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    handbook steam turbine

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    28 views20 pages

    Steam Turbines

    Uploaded by

    Hanifianto
    handbook steam turbine

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 20
    a ae a Fig. 1-20. Impulse (a) and reaction (6) stages of a turbine sajaaney 2 and # moving blades: 3 guide blades Case () 1, = Pu 14.65 98.1 = 1445 kg m/sec It follows, therefore, from equation (1-3) that the force P; of the steam jet depends on the Value of cosine of the angle a,. With the decrease Mrangle ai to its minimum value—zero, force , will reach its limiting value P,. In the case Of increase of the angle a: the force exerted in the Girection of rotation will go on diminishing {itil at a1=90° this force will entirely vanish Hence, great attention is paid to the proper se- Tection of angle cz for steam turbine nozzles and blades. In steam turbines the usual practice is fovuse an angle a1 from 11 to 14° for the initial Sages, and 20 to 30° for the low-pressure stages Of large-capacity condensing turbines. Lelvus now consider the operating processes in asteam turbine stage. Fig. 1-10 shows the diag- Snmatie arrangement of an impulse (a) and a Teaction (b) stage (degree of reaction e=0.5) of a turbine, The expansion of steam from its initial pres- sure p, to the final pressure pa, in the case of an Gmpulge stage. takes place completely in the iierle 1. The kinetic energy of the steam, ob- Toned during its expansion in the nozzle, is converted into mechanical work in the moving blades 2. B In Fig, 1-10, a the line 1-2-3 shows the varia- tion of steam pressure in the moving blades of the turbine in an imptlse stage. During expansion in the nozzle the velocity of steam increases from its initial value of o, to its maximum value ¢,, at the nozzle exit. The line a-b-c shows the va- Fiation of absolute velocity in an impulse sta If the velocity of steam at entrance to the nozzle ¢,=0 then the variation of absolute velocity will Be represented by the line a’-b-c-d. The velocity of steam at exit from the blades will be equal to ¢. The ideal and actual work done by | kg of steam in a turbine stage may be determined from the kinetic energy equations. In a characteristic turbine stage the kinetic energy of 1 kg of steam will be equal to: at entry tothe nozzle (kg mjkgl; at exit from the nozzle SH tig m| 3g tke mike: at exit from the moving blades 5+ (kg The increase in the available energy Pa=YePo then the expansion of steam takes place only up to the pressure px; the corresponding velocity of steam at the exit from the nozzle at this pressure is less than the critical velocity ¢,,. Special types of convergent-divergent nozzles ‘are made use of to obtain an exit pressure pic,,. Thus depend: ing on the values of the initial and final pres~ sures of steam before and after the nozzle the steam flow may be divided into two types: ‘with a velocity of flow less or equal to the crit ical; with a velocity higher than the critical Convergent nozzles are used for the first type of flow (Fig. 2-1, a), and convergent-divergent nozzles for the second (Fig. 2-1,0). The size of the nozzle can be estimated if the following condi tions of flow are known: the quantity of steam flow through the nozzle, the initial and final pressures of steam p, and. “the initial temperature t, and the heat drop in the nozzle h,. (@) Convergent Nozzles and Their Calculations The convergent nozzle has a uniformly de- creasing cross-sectional passage area, the exit end having the minimum area of section, the value of which depends on the conditions of flow. The expansion of steam from pressure p, to ps takes place along the full length of the nozzle. Nozzle Calculations are made mostly with a view to obtain the cross-sectional areas of the steam pas~ sage through the nozzle. This is simply deter- mined by making use of the equation of continuity. Gu=fe, (23) where G—quantity of steam flow, kg/see; 1 The possibility of obtaining supercritical velocities of steam using oly convergent nozzles will be dealt with Tater in this book, Fig, 2-2. 1-s diagram for an impulse stage j-eross-sectional area of the nozzle, m* pecific volume of steam at the given nozzle section, m°/kg: velocity of steam at the given nozzle section, mi/sec. e In equation (2-3) the value of G is usually giv- en and the values of ¢ and v are found out by calculations. The velocity of steam c,. is ob- tained from the equations (2-2) or (2-2a), The specific volume of steam v is determined either with the help of an i-s diagram or steam tables. sample 2-1, Find the crosesectional area of a con- mnt nozzle irom the following data: the pressure and perature before the nozzle py 12 ata and fy 300°C: presure after the nozzle 7.5 ata; quantity of steam flow Throngh the nozzle 1.2 kesee. Neglect losce ‘On the is diagram we find point A, conforming to the initial ‘conditions. of steam. "Through th’s point we shall drop an adiabatic line up to a pressure of 7.5 ata. point Ay (Fig. 2-2, a). The length AyA,,, according to. a Bredeterinined. seale gives. the heat “drop in the nozzle Memsuring AyAyy, we find it to be equal fo A, — 28 keal kg. ‘We shall ‘now obtain the steam velocity'from the rela ton (29a) ¢=91.5 V 3485 m/sec. ‘The conditions of steam at the nozzle exit are given by pressure 7.5 ata and. temperature 239°C. The specific volume of steam. conforming. to. this condition of steam my==0.315 TW/kg, which may be obtained from steam tibies if the lines of constani volume are not shown. on the £s diagram, ‘The cross-sectional area for the nozzle exit is deler mined from equation (23) pa Gee 120.315 0078 mt Sem", a () Convergent-Divergent Nozzles and Their Calculations The expansion of steam in stich nozzles takes place in the following manner In the convergent part of the nozzle steam ex- pands from its initial pressure p, up to the cri- tical pressure p.,. At the smallest cross-section of the nozzle, known as the throat. steam tains the ctitical velocity c,. Expansion of team from the pressure p., 10 the exit pres- sure px takes place in the divergent part of the nozzle with a uniformly increasing steam velo- city ultimately attaining the final value of fe ber ‘Steam pressure in the nozzle throat is deter- mined from the equation Per The process of expansion of steam from its initial pressure to the final one is shown on the i-s diagram (Fig. 2-2,0). On the adiabatic line A,A,, point k,,, conforming to the critical pres- sure’p.,, is matked. The critical velocity of steam attained at the nozzle throat is determined from the equation Cg =91.5V where i,,—the heat content of steam at the throat, kcal/kg: The specific volume of steam v., for the steam conditions at the point £,, is found directly from the i-s diagram or from’steam tables (from the known value of temperature f,, of the dryness fraction x., read off the i-s diagram), The cross-section of the nozzle at the throat is determined according to the equation (2-3) where ¢., and v,, are substituted in place of ¢ and v. The exit section of the nozzle is also found in like manner from the equation (2-3) where the specific volume of steam at the point A, (Fig. 2-2, b) will be substituted so that the steam ve~ locity obtained will be p, Cu = 91. SV in The minimum cross-section of a convergent- divergent nozzle can also be determined by a different method as given below. In place of the velocity ¢ in equation (2-3) the well-known expres- sion pass ae re) for_the critical velocity is substituted The numerical values of & which are used in general_are: k=1.035--0.1x—for saturated steam with a dryness fraction of k=1.135—for dry saturated steam; k=1.3—for superheated steam, Ii we substitute the value ¢., from the equa- tion @-4 in the equation (23) and rearrange we have Faas for dry saturated steam and c Festa ae for superheated steam. However, it is found from experience that the following equation gives values nearer to those achieved in reality both for saturated and super- heated steam: eee (here p, is in kg/em* and v,—in m*/kg) The length of the divergent portion of the nozzle is determined by the equation stat eo whered: and d.,—diameters of the nozzle at the exif'and throat sections (or the value ‘of the sides, if the nozzle is square of rectangular); the angle of divergence of the noz~ ale; it is recommended that this val- ue may be used within the limits of 6 to iz With very small values of angle y the length of the nozzle would be large whereas with larger Values of y there is a possibility of the steam Jet detaching itself from the nozzie wall and con- Zequenily turbulence losses would make their appearance. ic (2-5b) Example 2-2, Design a convergent-divergent nozzle from the following data: initial presure of steam 12 ata; fina presure of steam 3 ata: steam temperature 300°C ily of steam flow 1-2 kg/sec. Losces may be neglected. ‘On the rs diagram (Fig. 22, b) we shall first find the point (peint AQ conforming to, the initial conditions of Bream. Throug this point we shall drop a iaatabatic) up to the back pressure of 9 ats (p datnepasaty dey, ewes tte heat drop in the noese whled . AAy= le =73 kealike- The velocity of steam isting from the nozele eu= 91S VTI=TE msec ‘The condition of the steam at the point Ay is deter mined by te pressure 3 ala and the temperature ty SHC. The cpectfie volume of steam at the nozzle exit 40.696. Ike. osssection of the nozzle at the exit 636. ‘The minimum cross-section of the nozzle is determi n formula (25a): 12 0.000777 m#=7.77 em, I 209 Va here 4 == 0.228 hg (according to V-T-1.*steam table) T Power Institute of the U.S. 2 SR. 2.2. EXPANSION OF STEAM IN NOZZLES CONSIDER ING LOSSES Because of losses due to friction and turbu lence steam while flowing through a nozzle gains heat. Thus the actual heat content of Steam at the nozzle exit will be slightly higher than the theoretical value, i. @.. i1>/y0 Consequently the actual process of expansion of steam in the nozzle will not be represented by the adiabatic A,A,; but by a diflerent curve (Fig. 2-2) irom whieh it follows that the heat Grop in the nozzle during the process of expan- sion, considering the losses, will be lower than in the case of an adiabatic expansion, i. ii,

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