DK SI 2101

Outline
1.Typical Masonry Structure in
Indonesia and its problems
2.Mortar
3.Masonry Unit
4.Bond pattern and Masonry
Construction
5.Test of Brick Infilled RC Frame

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DK SI 2101
 Introduction
 Masonry is one of the oldest building materials
 Sun-dried clay (adobe) bricks  since 8,000 BC
 Stone masonry  around 3,000 BC
 Stone
 The only building material available for construction of large structures
and bridges, until the discovery of steel and PC in mid-19th century
 Durability and aesthetics properties make stone a matchless material
even for present-day buildings, particularly those that require durable
and maintenance-free facades

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 Typical types of Housing in Indonesia

Reinforced concrete with infill masonry wall relies on the

reinforced concrete columns and beam as the main load bearing
system (for both gravitational and lateral load). In this type of
structure, the infill masonry walls act as struts that stiffen the
structure. In general, the width of columns and beams in this
structure is larger than the thickness of wall. Therefore, the
reinforced concrete elements will take greater proportion in resisting
loads
Courtesy: Dyah Kusumastuti and Edwin Lim
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 Typical types of Housing in Indonesia

Confined masonry relies on the masonry walls as the main load bearing
structural elements. This structural system is applied by using certain kind of
confinement, such as steel wiremesh, reinforced concrete frame, timber frame,
etc., to the masonry walls. For confined masonry using reinforced concrete frame,
the size of reinforced concrete elements is approximately similar to the thickness
of the wall, commonly 150 x 150 mm following the thickness of half brick
arrangement including plaster (150 mm)

Courtesy: Dyah Kusumastuti and Edwin Lim

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 Typical types of Housing in Indonesia

Unconfined masonry relies on the masonry walls as the only load

bearing elements. There is no confinement or reinforcement on this
type of building. This structural system is very popular during the
colonial period.
Courtesy: Dyah Kusumastuti and Edwin Lim
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 Typical Problems in Reinforced
Masonry Structures in Indonesia
 Quality of materials
 Construction methods
 Adequate designs
 Compliance to building codes/standards

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 Typical Problems in Reinforced
Masonry Structures in Indonesia

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 Typical Problems in Reinforced
Masonry Structures in Indonesia

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 Typical Problems in Reinforced
Masonry Structures in Indonesia

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 Typical Problems in Reinforced
Masonry Structures in Indonesia

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 Typical Problems in Reinforced
Masonry Structures in Indonesia

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 Typical Problems in Reinforced
Masonry Structures in Indonesia

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 Typical Problems in Reinforced
Masonry Structures in Indonesia

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 Typical Problems in Reinforced
Masonry Structures in Indonesia

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EL SI 2101
 Portland Cement (PC)
ASTM C150 definition
“ portland cement is a hydraulic cement produced
by pulverizing clinkers consisting essentially of
hydraulic calcium silicates and a small amount of
one or more forms of calcium sulfate as an
interground addition”

Clinkers are 5 mm – 25 mm diameter nodules of a sintered material that is

produced when a raw mixture of predetermined composition is heated to
high temperature
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 Manufacturing Process of PC

Source: Kosmatka and Wilson, Design and Control of Concrete Miztures, PCA, 2011
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 Manufacturing Process of PC

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 Manufacturing Process of PC

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 Chemical Reactions in Kiln

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 Aerial View of PC plant

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 Chemical composition of PC
(Tricalcium silicate)
(Dicalcium silicate)
(Tricalcium aluminate)
(Tetracalcium alumino ferrite)

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 Characteristics of Principal Compounds in PC

C3S  contribute significantly to initial strength

C2S  contribute significantly to later strength
C3A  liberates a large amount of heat during the first few days
low C3A is more resistant to soils and waters containing sulfate

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 Hydration of PC

C3S (CH)

C2S

C3A

C4AF

Source: Kosmatka and Wilson, Design and Control of Concrete Miztures, PCA, 2011
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 Hydration of PC

Source: http://www.engr.psu.edu/ce/courses/ce584/concrete/library/construction/curing/Hydration.htm

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EL SI 2101
 Mortar

 A mixture of cementitious material, aggregate, and water.

 Classified as cement-lime mortar, cement mortar, or masonry
cement mortar.
 Used for the following functions:
 bonding masonry units together, either non-reinforced or
reinforced
 serving as a seating material for the units
 leveling and seating the units
 providing aesthetic quality of the structure

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 Mortar
 Manufactured in four types: M, S, N, and O

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 Mortar
 Needs to satisfy either proportion specifications or property
specifications (ASTM C270)
 Proportion specifications specify the ingredient quantities, while
the property specifications specify the compressive strength, water
retention, air content, and the aggregate ratio.

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Workability and Water Retentivity of
Mortar: The role of lime
A workable mortar is:
- Cohesive and spreads easily on the units using trowel

- Cohesiveness  clings to vertical surface of the units without

sliding down

Water retentivity is: ability of mortar to retain water without

letting it bleed out. A mortar with good water retentivity
remains soft and plastic for a long period of time and allows
only a limited amount of water to be absorbed by the unit.

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Workability and Water Retentivity of
Mortar: The role of lime
Role of Lime:
- Improves elasticity of hardened mortar

- Reduces the cracks caused by the bending of the wall under

lateral load
- Provide self-sealing of small cracks produced either within
the mortar or at the interface between mortar and the units
- The cracks may result from either: (1) bending stress in
masonry or (2) drying shrinkage of PC in mortar

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Workability and Water Retentivity of
Mortar: The role of lime

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 Mortar Strength
 Two strength properties of mortar:
 Compressive strength

 Flexural tensile bond strength

 The compressive strength of mortar is affected by the mortar’s

cementitious content. The total amount of cementitious content
(portland cement plus lime) in various types of mortar is roughly
constant with respect to the amount of sand. The relative
proportions of portland cement and lime are, however, different.
 Increasing the amount of portland cement with respect to lime
increases the mortar’s compressive strength. Conversely, increasing
the amount of lime with respect to portland cement decreases the
mortar’s compressive strength.
 Because mortar is an integral part of a masonry wall, its strength
affects the compressive strength of the wall,

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 Mortar Strength: Compressive
strength of a wall
 Mortar is the weakest part of the
masonry wall  thin mortar layers
generally produce stronger walls than
do thick layers
 Masonry wall is composed of masonry
units and mortar  the compressive
strength of the wall is a function of
the strength of the units and the
strength of the mortar

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 Mortar Strength

 A wall is subjected to flexural tension when subjected to lateral loads (wind,

earthquake, etc.). The flexural tension can lead to the wall’s cracking.
 Because the bond between the units and the mortar is much weaker than
the tensile strength of the units, the wall generally cracks at the mortar
joints, that is, the mortar joints open up.

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 Mortar Strength
 Flexural tensile stress in a reinforced
(and grouted) masonry wall is resisted
by the bond between the masonry and
mortar only until the mortar joints have
opened. This is the case with relatively
small lateral loads.
 As the load increases and a mortar joint
opens, the tensile stress is transferred to
steel reinforcement. The bond between
the masonry and the mortar is now
irrelevant.

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 Mortar Properties
 Mortar is used as an adhesive and sealant  should form a
complete, strong, and durable bond with masonry units and with
rebars that might be used to reinforce masonry walls
 The ability to bond individual units is measured by the tensile bond
strength of mortar (ASTM C952), which is related to the force
required to separate the units. The tensile bond strength affects the
shear and flexural strength of masonry. The tensile bond strength is
usually between 0.14 MPa and 0.55 MPa (20 psi to 80 psi) and is
affected by the amount of lime in the mix.
 Other properties that affect the performance of mortar are
workability, tensile strength, compressive strength, resistance to
freeze and thaw, and water retention.
 ASTM C91 defines water retention as a measure of the rate at
which water is lost to the masonry units.

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Mortar Proportion Specification
 Volume of sand : Volume of PCL = 2.25 to 3 : 1

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EL SI 2101
 Masonry Units
 Brick masonry are generally made from clay  referred to
as clay masonry
 Block masonry is called concrete masonry  blocks are
made from concrete
 Masonry is laid unit by unit (e.g., brick by brick or block by
block) referred to as unit masonry.
 Masonry units are bonded together with mortar to yield a
composite building component
 Mortarless masonry, although possible, is uncommon and
has relatively few applications
 Other masonry materials: concrete masonry units, stone,
and glass masonry

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 Masonry Units
 Classified based on materials: concrete masonry units,
clay bricks, structural clay tiles, glass blocks, and stone
 Concrete masonry units can be either solid or hollow
 Clay bricks, glass blocks, and stone are typically solid
 Structural clay tiles are hollow units that are larger
than clay bricks and are used for structural and non-
structural masonry applications, such as partition
walls and filler panels. They can be used with their
webs in either a horizontal or a vertical direction

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 Dimension of Masonry Units
 A masonry unit (both clay brick and concrete block) has three
types of dimensions:
 Specified dimensions

 Nominal dimensions

 Actual dimensions

 The specified dimension of a masonry unit is the finished dimension

that the specifier has requested and the manufacturer desires to
achieve.
 Because the manufacturing process is not perfect, the actual
dimensions of a unit are different from the specified dimensions 
the difference between the specified and the actual dimensions of a
masonry unit must lie within the dimensional tolerance established by
the industry for that product.
 The nominal dimension of a unit is the specified dimension plus one
mortar joint thickness. The nominal dimensions of a unit refers to the
space occupied by one unit (and the associated mortar) in the wall.
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 Dimension of Masonry Units
 The nominal dimension of a unit is the specified dimension plus
one mortar joint thickness. The nominal dimensions of a unit
refers to the space occupied by one unit (and the associated
mortar) in the wall. Thus,

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 Masonry Units
 Examples of masonry units:
a. Concrete masonry units
b. Clay bricks
c. Structural clay tiles

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 Concrete Masonry Units
 Solid concrete units are commonly called concrete bricks. Hollow
units are known as concrete blocks, hollow blocks, or cinder blocks.
 Hollow units have a net cross-sectional area in every plane parallel
to the bearing surface less than 75% of the gross cross-sectional area
in the same plane. If this ratio is 75% or more, the unit is categorized
as solid (Portland Cement Association, 1991).
 Manufactured in three classes, based on their density: lightweight
units, medium-weight units, and normal-weight units
 Weight Classifications and Allowable Maximum Water Absorption of
Concrete Masonry Units (ASTM C90, Table 3 and ASTM C129, Table 2)

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 Absorption of Concrete Masonry Units
 Amount of water absorption of concrete masonry units is
controlled by ASTM standards to reduce the effect of weathering
and to limit the amount of shrinkage due to moisture loss after
construction (ASTM C90).
 Absorption of concrete masonry units is determined by immersing
the unit in water for 24 hours (ASTM C140).

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 Concrete Masonry Units
 Concrete masonry units can be classified as load-bearing
(ASTM C90) and non load bearing (ASTM C129).
 Load-bearing units must satisfy a higher minimum compressive
strength requirement than non load-bearing units
 Compressive strength of individual concrete masonry units is
determined by capping the unit and applying load in the direction
of the height of the unit until failure (ASTM C140)
 Strength Requirements of Load Bearing and Non–Load-Bearing
Concrete Masonry Units (ASTM C90, Table 3 and ASTM C129, Table 2)

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 Concrete Masonry Units
Nominal dimensions
and specified (modular)
dimensions

Concrete masonry units:

(a) stretcher, (b) single-corner, and (c) double-corner
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 Concrete Masonry Units
 Solid concrete masonry units (concrete bricks) are
manufactured in two types based on their exposure
properties: concrete building bricks (ASTM C55) and concrete
facing bricks (ASTM C1634)
 Concrete building bricks are manufactured for general use in
non-facing, utilitarian applications
 Concrete facing bricks are typically used in applications where
one or more faces of the unit is intended to be exposed
 Concrete facing bricks have stricter requirements than
concrete building bricks
 Maximum allowable water absorption of concrete facing
bricks is less than that of concrete building bricks
 Minimum net area compressive strength of concrete
facing bricks is higher than that of concrete building bricks

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 Concrete Masonry Units

 Strength Requirements of Building and Facing

Concrete Bricks (ASTM C55 and C1634)

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 Typical
Shapes of
Concrete
Block

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 Clay Bricks
 Small, rectangular blocks made of fired clay
 Composed mainly of silica (grains of sand), alumina, lime,
iron, manganese, sulfur, and phosphates, with different
proportions
 Manufactured by grinding or crushing the clay in mills
and mixing it with water to make it plastic, then molded,
textured, dried, and finally fired
 Manufactured in different colors, such as dark red,
purple, brown, gray, pink, or dull brown, depending on
the firing temperature of the clay during manufacturing
 Firing temperature for brick manufacturing varies from
900°C to 1200°C (1650°F to 2200°F)
 Have an average density of (125 pcf)

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 Clay Bricks
 Used for different purposes:
 Building bricks (common bricks)  used as a structural
material, and are typically strong and durable.
 Facing bricks  used for facing and aesthetic purposes, and
are available in different sizes, colors, and textures.
 Floor bricks  used on finished floor surfaces, and are
generally smooth and dense, with high resistance to abrasion
 Paving bricks  used as a paving material for roads, sidewalks,
patios, driveways, and interior floors; available in different
colors, such as red, gray, or brown, are typically abrasion
resistant, and could usually be vitrified (glazed to render it
impervious to water and highly resistant to corrosion)
 Absorption is one of the important properties that determine
durability  highly absorptive bricks can cause efflorescence and
other problems in masonry
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 Absorption of Clay Bricks
 ASTM C67:

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 Types of Clay Bricks
 Bricks used in different applications must be of
different types
 The bricks used as face veneer must have lower dimensional
tolerances and be more weather resistant than bricks used in
backup brick walls.
 The bricks used in paving and flooring must be more abrasion
resistant than facing bricks or backup bricks.
 Commonly specified brick types are:
 Facing bricks—solid or hollow
 Building bricks—solid or hollow
 Paving bricks—100% solid

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 Clay Bricks
 Compressive strength of clay bricks is an important
mechanical property that controls load-carrying capacity
and durability
 Dependent on the composition of the clay, method of
brick manufacturing, and the degree of firing.
 Determined by capping and testing a half unit “flatwise”
(load applied in the direction of the height of the unit)
and is calculated by dividing the load at failure by the
cross-sectional area (ASTM C67).
 Clay building bricks are graded according to properties
related to durability and resistance to weathering, such as
compressive strength, water absorption, and saturation
coefficient (ASTM C62).

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 Clay Bricks
 Higher compressive strengths, lower water absorptions,
and lower saturation coefficients are required as the
weathering condition gets more severe, so as to reduce
the effect of freezing and thawing and wetting and drying.
 Physical Requirements for Clay Building Bricks (ASTM C62)

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 Initial Rate of Absorption (IRA)
 Bricks are too porous  absorb too much water out of the mortar, leaving
insufficient water for the hydration reaction (between portland cement and
water). This can weaken the mortar and, hence, the wall.
 Bricks that are highly absorptive must be wetted with water prior to being
laid in the wall, such that the interior of the brick is moist but the exterior
surfaces of the brick are dry.
 Preferred way of wetting absorptive bricks is to let water run on the pile of
bricks so that the bricks become wet. Depending on the weather, this may
either be done the evening before (or a few hours before) the bricks are laid
 ensures that the interiors of the bricks are wet but the exteriors are dry.
 Bricks that are wet on the surface tend to float on the mortar bed and may
also bleed water out of the mortar. Bricks that are not highly absorptive do
not need wetting and can be laid dry.
 Brick specifications use a measure referred to as the initial rate of absorption
(IRA) to determine whether the bricks require wetting or not.
 If IRA 30 g/min/30 in.2  bricks should be wetted prior to laying; otherwise,
not. (Note that in colder regions, wetting of bricks may not be appropriate.)
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EL SI 2101
 Bond Patterns in Masonry Walls
 Bricks can be assembled in a wall in several patterns,
referred to as bond patterns, or simply as bonds.
 Functionally, the bond is meant to stagger the units so that
the load on one unit is shared by an increasing number of
underlying units.
 A one-wythe masonry wall (a wall whose thickness equals
the width, W, of one unit), built from whole (uncut) units,
can have two types of bonds
 Running bond

 Stack bond

 A stack bond is used primarily for

aesthetic reasons,

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 Bond Patterns in Masonry Walls

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 Brick Orientation

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 Brick Orientation

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 Masonry Construction

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 Masonry Construction

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EL SI 2101
Test Setup

Courtesy of Hwang, S.J. And Chiou, C.C.

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Specimens’ detailing

Courtesy of Hwang, S.J. And Chiou, C.C.

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Test Results

Crack passed
Cracks along
through masonry
mortar 
unit  higher
lower strength
strength

Courtesy of Hwang, S.J. And Chiou, C.C.

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EL SI 2101