLS et al.: SELECTIVE HARMONIC CONTROL
Jason R. Wells (S’00) received the B.S. degree in
electrical engineering and biomedical engineering
and the M.S. degree in electrical engineering from
the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
Urbana, in 2000 and 2002, respectively, where he is
currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree.
His industry experience includes internships at
Hamilton-Sundstrand. His interests are in power
electronics, motor design and control, power educa-
tion, and bioengineering.
Mr. Wells received the Mavis Fellowship for out-
standing contributions to research and education, the Sargent and Lundy Fellow-
ship, and the Excellent Teacher Rating several times as a Teaching Assistant.
Brett M. Nee (S’02) received the B.S. degree in
electrical and computer engineering and the M.S. de-
gree in electrical engineering from the University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, in 2003 and
2004, respectively, where he is currently pursuing
the Ph.D. degree.
His interests include power electronics, motor de-
sign, and drives.
1345
Patrick L. Chapman (S’94–M’00–SM’05) received
the the B.S. and M.S. degrees from the University
of Missouri-Rolla, in 1996 and 1997, respectively,
and the Ph.D. degree from Purdue University, West
Lafayette, IN, in 2000.
He is a Grainger Associate and Assistant Professor
in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engi-
neering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
Urbana. He is Associate Director for the Grainger
Center for Electric Machines and Electromechanics.
Some of his research interests include multiple-input
power converters, biomechanical energy conversion, fuel-cell power converters,
power integrated circuits, and numerical modeling of power electronics systems.
Dr. Chapman received the National Science Foundation CAREER and Of-
fice of Naval Research Young Investigator awards. He is a Chapter Chair the
IEEE Power Engineering Society and an Associate Editor for the IEEE POWER
ELECTRONICS LETTERS.
Philip T. Krein (S’76–M’82–SM’93–F’00) received
the B.S. degree in electrical engineering and the A.B.
degree in economics and business from Lafayette
College, Easton, PA, and the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees
in electrical engineering from the University of
Illinois, Urbana.
He was an Engineer with Tektronix, Beaverton,
OR, then returned to the University of Illinois. At
present he holds the Grainger Endowed Director’s
Chair in Electric Machinery and Electromechanics
as Director of the Grainger Center for Electric
Machinery and Electromechanics. He wrote Elements of Power Electronics
(Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press, 1998). In 2001, he helped initiate the
International Future Energy Challenge (a major student competition involving
fuel cell power conversion and energy efficiency for machines). He holds eight
U.S. patents. His research interests address all aspects of power electronics,
machines, and drives, with emphasis on nonlinear control approaches.
Dr. Krein was a Senior Fulbright Scholar at the University of Surrey, Surrey,
UK, from 1997 to 1998, a University Scholar in 1999 (the highest research
award at the University of Illinois), and received the IEEE William E. Newell
Award in Power Electronics in 2003. At present, he is Editor of IEEE POWER
ELECTRONICS LETTERS. From 1999 to 2000, he was President of the IEEE Power
Electronics Society, and from 2003–2004 served on the IEEE Board of Direc-
tors for Division II. He is a Registered Professional Engineer in the States of
Illinois and in Oregon.