ME 6535 Vacuum Technology 3 credits [3-0-0]

Course Teacher
Dr. S. Anbarasu
Assistant professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
NIT Rourkela
Rourkela-769008
9437720650
anbarasus@nitrkl.ac.in
Subcomponent Weight (%)

Teachers
Assessment (TA) : 20

Mid semester : 30

End semester : 50

2
 Syllabus
1. Basic Theory:
Gas kinetic theory, pressure, conductance, gas flow regimes, vapour pressure,
pumping speed, throughput.
2. Gas surface interactions:
Physisorption, Chemi-sorption, Condensation.
3. Vacuum Pumps:
Mechanical, diffusion, molecular drag, turbo molecular, cryopumps, ion pumps -
general working principles, operating regimes.
4. Vacuum Instrumentation:
Vacuum gauges, gas regulators, flow meters, residual gas analysers,
interpretation of data.
5. Design Concepts:
Materials, chambers, components, joins, seals, valves. Overall system design and
integration.
6. Problem Solving
Leak detection and detectors, gas signatures. 3
7. Vacuum Applications:
Freeze drying, packaging, vacuum coating, microelectronics, particle accelerators,
distillation, metallurgical processes, television and X-ray tubes, cryogenic insulation,
space simulation.
Essential Reading:
1. V.V. Rao, T.B. Ghosh, K.L. Chopra, Vacuum Science and Technology, Allied Publishers
Ltd., New Delhi (1998).
2. A. Roth, Vacuum Technology, North Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam (1976).
Supplementary Reading:
1. M. H. Hablanian, H. H. Hablanian, High-vacuum Technology: A Practical Guide,
2nd Edition, CRC Press, 1997.
2. A.D. Tripathi A. Gupta Ac, Ultra High Vacuum Techniques, Allied Publishers Private
Limited, 2002. 4
Basic Theory:

Gas kinetic theory, pressure, conductance, gas flow regimes, vapour

pressure, pumping speed, throughput.

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What is Vacuum ?

 Latin – Empty
 The object of vacuum techniques is far from being spaces without matter.
 At the lowest pressures which can be obtained by modern pumping methods there
are still hundreds of molecules in each cm3 of evacuated space.
 Refers to a given space filled with gas at pressures below atmospheric,
i.e. having a density of molecules less than about 2.5 x1019 molecules/cm3.
 About 19 orders of magnitude of pressures (or densities) below that corresponding
to the standard atmosphere.
 The lower limit of the range is continuously decreasing, as the vacuum technology
improves its pumping and measuring techniques.
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According to American Vacuum Society (1958)
Any given space filled with gas at pressures below atmosphere (or) Molecular density < 2.5 x 1019
mol/cm3…Vacuum.
Atomic diameter of typical gas = 3A0 = 3 x 10-8 cm   1 cm length contains 3 x 107 atoms  for solid
with tightly arranged atoms 1 cm3 contains 33 × 1021 = 3 × 1022 atoms  solid evaporates to gas, volume
changes by 1000   gas of 1 cm3 contains 3 x 1022  1000 = 3 x 1019
atoms  even at 10-12 torr (best possible vacuum in laboratory) we have 30,000 molecules per cm3 and
mean free path > diameter of earth.
Vacuum is measured by measuring the absolute pressure in an enclosure.
In coherent unit system [F] = [l] [m] [t]-2 and [P] = [l]-1 [m] [t]-2
C.G.S  dynes/cm2 = 0.1 pascal dyne = 1gm.cm/s2
S.I (M.K.S) newton/m2 = 1 pascal.
In non-coherent system, the pressure units Torr & mbar are popularly used in "Vacuum Technology"
1 atm = 760 mm of Hg  760 Torr = 1013 mbar  0.1 Mega Pascal = 1.03 Kg/cm2 7
 NATURAL VACUUM

Human beings  740 Torr – Respiration / 300 Torr - Suction

Octopus  0.1 Torr

Space: Pressure decreases with the altitude

 up to 100 km (troposphere & stratosphere)
Pr. Decreases by a factor of 10 for each increase in altitude of 15 Km…. "10-3 Torr at 90 Km"
 100 - 400 Km (Inosphere)
Pr. Decreases by a factor of 10 / every 100 - 200 Km….."10-10 Torr at 1000 Km"
 Above 1000 Km Pr. Decreases slowly.

“10-13 Torr at 10000 Km”

Altitude Composition
< 200 Km  Atm. is air.
200 - 1000 Km  Atomic N & O
Vacuum of 10-10 Torr  Highly expensive technology 700 - 1000 Km  Appreciable He
on Earth - Naturally available in large volumes >1500 Km  Neutral atomic H,
[Universe] Above 1000 Km in Space. Protons, electrons etc.
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Brief History of Vacuum Technology
1564 – 1642 Galileo Vacuum with a piston in cylinder
1643 Torricelli Vacuum produced at the top of a column of mercury
1623 – 62 Pascal Barometer
1654 Guericke Mechanical effects famous
1879 Edison’s Invention of the incandescent lamp
1879 Crookes Cathode ray tube & Evacuated flask by Dewar
1902 Vacuum diode / 1906 triode / 1909 tungsten filament electron & X-ray tubes  electronics
1874 Mc Leod Primary gauge
1906 Pirani’s Thermal conductivity gauge
1915 Gaede’s and Langmuir’s Diffusion pump
1916 Buckley’s Hot cathode ionization gauge
1937 Penning’s Cold cathode gauge
After 1940 Vacuum Technology for nuclear research
1950 Bayard – Alpert Ionization gauge
1953 H.J. Schwarz & R.G. Herd Ion-pumps produced
1958 W.Becker Molecular drag of a high speed rotor
After 1980 Commercial production of Turbo-Molecular and Cryo pumps for UHV
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10
Why Might We Need Vacuum?
To move a particle in a (straight) line over a large distance

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 Atmosphere (High)Vacuum

Contamination Clean surface

(usually water)

To provide a clean surface

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• Anything cryogenic (or just very cold) needs to get rid of the air

– eliminate thermal convection; avoid liquefying air

• Atomic physics experiments must get rid of confounding air particles

– eliminate collisions

• Sensitive torsion balance experiments must not be subject to air

– buffeting, viscous drag, etc. are problems

• Surface/materials physics must operate in pure environment

– e.g., control deposition of atomic species one layer at a time

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A vacuum provides a clean environment

– Devoid of possible contamination from other gases that may be present from

the atmosphere

– Devoid of particles that may react with physical processes that are intended to

take place

– Devoid of pressure that may limit restrict a desired physical process

“Common Uses of Vacuum”

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 Light Bulbs

A vacuum pump removes oxygen from a light bulb so that the filament won’t

“burn out” (oxidation)

 Food Processing

Vacuum sealing eliminates oxygen from food containers to preserve the contents

 Plastics Manufacturing

Vacuum-forming “draws” plastic sheets into shapes such as “blister packs”

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 Gas kinetic theory
A collection of molecules can occur either in the solid, liquid or gaseous state depending on
 the strength of the intermolecular forces
 the average kinetic energy per molecule (temperature)
Ideal or perfect gas:
(a) the molecules are minute spheres;
(b) their volume is very small compared with that actually occupied by the gas;
(c) the molecules do not exert forces upon each other;
(d) they travel along rectilinear paths in a perfectly random fashion;
(e) the molecules make perfectly elastic collisions
Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon, Helium, Krypton, Neon, Xenon, approximate closely at atmospheric
pressures the behaviour assumed for ideal gases.
At lower pressures (vacuum) many more gases approach the ideal gases.

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Gas Properties

 Gases consist of tiny particles called molecules or atoms.

 Molecules are so far apart that any attractive forces are ignored.
Four Qualities of a Gas

• Volume (V)
• Pressure (P)
• Temperature (T)
• Number of molecules (N)
 Physical Characteristics of Gases
Physical Characteristics Typical Units
Volume, V liters (L)

Pressure, P atmosphere
(1 atm = 1.015x105 N/m2)
Temperature, T Kelvin (K)

Number of atoms or mole (1 mol = 6.022x1023

molecules, n atoms or molecules)
 Boyle’s Law
 Pressure and volume are
inversely related at constant
temperature.
 PV = K
 As one goes up, the other
goes down.
 P1V1 = P2V2
“Father of Modern Chemistry”
Robert Boyle
Chemist & Natural Philosopher
Listmore, Ireland
January 25, 1627 – December 30, 1690
Boyle’s Law: P1V1 = P2V2
Boyle’s Law: P1V1 = P2V2
Charles’ Law
 Volume of a gas varies directly
with the absolute temperature at
constant pressure.
 V = KT
 V1 / T1 = V2 / T2

Jacques-Alexandre Charles
Mathematician, Physicist, Inventor
Beaugency, France
November 12, 1746 – April 7, 1823
Charles’ Law: V1/T1 = V2/T2
Charles’ Law: V1/T1 = V2/T2
 Avogadro’s Law

 At constant temperature and

pressure, the volume of a gas is
directly related to the number of
moles.
 V=Kn
 V1 / n1 = V2 / n2
Amedeo Avogadro
Physicist
Turin, Italy
August 9, 1776 – July 9, 1856
Avogadro’s Law: V1/n1=V2/n2
Gay-Lussac Law
 At constant volume, pressure
and absolute temperature are
directly related.
 P=kT
 P1 / T1 = P2 / T2

Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac
Experimentalist
Limoges, France
December 6, 1778 – May 9, 1850
Dalton’s Law
 The total pressure in a container is the
sum of the pressure each gas would
exert if it were alone in the container.
 The total pressure is the sum of the
partial pressures.
 PTotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + P5 ...
(For each gas P = nRT/V)
John Dalton
Chemist & Physicist
Eaglesfield, Cumberland, England
September 6, 1766 – July 27, 1844
Dalton’s Law
 Vapor Pressure
 Water evaporates!
 When that water evaporates, the vapor has a pressure.
 Gases are often collected over water so the vapor pressure of water must be
subtracted from the total pressure.
 THE ATMOSPHERE IS A MIXTURE OF GASES

PARTIAL PRESSURES OF GASES CORRESPOND TO THEIR RELATIVE VOLUMES

PERCENT BY PARTIAL PRESSURE

GAS SYMBOL VOLUME TORR PASCAL
Nitrogen N2 78 593 79,000
Oxygen O2 21 158 21,000
Argon A 0.93 7.1 940
Carbon Dioxide CO2 0.03 0.25 33
Neon Ne 0.0018 1.4 x 10-2 1.8
Helium He 0.0005 4.0 x 10-3 5.3 x 10-1
Krypton Kr 0.0001 8.7 x 10-4 1.1 x 10-1
Hydrogen H2 0.00005 4.0 x 10-4 5.1 x 10-2
Xenon X 0.0000087 6.6 x 10-5 8.7 x 10-3
Water H2O Variable 5 to 50 665 to 6650
VAPOR PRESSURE OF WATER AT VARIOUS
TEMPERATURES

T (O C) P (mbar)
100 (BOILING) 1013
25 32
0 (FREEZING) 6.4
-40 0.13
-78.5 (DRY ICE) 6.6 x 10 -4
-196 (LIQUID NITROGEN) 10 -24
Vapor Pressure of some Solids
Differences Between Ideal and Real Gases

Ideal Gas Real Gas

Obey PV=nRT Always Only at very low

P and high T
Molecular volume Zero Small but
nonzero
Molecular attractions Zero Small

Molecular repulsions Zero Small

 Real Gases
 Real molecules do take up space and do interact with each other
(especially polar molecules).
 Need to add correction factors to the ideal gas law to account for these.
 But since real gases do have volume, we need:

Volume Correction
 The actual volume free to move in is less because of particle size.
 More molecules will have more effect.
 Corrected volume V’ = V – nb
 “b” is a constant that differs for each gas.
 Pressure Correction
 Because the molecules are attracted to
each other, the pressure on the container
will be less than ideal.
 Pressure depends on the number of
molecules per liter.
 Since two molecules interact, the effect
must be squared.

n 2
Pobserved  Pa ( )
V
 Van der Waal’s equation
n 2
[Pobs  a ( ) ] (V nb)  nRT
V

Corrected Pressure Corrected Volume

 “a” and “b” are
determined by experiment
 “a” and “b” are
different for each gas
 bigger molecules have larger “b”
 “a” depends on both Johannes Diderik van der Waals
Mathematician & Physicist
size and polarity Leyden, The Netherlands
November 23, 1837 – March 8, 1923
Compressibility Factor The
most useful way of displaying this
new law for real molecules is to plot
the compressibility factor, Z :

For n = 1

Z = PV / RT
Ideal Gas; Z = 1
Pressure and Molecular Density

 Pressure is a function of the number of molecules present in a given volume.

 The pressure exerted by a gas on a real surface is defined as the force applied
per unit area.
 Coherent Pressure units

Non-Coherent Pressure Units: physical atmosphere, mm and μm of Hg and Torr, mm and cm of water,
and inch of Hg 45
Pressure and Molecular Density
• Molecules of gases tend to spread out, evenly applying force to the containment
chamber
• A larger volume, with the same number of molecules present, would be at lower
pressure than a smaller one
• Boyle’s Law - a relationship between pressure and volume
47
 • Molecular density is the average
number of molecules per unit
volume.
• Mean free path is the average
distance that a molecule travels in
a gas between two successive
collisions with other molecules of
that gas.
• Time to form a monolayer is the
time required for a freshly cleaved
surface to be covered by a layer
of the gas of one molecule
thickness.
• This time is given by the ratio
between the number of molecules
required to form a compact
monolayer (about 8x1014
molecules/cm2) and the molecular
Relationship of several concepts defining the degree of vacuum.
incidence rate (at which
molecules strike a surface).
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 Combined Gas Law

 The relationships between pressure, temperature, and volume given in Boyle’s,

Charles’, and Gay-Lussac’s Law for a constant number of gas molecules can

be taken together as the Combined Gas Law.

 This law can be used two of the 3 properties are known to find the third.

p1  V1 p2  V2

T1 T2
 Kinetic Theory

The particles of gas are moving randomly, each with a unique velocity, but following the Maxwell
Boltzmann distribution:

The average speed is:

With the molecular weight of air around 29 g/mole (~75% N2 @ 28; ~25% O2 @ 32), 293 K:
m = 291.6710-27 kg k = 1.38064852 × 10-23 m2 kg s-2 K-1
v = 461 m/s

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 Mean Free Path
The mean free path is the typical distance traveled before colliding with another air molecule

 Treat molecules as spheres with radius, r

 If (the center of) another molecule comes within 2r of the path of a select molecule:

 Each molecule sweeps out cylinder of volume: V = 4r2vt

Time t at velocity v, If the volume density of air molecules is n (e.g., m3):

The number of collisions in time t is, Z= 4 × n × r2 × v × t

Correcting for relative molecular speeds, and expressing as collisions per unit time, we have:

51
 Mean Free Path, cont.
Now that we have the collision frequency, “Z”. we can get the average distance between
collisions as:
 = v/Z

So that

For air molecules, r  1.7510-10 m

So   6.8108 m = 68 nm at atmospheric pressure

Note that mean free path is inversely proportional to the number density, which is itself
proportional to pressure

So we can make a rule for  = (5 cm)/(P in mtorr)

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 Relevance of Mean Free Path

● Mean free path is related to thermal conduction of air

if the mean free path is shorter than distance from hot to cold surface, there is a
collisional (conductive) heat path between the two
● Once the mean free path is comparable to the size of the vessel, the paths are ballistic
collisions cease to be important
● Though not related in a 1:1 way, one also cares about transition from bulk behavior to
molecular behavior
above 100 mTorr (about 0.00013 atm), air is still collisionally dominated (viscous)
 is about 0.5 mm at this point
below 100 mTorr, gas is molecular, and flow is statistical rather than viscous
(bulk air no longer pushes on bulk air)
53
Molecular density 'n': Average number of molecules per unit volume. For a given
temperature and volume n  p density  p
Mean free path '': Average distance that a molecule travels in a gas between
two successive collisions with other molecules of that gas.

1
𝜆 =
2𝜋𝑛𝑑2

Time to form a monolayer '': Time required for a freshly cleaved surface to be
covered by a layer of the gas of one molecule thickness.  is very long for UHV
(2.2 x 106 sec at 10-12 torr)

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 Properties of a vacuum
Vacuum Pressure Number M.F.P. Surface Monolayer
(torr) Density (m-3) (m) Collision Freq. Formation
(m-2·s-1) Time (s)
Atmosphere 760 2.71025 7108 31027 3.310-9

Rough 103 3.51019 0.05 41021 2.510-3

High 106 3.51016 50 41018 2.5

Very high 109 3.51013 50103 41015 2.5103

Ultrahigh 1012 3.51010 50106 41012 2.5106

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57
By analyzing the valves of , ,  and D (characteristic dimension of the chamber), we can classify
vacuum into three regions.
Low (medium) vacuum:
The number of molecules of the gas phase is large compared to that covering the surface.
760 - 0.5 Torr  Low Force effects can be felt.
0.5 - 10-2 Torr  Medium  << D
High vacuum:
The gas molecules in the chamber are located principally on surfaces. Viscosity effects disappear.
10-3 to 10-7 Torr. ≥D
Ultra High Vacuum:
The time to form a monolayer '' is longer than the usual time for laboratory measurements; thus clean
surfaces can be prepared and their properties can be studied.
10-7 to 10-15 Torr  >> D
Pumping/measurement very difficult 58
Characteristics of the high altitude atmosphere surrounding the earth
59
Gas Compositions
Component Atmosphere Ultra High Vacuum
Partial Pr. (Torr) Partial Pr (Torr)
N2 595 ----------
O2 159 3 x 10-13
Ar 7.05 ----------
CO2 0.25 6 x 10-12
Ne 0.014 ----------
He 0.004 ----------
Kr 8.4 x 10-4 ----------
H2 3.8 x 10-4 2 x 10-11
Xe 6.6 x 10-5 ----------
H2O 11.9 9 x 10-13
CH4 1.5 x 10-3 3 x 10-13
O3 5.3 x 10-5 ----------
N2O 1.8 x 10-4 ----------
CO ------------ 9 x 10-12

In the ultra high vacuum range hydrogen is the dominant component coming mostly from the bulk
of the materials (permeation). 60
61
 Vacuum Technology - Principle / Applications
1. Pressure difference: (Force: 1Kg/cm2)
(a) Holding, lifting, transporting solids, liquids.
(b) Vacuum sniffers; mouth is placed on the object to be lifted very precisely.
(Ex: Vacuum cleaner - 600 Torr).
(c) Chemical industry to accelerate filtering speed.
(d) Railway breaks Low vacuum > 10 Torr.

2. Removing chemically active elements:

(a) Electric bulb  To avoid heated filament oxidation.
10-5 Torr & sealing or Inert gas filling after evacuation
(b) Vacuum Metallurgy : To protect active metals from oxidation during melting, casting,
sintering etc. (0.1 Torr).
(c) Vacuum Packaging : of food materials sensitive to atmospheric reactions
(low vacuum - 0.1 Torr).
(d) Vacuum encapsulation : of sensitive transistors & capacitors.

3. Removing humidity from foods & chemicals :

(a) Vacuum Concentration (removing water) at low heating of Fruit juice, concentrated milk etc.
(b) Freeze drying for storage : Cooling and removing water by sublimation under vacuum,
preserving volatile constituents.
- instant coffee, blood plasma. 62
 (a) Vacuum impregnation : Removing occluded humidity/ gases, filling their place by other
materials.
- insulation of motor windings, capacitors, cables etc.

4. Thermal & Electrical insulation :

(a) Dewar flasks (LN2 & LHe), Thermos flasks - double walled with evacuated space –
convection reduced.
(b) Electrical insulation - vacuum switches/interuptors, high voltage tubes - Fusion reactors for
energy production etc.

5. Avoiding atomic collisions :

(a) Oscilloscopes, photo cells, X-ray tubes, Mass spectrometers, Electron microscopes etc. (10-
6 Torr).

(b) Vacuum coating units : where coating materials evaporated from a source travels straight to
the substrate with out collisions to create high quality thin film devices (< 10-8 Torr).
(c) Fresh surface analysis equipment - SEM, EDAX, ESCA etc. 10-10 Torr where  is very long.

6. Space simulation chambers

Ex: space shuttles etc. 10-10 Torr. Simulating the conditions of far space.

7. Molecular distillation of pure fractions by evaporating and condensing.

http://acept.la.asu.edu/PiN/rdg/vacuum/vacuum.html
Vacuum Pump
8. Nuclear Engineering : UHV (Ultra High Vacuum)
63
To avoid collisions in particle accelerators and Fusion Reactors
64
65
 JSC Houston Space Simulation Chamber A

• 16.8 m (55 ft) diameter x 27.4 m (90 ft) high, thermal-

vacuum test facility and is famous for testing the
Apollo spacecraft, with and without the mission crew. 66
 A pneumatic tube system in
Washington, D.C.

Pneumatic tubes at a
drive-through bank

67
68
X – ray tube arrangement

• X-rays are produced when electrons strike a

metal target. The electrons are liberated from
the heated filament and accelerated by a high
voltage towards the metal target.
• The X-rays are produced when the electrons
collide with the atoms and nuclei of the
metal target.

69
● In an X-ray tube the electrons emitted from the
cathode are accelerated towards the metal target
anode by an accelerating voltage of typically 50
kV.
● The high energy electrons interact with the atoms
in the metal target. Sometimes the electron comes
very close to a nucleus in the target and is deviated
by the electromagnetic interaction.
● In this process, which is called bremsstrahlung
(braking radiation), the electron loses much energy
and a photon (X-ray) is emitted.
● The energy of the emitted photon can take any
value up to a maximum corresponding to the
energy of the incident electron. 70
71
Gas flow regimes, conductance, Pumping speed and Throughput

• The gas in a vacuum system can be in a viscous state, in a molecular state or in a state which is
intermediate between these two.
• When a system is brought from the atmospheric pressure to "high vacuum", the gas in the system
goes through all these states.
• λ of gas molecules is very small at atmospheric pressure (limited by viscosity).
• At low pressure, λ of gas molecules is similar to the dimensions of the vacuum enclosure (flow
governed by viscosity as well as molecular phenomena): Intermediate flow.
• At very low pressures where the λ is much larger than the dimensions of the vacuum enclosure, the
flow is molecular.
• In the range, the sate of the gas is viscous, the flow can be laminar or turbulent.

Intermediate flow, molecular flow, laminar, transition and turbulent flow

Atmosphere Low vacuum High vacuum
Viscous flow (Intermediate) Molecular flow 72
Flow regimes

73
 MEAN FREE PATH

MOLECULAR DENSITY AND MEAN FREE PATH

1013 mbar (atm) 1 x 10-3 mbar 1 x 10-9 mbar

# 3 x 10 19 4 x 10 13 4 x 10 7
mol/cm3 (30 million trillion) (40 trillion) (40 million)

MFP 2.5 x 10-6 in 2 inches 31 miles

6.4 x 10-5 mm 5.1 cm 50 km
Knudsen number
The ratio of the mean free path to the flow channel diameter can be used to describe types of flow.
This ratio is referred to as the Knudsen number: 
Kn 
D

75
 FLOW REGIMES

Mean Free Path

Viscous Flow: is less than 0.01
Characteristic Dimension

Mean Free Path

Transition Flow: is between 0.01 and 1
Characteristic Dimension

Mean Free Path

Molecular Flow: is greater than 1
Characteristic Dimension
 Poiseuille flow: Laminar flow in circular tubes with parabolic velocity

distribution

 The phenomenon of choked flow may also be observed in the viscous flow

situation. It plays a part when venting and evacuating a vacuum vessel and

where there are leaks.

77
78
Pumping Speed & Throughput
• When a pump is used to evacuate gas from a system, the rate at which the gas is removed is given
by its pumping speed Sp.
• The pumping speed is defined as the volume of gas per unit of time, dV/dt, which the pumping
device removes from the system at the pressure "P" existing at the inlet to the pump.
• The pumping speed is expressed in liter/sec, m3/hr, etc. and is a function of the system pressure.
• The throughput Q is defined as the product of the pumping speed and the inlet pressure,
i.e. Q = P Sp= P (dV/dt).
• As pressure is proportional to density in a closed system, Q can be viewed as a quantity
proportional to mass flow rate.
• The throughput is also defined as the quantity of gas, in "pressure x volume" units, at a specified
temperature, flowing per unit time across a specified cross-section.
• The throughput is expressed in Pa-m3/sec (or Torr-liter/sec). 79
• For all types of flow, the flow rate is directly proportional to the pressure drop across the
connecting tube.
• Also flow rate depends on the diameter and length of the connecting tube for circular cross
section.
• In vacuum work the mass flow rate is usually called throughput and its unit is Torr liter/sec.
• In analogy to electric circuits, throughput (Q) and pressure drop (Δp) are related by a term called
conductance “C” of the vacuum element (connecting tube),
C = Q/ΔP
• This equation can be considered as the “Ohms Law of Vacuum Technology”, because Q
corresponds to the current, ΔP to the voltage and C to the electrical conductance

80
 CONTINUUM FLOW
A gas is called a viscous gas when Kn < 0.01. The flow in a viscous gas can be either turbulent

Re > 2200, or viscous Re < 1200. Equation can be put in a more useful form by replacing the
stream velocity with

If we replace the mass density, using the ideal gas law,

For air at 22°C, this reduces to

83
• In ordinary vacuum practice turbulent flow occurs infrequently. Reynolds number can
reach high values in the piping of a large roughing pump during the initial pumping
phase.

• For a pipe 250 mm in diameter connected to a 47-L/s pump, R at atmospheric pressure

is 16,000. Turbulent flow will exist whenever the pressure is greater than
1.5 × 104 𝑃𝑎 100 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑟
Orifices
• For tubes of zero length (an extremely thin orifice) the flow versus pressure is a rather
complicated function of the pressure.
• Consider a fixed high pressure, say atmospheric pressure, on one side of the orifice with a
variable pressure on the downstream side. As the downstream pressure is reduced, the gas
flowing through the orifice will increase until it reaches a maximum. 84
• At this ratio of inlet to outlet pressure (the critical pressure ratio), the gas is flowing at the

speed of sound in the gas. The gas flow through the orifice is given by

• The factor C accounts for the reduced cross-sectional area as the high speed gas stream
continues to decrease in diameter, after it passes through the orifice. This phenomenon is
called the vena contracta. For thin, circular orifices, C is -0.85.

85
• If the downstream pressure P2 is further reduced, the gas flow will not increase, because
the gas in the orifice is traveling at the speed of sound and cannot communicate with the
high-pressure side of the orifice to tell it that the pressure has changed.
• In this region P2 cannot influence the flow so long as
• The flow is given by

• This value is called critical, or choked, flow.

• This limit is important in describing flow restrictors (devices that control gas flow and the
rate of pumping or venting in a vacuum system), choked flow in air-to air load locks, and
flow through small leaks from atmosphere.
86
Fig. Throughput versus pressure ratio in a circular orifice.
87
 Long Round Tubes
• A general mathematical treatment of viscous flow results in the Navier- Stokes equations,
which are most complex to solve.
• The simplest and most familiar solution for long straight tubes is the equation due to
independently to Poiseuille and Hagen, and called the Hagen-Poiseuille equation:

• The gas flow for air at room temperature becomes

88
• This specific solution is valid when four assumptions are met: (1) fully developed flow
(the velocity profile is not position-dependent), (2) laminar flow, (3) zero wall velocity,
and (4) incompressible gas.
• Assumption 1 holds for long tubes in which the flow lines are fully developed. The
criterion for fully developed flow was determined by Langhaar who showed that a
distance of le = 0.0568×d×R was required before the flow streamlines developed into their
parallel, steady-state profile.
• For air at 22°C this reduces to le = 0.0503Q

• Assumptions 2 and 3 are satisfied if R < 1200 and if Kn < 0.01. The assumption of
incompressibility holds true, provided that the Mach number U, the ratio of gas-to-sound
velocity, is < 0.3.
89
 For the special case of air at 22°C

This is a value of flow that may be exceeded in many cases and would render the results
of the Poiseuille equation incorrect.

90
 MOLECULAR FLOW

• A gas is called a molecular gas when Kn > 1.0. This is equivalent to stating that
Pd < 6.6 Pa-mm (4.95 Torr-mm) for air at 22°C. In this region the flow is called molecular
flow.
• The molecular flow region is theoretically the best understood of any flow type. This
discussion focuses on orifices, infinite tubes, finite tubes, and other shapes, including
combinations of components in molecular flow.

91
 Orifices
• If two large vessels are connected by an orifice of area A and the diameter of the orifice is
such that Kn > 1, then the gas flow from one vessel (P1, n1) to the second vessel (P2, n2) is
given by

• and the conductance of the orifice is

• Note an interesting property of the molecular flow regime. Gas can flow from vessel 2 to
vessel 1; at the same time gas is flowing from vessel 1 to vessel 2 without either of the
gases colliding with gas that originated in the other vessel.
92
 Long Round Tubes
For circular tubes both derivations yield conductance of

Short Round Tubes

The flow equation for long tubes indicate the conductance becomes infinite as the length
tends toward zero, Dushman developed a solution to the problem of short tubes by
considering the total conductance to be the sum of the reciprocal conductance of an aperture

and a section of tube of length l.

93
 THE TRANSITION REGION
• The theory of gas flow in the transition region is not well developed.
• Thomson and Owens (1975), and Loyalka et al. (1976), have reviewed the state of the
theory. De Muth and Watson (1979) have done additional work on the transition between
molecular and isentropic flow in orifices. The simplest treatment of this region, due to
Knudsen, discussed in many texts states

• where for long circular tubes Z' is given by

94
 Electrical Analogy
• It is important to note that vacuum systems involve complex piping
arrangements.
• In order to analyze these systems, a mathematical theory is developed based on
an analogy between electrical circuits and piping systems.
• Linear transport laws like Ohm’s law and Fourier's law are used in formulating
the problem.

• ∆V = i x R

• Consider a small electric conductor as shown.

• When a current (i) flows across this conductor, there is a voltage drop (ΔV) due
to the resistance (R) offered by the conductor.
• These quantities are mathematically related by Ohm’s Law as given below.95
• Similarly, consider a fluid flowing across a small pipe as shown above.
• For a throughput (Q), there is a pressure drop (Δp) due to conductance (C) offered by
this pipe.
• Comparing the above figures,

96
Gas flowing through piping produces a pressure differential Δp at the ends of the piping.
The following equation applies:

𝑙 𝑄
𝐶 = =
𝑊 𝛥𝑝

This principle is formally analogous to Ohm’s law of electro technology:

𝑉 1 𝐼
𝑅 = 𝑜𝑟 =
𝐼 𝑅 𝑉

97
 Q
p   Q  C  p
C

• It is clear that for a given pressure drop (Δp) across a pipe, Throughput (Q) is directly
proportional to conductance (C).
• For an ideal gas, the following equations hold true.

mRT  RT
Q p 
M M

m
C


98
 Conductance
• vacuum chambers are connected to a vacuum pump via piping. Flow resistance occurs as a
result of external friction between gas molecules and the wall surface and internal friction
between the gas molecules themselves (viscosity).
• This flow resistance reveals itself in the form of pressure differences and volume flow rate,
or pumping speed, losses.
• In vacuum technology, it is customary to use the reciprocal, the conductivity of piping L or
C (conductance) instead of flow resistance W.
• The conductivity has the dimension of a volume flow rate and is normally expressed in
[l. s-1] or [m3. h-1].

99
 Conductance -Summary
Rate of flow "Q" of a gas through a pipe which offers
resistance to flow is proportional to the pressure drop
(P2 - P1).
Q α (P2 - P1)
Q = C (P2 - P1)
C = Q / (P2 - P1); C conductance
C units Lit/min same as pumping speed, S
C = f (pipe dimensions, properties of gas etc).
If conductance's are connected in series,
If pump of speed 'S' is connected by a pipe of conductance 'C'
to a chamber, the effective pumping speed S' is given by
1/S' = 1/S + 1/C.
100
 1/S' = 1/S + 1/C. S` = system pumping speed (effective), S = pumping speed

• From the above equation, it is clear that, S` is lower than the minimum of S and
C.
• S depends on vacuum pump and therefore, in order to maximize S`,
C should be maximum.
• In principle, S` can be maximum when C is infinite.
• That is, if C= ∞, then we have S` = S.
• For a given connecting pipe, conductance increases with decrease in length and
increase in diameter.
• Similarly, if C= S, then we have S`= S/2.
101
Parallel Conductance
The conductance of tubes connected in parallel can be obtained from the simple sum and is
independent of any end effects.

Series Conductance
Series conductance of truly independent elements in molecular flow will yield a total
conductance of

 gives the value of conductance and also able measure if the elements were isolated from
each other by large volumes.
 The large volume provides a place for the distribution of molecules exiting the prior
conductance to completely randomize, or assume the distribution of a rarefied Maxwell-
Boltzmann gas. 102
Fig. Conductance of a smooth round pipe as a function of the mean pressure in the pipe
103
 Combining Molecular Conductance

• The molecules will arrive at the entrance to the component distributed in a Maxwell-
Boltzmann fashion, and depart into a void without colliding with another surface.
• This is possible only if there are no other walls in the vicinity of the entrance and exit of
the component.
• It can be accomplished by connecting the component between two large reservoirs so
that the pressures in the vessels will be unaffected by the flow through the component.
• In practice this condition is rarely met. Typically the shortest possible lengths of pipe are
used to interconnect pumps, chambers, traps, and baffles or elbows (whose length is of
the order of the pipe diameter).

104
• Conductance for a pipe for different flow regimes can be derived by rearranging the
pressure drop –mass flow rate equations derived earlier
• Continuum Flow (Kn < 0.01)
 D4 p
C
128 L

• Mixed Flow (0.01 < Kn < 0.3)

D p 4  8   RT  
05

C 1    
128 L  pD  2M  

• Free Molecular Flow (Kn>0.3)

D   RT  
 3 05

C   
L  18M   105
 Conductance in Vacuum
• As mentioned in the earlier lecture, vacuum systems involve complex piping arrangements.
• These piping arrangements may involve circular straight tubes, rectangular straight tubes,
90° elbow joints etc.
• The table gives the conductance equations for some commonly used pipes and pipe joints.

Element Flow regime

Long tube (L/D>30) Continuum

 D4 p
C
128 L
Free molecular
D 3  RT
C
L 18M 106
Element Flow regime

Short tube (L/D>30) 𝜋𝐷4 𝑝ҧ 𝑚ሶ

D1 – large diameter Continuum 𝐶 = 1+
128𝜇𝐿 22𝜇𝐿
D2 – small diameter

𝜋𝑅𝑇
𝐷2
18𝑀
Free molecular 𝐶 = 2
𝐿ൗ + 4Τ 𝐷2
𝐷 3 1− ൗ𝐷1

107
90° Elbow
R – Radius of curvature
D – Diameter
 KD 3 p
Continuum C
128

D3 2 RT
Free Molecular C 
r 9 M

108
 Conductance in Viscous Flow

• Under viscous flow conditions doubling the pipe diameter which

increases the conductance 16 times.
• The conductance is INVERSELY related to the pipe length
 Viscous Flow
(Long Round Tube; air)

C = 1.38 x 102 x d4 x P1 + P2 (l/sec)

l 2

d = diameter of tube in cm
l = length of tube in cm
P1 = inlet pressure in torr
P2 = exit pressure in torr
 Viscous Flow
(Long Round Tube; nitrogen)

EXAMPLE:
d = 4 cm P1 = 2 torr
l = 100 cm P2 = 1 torr

C = 138 x d4 x P1 + P2 (liter/sec)
l 2
C = 138 x 256 x 3 (liter/sec)
100 2
C = 530 (liter/sec)
 Conductance in Molecular Flow

 Under molecular flow conditions doubling the pipe diameter

increases the conductance eight times.
 The conductance is INVERSELY related to the pipe length.
Conductance in Molecular Flow
(Long Round Tube)

C = 3.81 x d3 x T (l/sec)
l M

d = diameter of tube in cm
l = length of tube in cm
T = temperature (K)
M = A.M.U.
 Conductance in Molecular Flow
(Long Round Tube)

EXAMPLE:
T = 295 K (22 OC)
M = 28 (nitrogen)

C = 3.81 x d3 x T (l/sec)
l M

= 3.81 x d3 x 295
l 28
= 12.36 x d3 (l/sec)
l
EXAMPLE:
T = 295 K (22 OC) d = 4 cm
M = 28 (nitrogen) l = 100 cm

C = 3.81 x d3 x T (l/sec)
l M

= 3.81 x d3 x 295
l 28
= 12.36 x d3 (l/sec)
l
= 12.36 x 0.64

= 7.9 (l/sec)
 Series Conductance
RT = R1 + R2
SYSTEM
1 = 1 + 1
CT C1 C2
C1
1 = C1 + C2
CT C 1 x C2 C2
CT = C1 x C2
C1 + C 2 PUMP
 Pump Down Time

• Consider a closed system as shown in the figure.

• Let the initial pressure in the system be pi
• After vacuuming, let the final pressure in the system be pf
• The amount of time taken by a vacuum pump to reduce the
pressure from pi to pf is called as Pump Down Time
• The application decides the degree of vacuum.
• Depending upon the application, the required pump down time is determined.
• Pump down time helps in selection of vacuum pump.
• Hence, there is a need to study the pump down time of vacuum system.
 Gas Leaks
• Apart from heat in leak, gas in leak and out gassing are the major problems posed by a
Cryogenic system.
• These leakage paths have to be considered for calculation of pump down time and selection
of pump.
• The leakage paths increase the pump down time.
• Gas enters the system due to
 Actual leak through the vessel walls, joints.
 Trapped gas released from the pockets within the system, also called as Virtual
leaks.
 Out gassing of the metal walls or seals.
• Out gassing is the release of adsorbed gases either from surface or interior or both, when
exposed to vacuum.
• The major contribution to mass in leak is the out gassing of the metal walls.
 Pump Down Time

• Consider a closed cavity –vacuum pump system as shown above.

• Let the mass flow rate, leaving the system be mout
• Mathematically, mout    S s
• Where, ρ and Ss are the density and system pumping speed respectively.
• Let the total inflow due to gas leak and out gassing be mi. It can also be written as
Qi
mi 
RT
 dm
• Applying mass conservation to this system, mi  mout 
dt
• From the definition of density, d
mi  mout  V
d p dt
mi  mout  V 
dt RT
V dp
• Using the ideal gas law, mi  mout 
RT dt
• Combining the following equations,
Qi Qi pS s V dp dp Qi p  S s
mi  , mout    S s ;     
RT RT RT RT dt dt V V
 dp Qi p  S s
 
dt V V
 This equation is valid for any vacuum system in general.
 It is important to note that both Qi and Ss are time dependent functions, that is, Qi= f1(t),
Ss= f2(t).
 The equation can be integrated, analytically or numerically, if the transient variation of Qi
and Ss are known.
 At steady state or after a long time, the changes in pressure with time are negligibly
small.
 Mathematically, we have dp/dt=0.
 The pressure at steady state is called as Ultimate Pressure (pu). It is the minimum possible
pressure that can be achieved using a certain pump. p = pu ; therefore pu = Qi/Ss
 It is important to note that, for most of the pumps, Spis constant in its operating
pressure range.
 Also, in a free molecular region, conductance (C) is independent of pressure.

1 1 1
 
S s S p Co
 With Sp and Co being constants, from the above equation, it is clear that Ss is also a
constant or it is independent of pressure.

dp Qi S s V  p1  pu 
   t p  ln  
dt V V S s  p2  pu 
The pressure on the right end of the 50 mm tube is 150 mPa, while the pressure on the left
end of 40 mm pipe is 10 mPa. The ambient temperature is 300 K. The molecular weight
and viscosity of air are 28.95 g/mol and 18.47 μPa-s respectively. Calculate the overall
conductance of the pipe assembly.