ELASTICITY_AND_THERMAL_EXPANSION_CALOR... © a ELASTICITY Elasticity The property of material body by virtue of which its regain its original configuration, when external force ity is removedis called ela ‘The property of the material body by virtue of which itdoes not regain its original configuration when the external force is removed is called plasticity. Cause of Elasticity Inasolid atomsand molecules are arranged in such a way that each molecule is acted upon by the forces ducto then jghbouringmolecules. When no deforming force is applied on the body, cach molecule of the solid isin its equilibrium position and the inter molecular forces ofthe solid are maximum. On applying deforming force, the molecules are displaced from their equilibrium position. Intermolecular force gets changed and restoring forces are developed. Itis explained by using spring- ball model. Deforming force is removed, these restoring force bring the molecule to its equilibrium positions. Thus the body regains its original shape and size. Spring-ball model for the illustration of elastic behaviour of solids. ‘The restoring mechanism can be visualised by taking a model of spring-ball system shown above. Here the balls represent atoms and springs represent interatomic forces If you try todisplace any ball from its equilibrium position, the spring system tries to restore the ball back to its original position. Thuselastic behaviour of solids can be of the solid. When a body is subjected toa deforming force, This restoring forceis equal in magnitude but oppo plained in terms of microscopic nature restoring force is developed in the body. ite indirection tothe applied force. Stress(o) When deforming force is applied on the body then the equal restoring force in apposite direction is developed inside the body. The restoring force per unit area is called stress. restoring force Stress(o) = Area of crosssection of thebody aStress can be tensile or compressive as given below— F Tensile rer ant Raa Compressive FL — Strain Suppose we stretch a wire by applying tensile forces of magnitude F to each end. The length of the wire increases from L to L-+ AL, The quantity actional length change is called the strain. Itis adimensionless AL strain = L Hooke's law for tensile and compressive forces Suppose we had wires of the same composition and length but different thicknesses. It would require larger tensile forces to stretch the thicker wire the same amount as the thinner one. We conclude that the tensile force required is proportional to the cross-sectional area of the wire (F oA). Thus, the same applied force per unit area produces the same deformationon wires of the same length and composition, Hooke’s Law stress strain Fat A L ‘equation still says that the length change (AL) is proportional to the magnitude of the deforming forces (E), Stress and strain account for the effects of length and cross-sectional area ; the proportionality constant Y depends only on the inherent stiffness of the material from which the objectis composed; it is independent of the length and cross-sect ‘Comparing equation F=kALand AL sF=Y “[ A. Yisealled the elastic modulus or Young's modulus, Y has the same units as those of stress (Pa or N/m?) since strain is dimensionless. Young’s modulus can be thought of as the inherent stiffiness of'a material ;it measures the resistance of the material to elongation or compression. Material that is flexible and stretches easily (for example, rubber) has low Young's modulus. A stiff material (suchas steel)hasa high Young’s modulus. Ittakes a largerstress to produce the same strain, Hooke’s law holds up toa maximum stress called the proportional limit, For many materials, Young’s modulus has the same value for tension and compression. Some composite materials, suchas bone and concrete, have significantly different Young's moduli for tensionand compression. The different properties of these two subst es leadto different values of Young’s modulus for tensileand compressive stress.Mlustration : Sol. A light wire of length 4m is suspended to the ceiling by one of its ends. If its crossectional area is19.6 mm’, what is its extension under a load of 10kg. Young modulus of steel = 2 * 10" Pa Given quantities — original length L = 4m ; force F ~ 10 * 9.8 = 98 N ; and Y= 2» 10!! Nv? =? Using the relation, longitudinal stress Young's modulus () = Tongiudinal strain We have FA FL “EL ya 98x 4 1 = 95107 «19.6 x10" 1 *10%m = 0.1 mm Mlustration : Sol. Two vertical rods of equal lengths, one of steel and the other of copper, are suspended from the ceiling, at a distance Lapart and are connected rigidly to arigid horizontal light bar at their lower ends Stee Copper a t If Ag and A, be their respective cross sectional areas, and Y, and Y,, their respective Young's modulii of elasticities, find where should a vertical force F be applied to the horizontal bar, in order that the bar remains horizontal. (Fig,) Let the force F be applied at a disiance x from the steel bar, measured along the horizontal bar Let F, and F.be the loads on steel and copper rods respectively, so Fit Fook “ Since the rigid horizontal bar remains horizontal so, the extensions produced in the two rods and hence strains remains same FK F. AY, ~ A Y Gi Copied to clipboard. 4)FAY, Solving () and (il) F5= yyy ay F. i i and Fo= Ry,+A, I I Now, taking moments about the steel bar: ee | —. FE, AYol . Foo rat Bl? AY, + AY, Elastic potential energy It isthe potential energy stored inside the body due to change their configuration. IfF force is applied on a body as shown below. Fordifferential cha c in length dx the work done by restoring force F is dw AY dw=~ Fax [Fx ww-— AY ad dw xd (2) (i) (AL) AL= 10x 10x0.1 Ty easxjo™ 4 10m 4 mm Shift of point B (AL) ~ Alyy ~ Shift of point C (AL )= Alig + Aye = 4 * 104 + 107 = 9x 10% m=9 mm 100% 0.5 197 x 1x10" ct Alien = 9% 105 + Shift of point D (ALy) = 9% 134 15 < 10 = 24 mm Copied to clipboard.Mlustration : A load of 10 KN is supported from a pulley which in turn is supported by a rope of cross-sectional area 1 * 10° min? and modulus of elasticity 10° N/mm?, as shown in figure. Neglecting the friction at the pulley determine the deflection of load. 900mm 600mm AT ir 10KN Sol, longitudinal stress in the rope is T _ 5x10 o=—= = 5 N/mm? 4 10°'mm stress y Extension in the rope = xh SNimm? = > «1500 10° Nim? =75 mm Deflection in the load = =3.75mm Stress-strain curve The relation between the stress and the strain fora given material under tensile stress can be found experimentally. The applied force is gradually increased in steps and the change in length is noted. A graph is plotted between the stress and the strain produced. The stress-strain curves vary from material to material. These cu help us tounderstand how a given material deforms with increasing loads. From the graph, we can see that in the region between to A, the curve is linear. Inthisregion, Hooke’s law is obeyed. The body regains its original dimensions when the applied force is removed. In this region, the solid behaves as an elastic body. Proporional limit c Stress-strain curve for stcel. 4)Beyond hooke's law Inthe region from Ato B, stress and strain arenot proportional, Nevertheless, the body still tums to its original dimension when the load isremoved, The point B in the curve is known as yield point (2 knownas elastic limit) and the corresponding stress is known as yield strength (S, )of the material Ifthe tensile or compressive stress exceeds the proportional limit, the train is no longer proportional to the stress. The solid still retums to its original length when the stress is removed as long.as the stress does notexceed the: Ifthe stress exceeds the elastic limit, the material is permanently deformed. For still larger stresses, the solid factures when the stress reaches the breaking point. The maximum stress that can be withstood without breaking is called the ultimate strength. The ultimate strength can be different for compression and tension ; then we refer to the compressive strength orthe tensile strength of the material. A ductile ‘material continues to stretch beyond its ultimate tensile strength without breaking: the stress then de- creases from the ultimate strength (fig. (a) ). Examples of ductile solids are relatively soft metals, such as gold, silver, copper, and lead, These metals can be pulled like tafly, becoming thinner and thinner until finally reaching the breaking point. While as Brittle material can not stand beyond ultimate strength Ductile Tensile Brittle Tensile Ultimate stress ass } Elastic strength Ultimate strength limit and breaking point late - Tensile strain Tensile strain @ (6) Baking point Proportional Practice Exercise Q @ w (ii) (vy) A light rigid baris suspended horizontally from two vertical wires, one of steeland one of brass, as shown in figure, Each wire is2.00 m long, The diameter of the steel wire is (0.60 mm and the length of the bar AB is 0.20 m. When a mass of 10 kg is suspended from the centre of AB bar remains horizontal What isthe tension in cach wire? Calculate the extension of the steel wire and the energy stored in it, Calculate the diameter of the brass wire. If the brass wire were replaced by another brass wire of diameter 1 mm, where should the mass be suspended so that AB. would remain horizontal? The Young modulus for steel = 2.0 x 10!" Pa, the ‘Young modulus forbrass = 1.0 « 10"! Pa. 4)Answers (i) SON, (i) 0.045 J, (ili) 8.4 « 104m, (iv)x =0.12 m, Sheoring Stress rosy IE A cylinder subjected to shearing (tangential) stress deforms by an angle 0 However, i?two equal and opposite deforming forces are applied parallel to the cross-sectional area of the cylinder, as shown in fig. there is relative displacement between the opposite faces of the cylinder. The restoring force per unit area developed due to the applied tangential force is known as tangential or shearing stress. Asa result of applied tangential force, there isa relative displacement Ax between opposite faces of the cylinderas shown in the fig. The strain so produced is known as shearing strain and itis defined asthe ratio of relative displacement of the faces Ax to the length of the cylinder L. x Shearing strin= [~ —tan0 where 0 is the angular displacement of the cylinder from the vertical (0 is very samt tan 0 ~ 0). Volume Deformation Since the fluid presses inward on al sides of the object (figure), the solidis compressed-its volume is reduced, The fluid pressure P is the force perunitsurface are on the solid object. Pressure has the same units asthe other kinds of stre ;itcan be through of as the volume stress Nim*or Pa. Fig. Forces on an object when submerged ina fluid Copied to clipboard.40 F volume stress =pressure= “5° =P The resulting deformation of the objectis characterized by the volume strain, which i the fractional change in volume change in volume AV Vv volumestrain =" CFginal volume ~ Bulk Modulus (B) In fig., a solid sphere placed in the fluid under high pressure is compressed uniformly on all sides. The force applied by the fluid acts in perpendicular direction at each point of the surfaceand the body is said to be under hydraulic compression. This leads to decrease in its volume without any change ofits geo- metrical shape. The body develops internal restoring forces that are equal and opposite to the forces applied by the fluid (the body restores its original shape and size when taken out from the fluid). The intemal restoring force per unit area in this case is equal tothe hydraulic pressure (applied force per unit area), The strain produced by a hydraulic pressure is called volume strainandis defined as the ratio of change in volume (AV) to the original volume (1). Av Volume strain= v Wehave seen that whena body is submerged in a fluid, it undergoes a hydraulic stress (equal inmagni- tude to the hydraulic pressure). This leads to the decrease in the volume of the body thus producing a strain called volume strain, AV aP=-By (Hooke’slaw for volume deformation) allows the where V is the volume at atmospheric pressure. The negative sign. equation AP = bulk modulus tobe positive. The bulk moduli of liquids are generally not much less than those of solids, since the atoms in liquids are nearly as close togetheras those in solids to compress than solids or liquids, so their bulk moduli are much smaller. The bulk moduli of afew common materials are givenin Table Gases are much eas! 4)44 ‘lumina n ass a copper 140 Gass 37 en 300 eke! 260 Steel 160 Uiguies hana! 09. Carbon disuphide 156 Mercury B Gases ie (otsTP) 10x10 ‘Table : Bulk moduli (B) of some common Materials. Compressibility (k) red asthe ‘The reciprocal of the bulk modulusis called compressibility and is denoted by k. Its d fractional change in volume per unit increase in pressure. Poisson's ratio When an elongation is produced by longitudinal stresses, a change is produced in the lateral dimensions of the strained substance. Thus, when a wire is stretched, its diameter diminishes ; and when the longitu- inal strain is small, the lateral strain is proportional to it. The ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is called Poisson’s rato. a Q=msAT Also the amount of heat supplied per unit increase in temperature for any body is known as Q its heatcapacity,e= = ms,45 Latent Heat Heat required for the change of phase or state. No chage in temperature is involved when substance changes its state or phase. (Q=mL, L = Latent Heat) Latent Heat of Fusion : The Heat supplied toa substance which chang its melting point and | atm. pressures called latent Heatof fusion. (Q=mL,) Latent heat of fusion of fee (L,) = 80 cal/gm. it from solidto liquid state at Latent Heat of Vapourization : The Heat supplied toa substance which cha vapourstate at its boiling point and 1 atm pressure is called latentheat of vapourization. (Q=mL,) Latent heat of vapouriztion of water(L,}= 540 cal/g. sit from liquid to Mlustration : Sol The temperature of equal masses of three different liquids A, B, and C are 12°C, 19°C and 28°C respectively. The temperature when A and B are mixed is 16°C and when B and C are mived it is 23°C. What should be the temperature when A and C are mixed ? Let m be the mass of each liquid and S, Sy S,,be specific heats of liquids A, B and C respectively When A and B are mixed. The final temperature is 16°C. Heat gained by A = heat lost by B ie. mS, (16 12) = mS, (19-16) ie S8,=5S8, a When B and Care mixed. Heat gained by B = heat lost by C ie. mS, (23-19) = mS, (28-23) ie. (ii) 4 4 From eq. ()) and (i) S.= 55 When A and C are mixed, let the final temperature be 0 mS, (0-12) =mS, (28-0) 16 ie 0-12= 5) By solving, we get 0= "<> = 20.26° C ig: weserO~ "3746 Mlustation: An object A of mass 2 kg is moving on a frictionless horizontal track has perfectly inelastic collision with another object B of mass 3 kg made of the same material and moving in front of A in same direction. Their common speed after the collision is 4 m/s. Due to the collision the temperature of the two objects, which was initially the same, is increased, though only by 0.006°C. The specific heat capacities of the two objects are the same : 0.5 k/kg°C.What was the initial speed (in m/s Jof the colliding object A before the collision? he 3kg 2hg_dke Sol [xL [pb AT Levan 2) +3(Vy) = 2+ > wW,+ 20 () loss in KE = heat energy KE,~ RE, = Myyyy SAT 1 SUP + SVP — 5 2 + 3? = (2 + 3)8AT Rie —40 = 15 or =955 (ii) Solving equation (i) and (ii), we get, V, = Imés or 7 m/s and V, in/s or 2 m/s for collision V, > > So V,=7 m/s and V,=2misec The following example provides a method by which the specific heat capacity of a given solid can be determinated by using the principle, heat gained is equal to the heat lost. Heating Curve Ifto.a givenmass (m) ofa solid (Ice), Heat is supplied at constant rate P and a graph is poltied between temperature and time tempt 100°C time (1) Intheregion OA ‘Temperature of solid is changing with time Q=msAT P(AQ=msAT (at ,-0,AT=0-(-T) mae AT slope ofine 0. ms At ‘At slope of line OA47 (2) Intheregion AB P| ) Temperature is constant, here substance changes its phase solid to liquid, between A and B. Q=mL, PAt=mL, P(t, -t) Latent Heat of fusion is proportional o length of line 3) Inthe Region BC ‘Temp. of liquid is increasing with time Q=msaT (At=t,-t,, AT = 100-0) PAt=msAT (4) Inthe reginCD, temperature is constant, so it represents change of state. Q=mL, P=) m length of line CD (5) The line DE represents gaseous state of substance with its temperature increasing linearly with time. The reciprocal of slope of line will be proportional tospecific heat of substance in vapour state. Illustration: How many colories are required to change exactly 1 gm of ice at — 10 “C to steam of 120°C at atmospheric pressure. Temp. 1 Sol 120 “3 «10 Seal H,~ ms, AT ~ H, = mL, = 1 * 80 = 80 cal H, = ms,AT= 1% 1 * 100.cal H, = mL, = 1 x 540 = 540 cal Time H,=ms,,,AT = 1 < 0.48 * 20= 9.6 cal Total colories reqd. > H, + H,+H, +H, +H, Hg, > 734.6 cal Mlustration : 300 gram of water at 25°C is added 10 100 gm of ice at 0°C. The final temp. of the mixture is Sol. Heat released by water msAT ; Q, = 300%1 25 ‘500 cal 100 gm Heat required by Ice for completely melt Q, = mL, Q, = 8000 cal ¢ 79, Weesee that whole of the ice cannot be melted as the required amount of heat is not provided by the water: Also, the heat is enough to bring the ice to 0°C. Thus the final temperature of the ‘mixture is 0°C with some of the ice melted.48 Water equivalent Itisa equivalent mass of water (w) that has same heat capacity as that of the given body (b). In other words, C=m,s, =m,s, Itisa convinent way to represent the heat capacity ofthe calorimeter Mlustation: Sol A sphere of aluminium of 0.047 kg placed for sufficient time in a vessel containing boiling water, so that the sphere is at 100 °C. It is then immediately transferred to 0.14 kg copper calorimeter containing 0.25 kg of water at 20 °C. The temperature of water rises 23°C. Calculate the specific heat capacity of aluminium, and attains a steady state at In solving this example we shall use the fact that at a steady state, heat given by an aluminium sphere ill be equal to the heat absorbed by the water and calorimeter: Mass of aluminium sphere (m,) = 0.047 kg Initial temp. of aluminium sphere = 100 °C Final temp. = 23 °C Change in temp (AT ) = (100 “C23 °C) = 7 °C Let specific heat capacity of aluminium be s The amount of heat lost by the aluminium sphere (AT = 0.047 kg 4. 77°C Mass of water (m,) 0.25 kg = 0.14 ke Mass of calorimeter (m,) Initial temp. of water and calorimeter = 20°C Find temp. of the mixture = 23°C Change in temp, (AT,) = 23°C— 2 Specific heat capacity of water (s,) = 4.18 * 10 Fkg! K# Specific heat capacity of copper calorimeter = 0.386 * 10) Jkg! K* The amount of heat gained by water and calorimeter = m,s,, AT, + m,s,, AT, = (ms, + ms) (AT) = (0.25 kg * 4.18 < 10 Skg K+ 0.14 kg * 0.386 * 10° Ske! K) (23°C 20°C) In the steady siate heat lost by the aluminium sphere = heat gained by water + heat gained by calorimeter So, 0.047 kg = (0.25 kg * 4.18 * 10 She K! + 0.14 kg * 0.386 * 10° Ske! K') (3°C) Sy = OST KS AG! KR jy X7PC49 Practice Exercise QI kgofice at~10°C ismixed with 1 kg water at 100°C, then find the equilibrium temperature and mixture content. 2 5 gmoficeat 0°C ismixed with 10 gm of steam at 100°C. Find the final temperature and composition of the mixture if the mixing is done in a calorimeter of water equivalent 13 gm, initially at °C. Q3 Alumb ofice of 0.1 kgat—10°C is put in 0.15 kg of water at 20°C. How much water and ice will be found in the miatre when it has reached thermal equilibriu ‘Answers Ql T=7.5°C Q.2 245/27 gm of water, 160/27 gm of steam Q3___ Amount of wateramd Ice are 181.25 gm and 68.75 gm respetively.20 Thermal expansion Thermal Expansion When matter is heated without change in state, itusually expands. According to atomic theory of matter, asymmetry in potential energy curve is responsible for thermal expansion as with rise in temperature say from T, to T, theamplitude of vibration and hence energy of atomsinereases from F, to, and hence the average distance betwe atoms increases fromr, tor, Due to this increase in distance between atoms, the matteras awhole expands. Had the potential energy curve been symmetrical, no thermal expansion would have taken place in spite of heating. Linear Expansion of solids To varying extents, most materials expand when heated and contract when cooled. The inerease in any one dimension of a solidis called linear expansion, linearin the sense that the expansion occursalong a line. A tod whose lengthis L, when the temperature is, when the temperature increases toT,, + AT, the length becomes L, + AL, where AT and AL are the magnitudes of the changes in temperature and length, respectively. Conversely Forsmall temperature changes, experiments show that the change in lengthis directly proportional tothe when the temperature decreases to T, —AT, the length decreases to L, —AL. change in temperature (AL c AT). Inaddition, thechange in lengthis proportional tothe initial length of therod, TNS aL gS SY Equation AL=alL,AT expresses the fact that AL is proportional to both L, and AT(AL « L,AT) by using a proportionality constant «t, whichis called the coef the coefficient of linear expansion (C*)" jent of linear expansion. Commonunit for24 Mlustration : A circular hole of radius 2 em is made ina iron plate at 0°C, What will be its radius at 100°C ? ax for iron = 11 «10°C, Sol Ry = R, (1+ @AT) = (2) [1 + (11 «109 / °C) (L00°OY] = 2) (+1104) = 2.00220m Mlustration A brass scale correctly calibrated at 15°C is employed to measure a length at a temperature of 35°C. If the scale gives a reading of 75cm, find the true length. (Linear expansively of brass = 2.0 x 10°C!) Sol, Let the distance between two fixed divisions on the scale at 15°C be L, and that at 35°C be L,, Clearly (L,-L) = al, 35~ 15) or L,=L,(1 +20 2.0 « 10°) = 1, (1.0004) ice,, at 35°C, an actual length of L, will be read as L,, due to the increased separation of the divisions of the scale. In other words, the observed length will be less than the actual length Given L, = 75cm L, = 75 (1.0004) cm = 75.03 cm Mlustration Estimate the time lost or gained by a pendulum clockat the end of a week when the atmospheric temperature rises to 40°C. The clock is known to give correct time at 15°C and the pendulum is is 12 19 /°C) fe of steel. (Linear expansively of ste Sol, Time period of pendulum clock T, ¢ length of pendulum wire at temperature 0°C, temperature increased to t°C chage in tempera- ture AO = (t—0)°C Time period at 1°C. fe [01+ aA | = 2m] Ve Vg a. for wire of pendulum T, = 2a, (7+ 040) T, Io a(A0) T. 7 (Lado? = (14S) (hy using binomial approximation) r _ a(46) AT _ (0) qt 2 = Tr 2 (Ad) Thus, time lost per second = rise in temperature A6 = 40-15 = 25°C22 1 Time lost per second = aA0 1 5 x (12 * 10° /°C) x (25°C) 150 * 10° s/s Therefore, time lost per week (i.e., 7 * 86400 s) = 150 * 10° s/s * 7 * 86400 5 = 90.728 Mlustration : A glass rod when measured with a zine scale, both being at 30°C, appears to be of length 100em. If the scale shows correct reading at 0°C, determine the true length of the glass rod at (a) 30°C and (b) 0°C. (a for gla x 10% PC and for zine 26 * 106/°C) Sol At 30°C, although the reading shown by the zine scale corresponding to the length of the glass rod is 100cm, but the actual length would be more than 100cm, the reason being the increased sepa~ ration between the markings, owing to a rise in temperature (from 0°C to 30°C). Now, an actual (original at 0°C) length of 100em on the zine scale (or more precisely, two mark- ings or divisions on the scale, separated by a distance of 100cm) would. ata temperature of 30°C correspond to a length given by 1= 100 (1 + 26 * 10 x 30) em = 100.078 cm + The true length of the glass rod at 30°C is 100.078 cm Now, ai 0°C, the length of glass rod would be lesser than that at 30°C, L T+at Using I, = 1, (1+ at), |, The length of the rod ai 0°C, will be 100.078em N= 8x10 x30) ~ 100.054 em Thermal expansion of bimetallic strip ‘A bimetallic trip is made from two thin strips of metal that have different coefficients of linear expansion, as fig, (t) Abimetallic strip and how it behaves when (b) heated and (c) cooled ies (b) Heated () Cooled. Steel23 Often brass [a= 19 * 10 *(C*) "] and steel [ct 12 * 10“ (C*) "] are selected. The two pieces are welded or riveted together. When the bimetallic strip is heated, the brass, having the larger value of ‘expands more than the sicel. Since the two metals are bonded together, the bimetallic strip bends into an areas in fig (b), with the longer brass piece having a larger radius than the steel piece. When the strip is cooled, the bimetallic strip bends in the oppesite direction, asin fig. (c) { j on heating the bimetallic strip bends into an are as —__ Mathematical analysis a) (Re, Je = La +a.a0) (A@ increase intemp.) a R- ge =L, (1 +,A0) On dividing above equations we get d Rey 1+ a,a0 R 1+ a, A0 by above eugation we can find mean radius R of bimetallic strip. d Re (a, —a,)A0 Area and Volume Expansion A ‘Area Expansion ? Volume Expansion Ifthe temperature of a two-dimensional abject (lamina) ischanged, its wreachanges. Ifthe coefficient of linear expansion of the material of lamina is small and constant, then its final area is given by AA, (1 + AT), where A, is the initial area, AT is the change in temperature and fi is the area coefficient of thermal expansion. For isotropic bodies it ean be shown the fs = 2c.24 ‘The volume V, ofan object change by an amount AV when its temperature changes by an amount AT. AV=7V,AT where 7s the coefficient of volume expansion. Common Unit for the coefficient of volume Expansion : (C®)", The unit for, like that for a, is (C2). Values for'y depend on the nature of the material, The values of y for liquids are substantially langerthan those for solids, because liquids typically expand more than solids, given the same initial volumes and temperature expansion s three times greater than the coefficient of linearexpansion Ifacavity exists within a solid object, the volume of the cavity inereases when the object expands, just as ifthe cavity were filled with the sounding material. The expansion of he cavity is analogous tothe expansion ofa hole in asheet of material. Accordingly, the change in volume of a cavity can be found using the r surrounds the cavity. Similar (Here y =3a) is known as the coefficient of volume expansion obeys 12:3 Mlustration : (The expansion of holes) Sol Do holes expand or contract when the temperature increases? Figure (a) shows eight square tiles that are arranged to form a square pattem with a hole in the centre, If the tiles archeated, what happens to the size of the hole? vise Bound | PSN | th tile | | } 8s (© unheated Wh Head © analyze this problem by disassembling the pattem into separate tiles, heating, itis evident from Wee: figure (b) that the heated pattem expands and so does the hole in the centre. In fact, if we had a ninth tile that was identical toand also heated like the others, it would fit exactly into the centre hole, as figure (c) indicates. Thus, not only does the hole in the pattem expand, but it expands exactly as much as one of the wesee thatthe hole expands just as tiles. Since the ninth tileis made of the same materials the othe: if it were made of the material of the surrounding tiles. The thermal expansion of the hole and the surrounding material is analogous to a photo- graphic enlargement ; in both situations everything is enlarged, including holes. Thus, itfollows thata hole ina piece of solid material expands when heated and contracts when cooled, illed with the material that surrounds it. Ifthe hole is circular, the equation Al (LAT ‘canbe used{to find the change in any linear dimension of the hole, such as its radius or diameter. Example illustrates this type of linear expansion. justas ifit we Mlusration : Sol A thin cylindrical metal rod is bent into a ring with a small gapas shown in figure. On . heating the system ( = a. Mlustration : A brass rod of length Im is fixed t0 a vertical wall, at one end, with the other end free to expand. When the temperature of the rod is increased by 120°C, the length increases by 2em. What is the strain? Sol After the rod expands, to the new len; So, strain = 0. ih there are no elastic forces developed internally in it. if = | i] | p> i i} top view D-aD aL $ Mlustration : A rod of length 2m is ata temperature of 20°C. Find the free expansion of the rod, if the tempera- ture is increased to 50°C. Find the temperature stresses produced when the rod ts (i) fully pre- vented 10 expand, (ii) permitted to expand by 0.4 mn. ¥ = 2 * 10" Nm? ; a= 15 * 10 per °C.27 Sol, Free expansion of the rod = aa = (15 * 10% PC) * (2m) * (50° 20°C = 9% 104m = 0.9 mm (i) Ifthe expansion is fully prevented 9x 10~ then strain = 4.5% 104 temperature stress = strain * Y = 4,5 * 10% 2% 10!" = 9 10" Nm (ii) 0.4 mm expansion is allowed, then lengih restricted to expand = 0.9 — 0.4 = 0.5 mm 5x10" Strain = = 25 «104 Temperature stress 2.5 * 10% x2 * 10! train * 10° Nm? Mlustration : Two rods made of different materials are placed between massive walls. The cross section of both the rods are same A, their lengths L, and L, coefficients of linear expansion c, and a, and the modulii of elasticity of their materials ¥, and Y, respectively. Ifthe rods are heated by °C, find the force F with which the rods act on each other: y y ix Sol. Q Ly Ly Let the first rod expand slightly (say by length 51) and the second rod get compressed by the same amount (since net elongation / compression of the rods is zero.) Natural increase in length of the first rod (after being heated) when free to expand would have been a,L,t. The expansion allowed is just 51 (where 51 < aL) Amount of elongation restricted = a1,L,t ~ 61 elongation restricted a,L,t-6l Strain = orignal length Lea) Since at<<1 IT+at=1 aLt-ol Strain = Siress = strain x ¥= | LoL '28 (a,Lt—-A)) or Feswress A=") YA 0 (Lt 6) FL, _ FL, Similarly, P= yt or A= abt~y yr yp ~ abs Expansion of liquids Like solids, liquids also, in general, expand on heating ; however, their expansion is much large com- pared to solids for the same temperature rise. A noteworthy point to be ken into account during the expansion of liquid is that they are always contained in a vessel ora container and hence the expansion of the vessel also comes into picture. Further, linear or superficial expansion in case of liquid doesnot carry any sense. Consider a liquid contained in a round bottomed flask fitted with a long narrow stem as shown in fig, Let the initial level of the liquid be X. When itis heated the level falls initially to Y. However, after sometime, the liquid level eventually rises to Z. The entire phenomenon can be under- stood as follows: Upon being heated, the container gets heated first and hence expands, Asa result, the capacity of the flask increases and hence the liquid level falls, After sometime, the heat gets conducted from the vessel to the liquid and hence liquid also expands thereby rising its level eventually to Z. Since, the volume expansivity of liquids, in general, are far more than that of solids, so the level Z will be above the level X.29 Effect of temperature on density Whena solid or liquid is heated, it expands, with mass remaining constant. Density being the ratio of ‘mass to volume, it decreases. Thus, iV, and V, be the respective volumes ofa substance at 0°C and Cand if the corresponding values of densities be p, and p, the by the mass m of the substa given m=Vip)= VP, But V,=V,(1 +70, 80 p,=p,. + yd" Mlustration : The volume of a glass vessel filled with mercury is 500 cc, at 25°C. What volume of mercury will overflow at 45°C? the coefficients of volume expansion of mercury and glass are 1.8 * 10% /°Cand 9.0 * 10° /°C respectively. [Sol. The volume of mercury overflowing will be the expansion of mercury relative to ihe glass vessel ((.e., apparent expansion). Now, since (AV), = (AV), (AV) Apparent expansion (AV), will be (AV), = VAT — Vey AT 10 500 ce (180-9) x ——- (AS 25)°C = 17 ce Thus, 1.71 ce of mercury overflows. Mlustration : A sphere of diameter 4cm and mass 150g floats in a bath of liquid. As temperature is raised, the sphere begins to sink at temperature 50°C. If the density of the liquid is 6.5 g/cm at °C, find the coefficient of cubical expansion of the liquid, neglecting the expansion of the sphere. Sol. (i) When sphere is floating i.e. at temperature < 50°C weight of body = Thrust mg = V,, 08 (o-density of liquid at temp. 0°) ...fi) (ii) When body just sinks ie. at temperature 50° mg = Vow on (o density of liquid at temp. 50°C) 48 g/em?30 o_ 65 tT = a8 6 1+ 7 (30-0) = 75 2.02 1 50%4.48 or 9.02 10°C Practice Exercise ‘The apparatus shown in fiugre consists of four glass colums connected by horizontal sections. The heights of two central columns B and C are 49 em each. The two outer column A and Dare open to atmosphere, A and C aremaintained ata temperature of 95°C, while the column B and D are maintained at S°C. The heights of liquid in A and D measured from base line are 52.8 mand 51cm respectively, Determine the coefficient of thermal expansion ofthe liquid. || ac |p Answers © QI y= 1.96 «104°C Anomolous expansion of water While most substances expand when heated, a few do not. For instant, if water at 0°C is heated, its volume decreases until the temperature reaches 4°C. Above 4 °C water behaves normally, and its volume increases as the temperature increases. Because a given mass of water has a minimum volume at 4°C, the density (ma: water is greatest at 4 °C, as figure shows. er unit volume) of Kinin dei ase = 1000.0) 2 9999 2 9008 B 999.7 2 9996) 26 8 0 Tempecanure, °Ca4 ‘The density of water in the temperature range from 0 to 10°C. Water has a maximum density of 999.973kw/m* at 4°C. (This value for the density is equivalent to the often quoted density of 1.000 ‘grams per milliliter) When the air temperature drops, the surface layer of water is chilled. As the temperature of the surface layer drops toward 4°C, this layer becomes more dense than the warmer water below. The denser ‘water sinks and pushesup the deeper and warmer water, which in tur is chilled at the surface. This process continues until the temperature of the entire lake reaches 4°C, Further cooling of thesurface ‘water below 4°C makes it less dense than the deeper layers ; consequently, the surface layer doesnot sink but stays on top. Continued cooling of the top layer to 0°C leads to the formation of ice that floats ‘on the water, because ice has a smaller density than water at any temperature, Below the ice, however, the water temperature remains above 0°C. The sheet of ice acts as an insulator that reduces the loss of heat from the lake, especially if the ice is covered with a blanket of ‘result, lakes usually donot freeze solid, even during prolonged cold spells, so fish and other aquatic life now, which isalsoan insulator, As 4)32 Solved Examples Sol Each of the three blocks P,Q and R shown in figure has a mass of 3 kg. Each of th wires A and B has cross-sectional area 0,005 cm? and Young's modulus 210" Nim?, Neglect friction, Find the longitudinal strain developed in each of the wires, Take g= 10 mis. ‘The block R will descend vertically and the blocks P and Q will move on the frictionless horizontal table, Letthe common magnitude of the acceleration be a. Let the tensions in the wires A and B be T,, and T,, respectively. Writing the equation of motion of the blocks P, Qand R, we get, T,=@)a seni) Ty-T,=@a Ali) and (3)g—T,=()a By (i) and (ii) By (i) and (iii) T,+T, or 3T,=30N or T, = 10Nand T,=20N Longitudinal stress Longitudinal stain= “Yang's modules 10N/0.005 em? 2x10" N/m Strain in wire A= 20N/0.00Scm? _ 2x10* 210!'N /m Strain in wire Ba3 Q2 Sol A lightrod of length200 cmis suspended from the ceiling horizontally by means of two vertical wires of equal length, tied toits ends. One of thewiresismade of steel and isof cross-section0.1 cm? andthe other of brass of cross-section 0.2 em?, Along the rod at which distance may a weight be hung to produce (a) equal stresses in both the wires (b) equal strains in both the wires ? Y for brass and steel are 10%10" and 20% 10"! dyneicm? respectively (a) According to the problem stresses are equal, so we have or (i) Asthe rod is in equilibrium, 3F,=1,+T,-W=0 or TY, w (ii) From equation (i) and (2), we get T, = (W/3)andT, = (2W/3) (ii Letx be the distance of weight W from steel wire, Torque balance for rotational equilibrium of rod, 2t=T.x-T,2-x)=0 or (Wi) x= 2W23) (2-9), ie. x=(43)m (b) According to the problem, strains are equal. Lok AY, AY; stress ] rain = T,_ A\Y, _ 0.1x20x10" _ T, A,Y, 0.2x10x10" T,=T, soli) So, i.e. from equation (ii) and (iv), we get T 1-7) = 0W2) and forrotational equilibrium of rod Et=T,x-T, 2-x)=0 or (WI2) x=(W/2)(2-x), iex=1ma4 Q3 Sol steel wire of diameter0.8 mmand length | m is clamped firmly at two points A and B whichare | m 4 apart and in the same plane. A body is hung from the middle point ofthe wire such that the middle point sages 1 cm lower fiom the original position, Calculate the mass of the body. Given that Young’s modulus of the material of wire is 2 * 10!" Nim? As shown in figure, mass M is in equilibrium, Mg=2Tsind (i) But from the geometry of figure, for small angle @, we have sin8 = tan @=(xiL) Gi) andby definition of Young’s modulus, we have YA.) _YA[2. sy YAx? =~Aar=*Alrsx)?-L] 2 TAS on TH Al ya] 31 (iii) So substituting the values ofsin 0 and T from equation and (ii) in (i), we get YAx’ | x Mg=2x "3 xT YAx* M- Aiv) Now ashere 2L= 1 m,x=1em= 102m and A=nr=p [08/2107 = nx (4x1047 m 2x10!'xm(4x10*)? x10?) soM 98x(1/2) kg=82g from equation (iv), we have A thin unifrom metallic 1od of length 0.5 m and radius0.1 m rotates with an angular veloicty 400 rad/s in horizontal plane about vertical axis passing through one of its ends. Calculate (a) the tension in therod and (b) the elongation of the rod, The density of the meterial of the rod is 10 kg/m’ and the Young’s modulus is 2 10"! N/m?,as (a) We takea differential element ofthe length drat a distance r form the axis of rotation as shown in ingon this element is figure. The centripetal force: dT = dre? =(pAdnro? The tension in the rod ata distance r from the axis of rotation will be duc to the centripetal force duc to all elements between x=rtox=L, ie. T= JpAorrdr @ Thus, tension as function ofr 1 2 T => x10" * x x10 x (400 | N ‘Note that tension in the rod is minimum at r= Land maximum atr=0. 1 = sx 10°{ (b)Let dy be the eleongation in the element of length dr at position r due to tension, T. From definition of ‘Young's modulus, stress Strain= so. From equation (i), we have dy [Lt -r°] ar 2 So the elongation of theentire rod, aL= oy fuer yar _ 1po'L Here36 Sol Estimate the pressure deep inside the sea ata depth h below the surface. Assume that the density of water is p, at sea level and its bulk modulus is B.. ” Inastatic fluid the pressure variationis givenby ap ah PS Ai) The bulk modulus isdefinedas pe aviv Ci) Where dV/V is fractional change in volume ofa element subjected to isotropic pressure increase dP. We considera sample of the fluid having mass M, its volume V =M/p, sothat M av= dp h av _ lence vo p combining equations (ii)and (i), weget Bap _ og dh or or enll¥) Fa dp Hence far- Jp mom P p or PoPy= Bin a) ‘Onmuttiplying equation (iv) by pg, we get 1 Pe Poel p =B P (_Poeh so that Ing =o [1-Pa) Substituting this in equation (v), we got This is the required expressa7 Q6 Sol, Q7 Sol Qs Sol. iece of ice at — 20°C is put into 10g of water at 30°C. Assuming that heat is exchanged only betiveen the ice and the water, find the final the final temperature of the mixture, Specific heat capacity of ice = 2100 J/kg-°C specific heat capacity of water = 4200 Jkg-°C and latent heat of fusion of 3.36 * 10° Ihkg. ‘The heat given by the water when itcools down from 30°C to 0°C is (0.01 kg) (4200 J/k-°C) (30°C) = 1260. The heat required to bring the ice to 0°C is (0.005 kg) (2100 J/kg-°C) (20°C) =210J. The heat required to melt Sgofice is (0,005 kg) (3.36 10° J/kg) = 1680. Wesee that whole of the ice cannot be melted as the required amount of heat isnot proved by the water. Allso, the heat is enough to bring the iceto 0°C. Thus the final temperature of the mixture is 0°C with some of the ice melted, Steam at 100°C is passed into 1.1 kgof water contained ina calorimeter of water equivalent 0.02 kg at 15°C till the temperature of the calorimeter and its contents riseds to 80°C, The mass of the steam condensed in kilogram (A)0.130 (B)0.065—(C)0.260—(D) 0.135 Heat required to bring water and calorimeter from 15°C to 80°C Q=mCAT 1.1+0.02) x 1 x (80-15) Q= 72.8 keal Amount of steam condensed to provide 72.8 keal heat = m, L => 72.8% 1000=m, [540] m,=134.8gm m,= 0.1348 kg A bullet of mass of 10 gm moving witha speed of 20 mis hits an ice block of mass 990 gm kept ona frictionless floor and gets stuck in it, How much ice will melt if50% of the lost kinetic energy goes to ice? (Temperature of ice block = 0°C) (10gm) x(20m/s) 1000gm =0.2m/s Velocity of bullet +ice block, V Loss of K.E. tim? Fon +M)V 1 [0.01% (20) —1%0. 2} 1 [4-o04]= 1.983 198 Cal Heat generated = 42 198 = Cal =02: Heat recived by ice block = 35-5 0.24 cal (0.24Cal) O20) _.003gm (80Cal / gm) Mass of ice malte38 Qs Sol IZ) )) © ©) Q.10 Sol A calorimeter of water equivalent I kg contains 10kg of ice & 10 kg of waterin thermal equilibrium, The atmospheric temperature is 15° below freezing point due to which the calorimeter loses heat -Asa result ice is formed insidethe calorimeter at a rate of 10.8 gm per second. To try to compensate for this heat loss, steam at 100°C is suppliedto the calorimeter at arate ofr, (Ly = 540 cal/gm, L,= 80 cal/gm, sp heat of water I cal/gm °C.) Column-I gives the value of rand column-II gives the situation just afterthe introduction of steam, Column Column-II (a) 1.6 gm/sec (P) —_ Amountof ice in calorimeter increases. (B) 1.35 gmisec (Q) Amount of water in calorimeter increases. © 1.2 emisec (R) Amount of ice remains constant at 10 kg. ) | gm/sec (S) Amount of waterremains constant at 10 ke (1) Amount of ice in calorimeter decreases, [Ans. (A) Q,T; (B)Q,R5(C)P,S:(D)P J Rate of heat loss = 80 « 10.8 =54 » 16 cal/sec. 1.6 = rateof heat suppliesby forming steam towaterat0? = 1.6 « 640 > $4 16 additional ice will melt, Correct options are Q and T Rate ofheat loss = 54 * 16= 64 * 13.5 calisec. 1.35 = rate of heat supplied for converting steam to water at 0°C= 1.35 * 640 = 13.5 * 64. no additional ice will melt or water will fuse. Comectoptions are Q and R Rate of heat loss = 54 * 16= 72 * 12 cal/see. Rate of heat supplied by converting steam to ice at 0°C= 1.20 x 720 =12 x 72ealisec no additional ice will melt or water will fuse. Comect optionsare P and S Additional water will fuse to ice, Correct option is P, Anice cube ofmass0. kg at 0°C is placed inan isolated container which is at 227°C. The specific Heat -A+BT, where A= 100 cal/kg-k S ofthe container varies with temperature Taccording to relation and B=2%10” cal/kg- If the final temperature of the containers 27°C, Determine the mass of the container, Specific heat of container is temperature dependent so we have to calculate heat lost for a small tem- perature change dT and then integrate it from initial temperature to final temperature. ~ [m.(A+B+T)T Heat lost by containe: AT+—— =21600m,39 Qu Sol. Sol. Qs Sol. Heat gained by Ice = mL +mCAT = 0.1%100080+0.1 «100027 = 10700 Cal from principle of colorimetry Heat lost by container ~ Heat gained by Ie 21600 m,= 10700 m= 0.495kg A certain clock with an iron pendulum is made so asto keep correct time at 10°C. Given a,,.=12*10° per*C. How will the rate alter if the temperature rises to 25° C? ‘When the pendulum keeps correct time, its period of vibration is2 sec and so it makes 20x 60% 60 ——— =43200 Vibrations/day Iflength of pendulum at 10°C is f,, andat 25°C is 5 = fy [1+ 25—10)]= fo [1 + 15 a] as TH 2m ie, ie, = 43200 [1-0.00009 ‘That is the clock makes (43200 ~ 43 196.12) = 3.88 vibration loss per day. That is clock losses 3.88 x2 = 7.76 sec per day A sphere ofsilver is floating in amercury bath, Iftemperatureis increased will the sphere sink deeper or rise ? His giVEM Y,i.or> Yoercury Rise A glass vessel of volume V, is completely filled witha liquid and its temperature is raised by AT. What volume ofthe liquid will overflow ? Coefficient of inear expansion of glass = 1, and coefficient of volume expansion of the liquid =. / ‘Volume of the liquid over flown = increase in the volume of the liquid —inerease in the volume of the container = [Vp (+7, AT) ~ Vo] ~ [Vo (1+7,AT) — Vo] =V, AT (Y, -¥.)= VAT (7, ~ 34 (2. 73a)40 Q.14 A liquid having coefficient of volume expansion y, is filled ina glass vessel. The coe! Sol jent of linear expansion of glass is a. When the arrangement is heated to raise the temperature of the liquid and the glass container by AT, exapnsion takes place in both. The expansion may be differentor equal. Depending ll on the values of y, and c you may find that level of the liquid rises with respect to ground or it may with repectto ground (i) What is the relation between 7, and « so that the fraction of volume of container occupied by the liquid does not change with rise in temperature ? (ii) What isthe relation between ¥, and «so the liquid does not change with respect to ground ? (iii) What is the relation between y, and o thecontainer itself’? 10 that the level ofthe liquid does not change with respect to (i) Let V;.be the volume of the container and V , be the volume of the liquid. According to the condition v ‘V,_ ~constant (i.e. independent of temperture) vi, > Vv, (Here V,, and V'.are volumeon heating ) > AY, _ AV > VV AT [Forcontainer, coefficient of volume expansion will be 3c] (i) fon heating, H does not change, than the increase in volume of the liquid is accomodated by the increase in base area of the vessel. Let the area be A. Initial volume of liquid= V, =AxH =A H Final volume of liquid Vu lat avy at = vA Y, A => wAT=BAT ory, = 20 (2. fi=2a) (iii) This is exactly sameas part (i)