IEEE JOURNAL OF QUANTUM ELECTRONICS, VOL. 52, NO.
1, JANUARY 2016
Millimeter-Wave and Terahertz-Wave Applications
Enabled by Photonics
Tadao Nagatsuma, Fellow, IEEE, Shintaro Hisatake, Member, IEEE, Masayuki Fujita, Member, IEEE,
Hai Huy Nguyen Pham, Kazuisao Tsuruda, Shigeru Kuwano, Member, IEEE,
and Jun Terada, Member, IEEE
(Invited Paper)
Abstract— This paper describes continuous millimeter-wave
and terahertz (THz)-wave applications, where telecom-based
photonics technologies are efficiently employed to enhance their
performance. First, 300-GHz-band wireless communications are
described toward real-time error-free transmissions at 50 Gbit/s
and beyond. Next, a novel approach to increase a phase measure-
ment sensitivity in THz frequency-domain spectroscopy systems
is explained, and a similar technique is successfully applied
to the visualization of electric-field radiation and propagation.
Finally, as a futuristic study, the manipulation of THz waves
with a concept of photonic crystals and its possible applications
to platforms in THz integrated systems are presented.
Index Terms— Millimeter wave, terahertz, photonics, wireless
communication, spectroscopy, measurement, photonic crystal.
I. I NTRODUCTION
T HE RECENT explosive growth in communications has
been brought about by wired (fiber-optic) and wireless
(radio-wave) communications technologies. These two tech-
nologies have merged to create an interdisciplinary area called
Microwave Photonics [1]–[5]. The history of Microwave
Photonics can be traced back to early 1990s, when meetings
and workshops were started to be held on a global scale [5].
Microwave Photonics covers technical areas from fundamental
technologies, such as optical (photonic) generation, detection,
control, and distribution (transmission) of radio wave (high-
frequency electrical) signals, to a number of communications
Manuscript received September 21, 2015; revised November 10, 2015;
accepted December 2, 2015. Date of publication December 9, 2015; date
of current version December 31, 2015. This work was supported in part by
the 2014/2015 Strategic Information and Communications Research and
Development Promotion Programme through the Ministry of Internal Affairs
and Communications, Japan, under Grant 135010103 and Grant 121807004,
in part by the Adaptable and Seamless Technology Transfer Program within
the Target-Driven Research and Development through the Japan Science and
Technology Agency under Grant AS242Z03673H, in part by the TEPCO
Memorial Foundation, in part by the Osaka University Multidisciplinary
Research Laboratory System, in part by the Support Center for Advanced
Telecommunications Technology Research Foundation, and in part by the
Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research through the Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan under Grant 25709028,
Grant 23656049, Grant 23656049, Grant 15K13975, and Grant 26289104.
T. Nagatsuma, S. Hisatake, M. Fujita, H. H. N. Pham, and
K. Tsuruda are with the Graduate School of Engineering Science,
Osaka University, Toyonaka 560-8531, Japan (e-mail: nagatuma@ee.es.
osaka-u.ac.jp; hisatake@ee.es.osaka-u.ac.jp; fujita@ee.es.osaka-u.ac.jp;
KazuisaoTsuruda121@s.ee.es.osaka-u.ac.jp).
S. Kuwano and J. Terada are with NTT Access Network Service Sys-
tems Laboratories, NTT Corporation, Yokosuka 239-0847, Japan (e-mail:
kuwano.shigeru@lab.ntt.co.jp; terada.jun@lab.ntt.co.jp).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available
online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/JQE.2015.2506992
0018-9197 © 2015 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
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applications including microwave photonic links for cellular,
wireless local area network (LAN), cable television, satellite,
radio astronomy, and radar systems. In addition to communi-
cations applications of Microwave Photonics, one of the niche
areas is an optical measurement of high-frequency signals
and its applications to testing of high-frequency devices and
integrated circuits, imaging and sensing of objects in material
characterization, spectroscopy, inspection, security, etc.
Steady and continuous progress of Microwave Photonics
has been reported in annually-held International Topical
Meeting on Microwave Photonics, and subsequent special
issues on Microwave Photonics published, for example, in the
IEEE JOURNAL and TRANSACTIONS. Particularly, in the
special issue in IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE
THEORY AND TECHNIQUES published in 2001,
we reviewed a progress of microwave and millimeter-wave
measurement using telecom-based photonics technologies [6].
We described that photonically-assisted high-frequency
signal generation and detection techniques were proven
to be powerful and practical through demonstration of
several instruments such as a high-speed integrated-circuit
prober, a sampling oscilloscope, a network analyzer, and an
imaging system operating at frequencies from a few GHz
to >100 GHz. One of the key devices for the signal generation
was a high-frequency and high-output power photodiode, such
as a uni-travelling carrier photodiode (UTC-PD), whose debut
was in 1997 [7]. The characterization of the photodiode was
performed with the above high-speed integrated-circuit prober
based on the photonic technique, called an electro-optic (EO)
sampling. It is not exaggerated to mention that such an
ultrahigh-speed photodiode had not been developed without
the EO sampling technique.
In this paper, we review our recent progress in devices
and system applications enabled by photonics technologies.
One of the important applications which were not included in
our 2001’s paper was wireless communications using carrier
frequencies of over 100 GHz. After a successful demonstra-
tion of 10-Gbit/s data rate with a 120-GHz band wireless
link in 2002 [8], the research and development have been
continued to bring the wireless technology into an indus-
trial deployment with an official frequency allocation made
in 2014 [9], [10]. Now, the demand for much higher data
rates has been increasing, which have triggered the research
on wireless communications using higher carrier frequencies,
such as 300 GHz. We present our most recent results
0600912 IEEE JOURNAL OF QUANTUM ELECTRONICS, VOL. 52, NO. 1, JANUARY 2016

on 300-GHz band wireless link using a photonics-based trans-

mitter towards 100-Gbit/s data rate in Section II. Increase
of the bandwidth of the UTC-PDs during over-10 years’
development has expanded its application to a terahertz (THz)
frequency-domain spectroscopy based on continuous waves,
instead of a time-domain spectroscopy with THs pulses [11].
We show a phase-sensitive THz frequency-domain spec-
troscopy system based on our original self-heterodyne configu-
ration [12] in Section III. The same self-heterodyne technique
together with a non-polarimetric EO detection technique [13]
can be applied to the precise measurement of ampli-
tude and phase to characterize radiative devices such as
antennas [14]. Section IV presents an application of this
measurement technique to characterize subwavelength metal
hole-array structures as a THz collimator. Finally, in order to
make THz systems smaller and more cost-effective, integration
of components on a single chip or module is indispensable.
In Section V, we present our recent challenges towards THz
integrated circuits realized on photonic crystal platforms [15],
which have been studied in the near-infrared wavelength for
fiber-optic communications applications.

II. W IRELESS C OMMUNICATIONS

There has been an ever-increasing demand in higher Fig. 1. Block diagram of the wireless link based on the intensity modulation
data rate in wireless communications. The prospective data and direct detection scheme. (a) Transmitter. (b) Receiver.
rate for wireless communications in the market place will
be 100 Gbit/s within 10 years [16]. To enable such data
rate, the increase of carrier frequency together with wide
bandwidths is the most effective, as we have seen a history
of radio communications and most recently a 60-GHz band
wireless link with the allocated bandwidth of 7-9 GHz [16],
and 120-GHz band one with the bandwidth of 18 GHz [10].
In particular, above 275 GHz, there is a possibility to employ
extremely large bandwidth of over 50 GHz for radio com-
munications, since these frequency bands have not yet been
allocated to active services in the world.
In the THz communications research, photonics technolo-
gies have been intensively employed for the transmitter rather
than the receiver. It is the easiest way to generate signals at
higher data rates with use of photonic components, which
have inherently larger bandwidths because of their higher
carrier frequency of over 100 THz [17], [18]. Most of dis-
crete photonic components for THz communications, such as
laser, modulators and photodiodes, are commercially available
thanks to fiber-optic communications technologies. Photonics-
based approach is not only a technology driver to show
unprecedented performance of THz communications but also Fig. 2. Characteristics of 300-GHz band UTC-PD. (a) Frequency response.
a technology demonstrator to get early customers. In addition, (b) Dependence of output power on photocurrent.
photonics-based system might be deployed in the future con-
vergence of fiber-optic and wireless communications networks,
even when electronic devices are available. at different wavelengths, λ1 and λ2 , respectively. Then, these
Figure 1 shows a most basic configuration of the photonics- two-wavelength of lights are injected to the UTC-PD, which
based THz wireless link, where the intensity (on-off keying: leads to the generation of THz waves at a frequency given by
OOK) modulation and direct detection schemes are used. f RF = cλ/λ1 λ2 , where λ is a difference in wavelength of
In the transmitter, first, intensity-modulated optical signals, lights, and c is a velocity of light. The converted signals are
whose envelope is sinusoidal at a designated THz frequency, finally radiated into free space by an antenna.
are generated with use of two free-running lasers; a wave- Figure 2 shows characteristics of the 300-GHz band
length tunable laser and a wavelength-fixed laser operating UTC-PD module with respect to the bandwidth and the
NAGATSUMA et al.: MILLIMETER-WAVE AND THz-WAVE APPLICATIONS ENABLED BY PHOTONICS
Fig. 3. Baseband frequency characteristic of Schottky barrier diode detector
at 330 GHz.
Fig. 4. Transmission results for a short-distance link. (a) Bit error rate
characteristic. (b) Eye diagram of demodulated signals in the error-free
condition at 50 Gbit/s.
output power. A 3-dB bandwidth exceeds 100 GHz, which
is enough for over 50-Gbit/s data transmission with the
OOK modulation. Although the maximum saturated output
power of the PD is about 500 μW for a photocurrent of 20 mA,
the operation current should usually be kept below 10 mA,
in order to avoid the deterioration of the PD performance due
to a thermal effect with high photocurrent. Thus, the allowable
output power is 130 μW, which is enough for short distance
links of less than 1-2 m.
In the receiver, the RF signal is demodulated into the
baseband data signal using a Schottky barrier diode (SBD)
for as a direct detection detector. The SBD detector has an
overall 3-dB baseband bandwidth of 37 GHz (Fig. 3), which
is enough for 50-Gbit/s demodulation. The demodulated signal
is amplified with a baseband amplifier and reshaped with a lim-
iting amplifier. Transmission characteristics are evaluated with
baseband testing instruments such as sampling oscilloscopes
and bit-error rate testers (BERTs).
Figures 4 (a) and (b) show a BER characteristic and an eye
diagram demodulated at the receiver, respectively, at 330 GHz.
The link distance is 1∼2 m with 40-dBi antennas (horn
antenna and 2-inch diameter dielectric lens) for the transmitter
and receiver. Clear eye diagrams are observed up to 50 Gbit/s,
and an error-free (BER<10−11 ) transmission has been
confirmed up to 50 Gbit/s when the output power of the
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Fig. 5. Transmission results for 20-m distance link.
transmitter is 100 μW (−10 dBm). By using a polarization
multiplexing scheme with wire-grid polarizers, it is possible
to double the bit rate to 100 Gbit/s [18]. Figure 5 shows BER
characteristics, when the link distance is extended to 20 m
with 50-dBi antenna (horn antenna and 100-mm diameter
dielectric lens). Mainly due to insufficient power, the error-
free transmission is up to 20 Gbit/s at 20 m.
The Fraunhofer distance in the 20-m link is about 20 m,
which is given by 2D 2 /λRF , where D is the diameter of the
lens and λRF is the wavelength of the radio wave. However,
the 1-m link with 2-inch diameter lenses does not satisfy the
far-field condition, which causes a small change in not only
the received power (of less than 1 dB) but also the BER with
the change of link distance on the order of the wavelength
due to the standing-wave effect between the transmitter and
receiver [18].
In order to improve BER characteristics with higher data
rate towards 100 Gbit/s, introduction of a phase modulation
scheme with higher order formats, such as binary phase-
shift keying (BPSK), quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK)
and 8PSK, is considered to be effective and practical [19].
In addition, such a scheme requires a coherent system config-
uration, where the phase as well as frequency of THz carrier
signals should be stabilized. Figure 6 shows a block diagram of
the coherent link with the BPSK modulation. In the transmitter,
a single frequency laser is modulated at f RF = 27.5 GHz to
generate the optical frequency comb (OFC). The OFC spacing
is 27.5 GHz, therefore the carrier frequency of the THz wave
is 330 GHz. In the receiver, the local oscillator (LO) signal is
supplied to a sub-harmonic mixer (SHM) to enable a coherent
detection. The SHM demodulated the THz wave by mixing
it with the LO signal, and output the recovered data signal.
The data signal was amplified by a low-noise amplifier, and
reshaped by a limiting amplifier as is the case with the direct
detection.
One of the key technologies in the system is a phase
stabilization between two optical paths from an output of the
optical filter to the optical combiner. Relative optical phase
is stabilized with a feedback control system. Without the
stabilization, a real-time evaluation of the transmission in not
possible [18].
0600912
Fig. 6. Block diagram of the wireless link based on the phase modulation
and coherent detection scheme. (a) Transmitter. (b) Receiver. PM: phase
modulator, OFCG: optical frequency comb generator.
Fig. 7. Transmission results for a short-distance link with a BPSK modulation
scheme. (a) Bit error rate characteristic. (b) Eye diagram of demodulated
signals in the error-free condition at 40 Gbit/s.
Figure 7 shows BER characteristics and an eye diagram
at 40 Gbit/s and 45 Gbit/s for a short distance (<1 m) transmis-
sion experiment. Error-free transmission has been confirmed
at 40 Gbit/s for the transmitter power of −21 dBm (∼10 μW),
IEEE JOURNAL OF QUANTUM ELECTRONICS, VOL. 52, NO. 1, JANUARY 2016
Fig. 8. Terahertz frequency-domain spectrometer. (a) Homodyne system,
(b) Self-heterodyne system. O/E: optical-to-electrical converter, LIA: lock-in
amplifier, IM: intensity modulator, FS: frequency shifter.
which is approximately one order smaller if we compare with
the direction detection, while the BER of 1.6 × 10−6 has been
obtained at 45 Gbit/s for the transmitter power of −19 dBm.
The main reason for this limitation in the data rate is attributed
to the bandwidth of the optical phase modulator (electro-
optical bandwidth: 25 GHz).
III. T ERAHERTZ S ELF -H ETERODYNE F REQUENCY
D OMAIN M ODULATION S PECTROSCOPY
For many industrial applications such as nondestructive test-
ing [20], biomedical diagnostics [21], security screening [22],
and so on, THz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) systems
have been evolved as a powerful tool for the characterization
of materials based on the fingerprint spectra. In recent years,
not only the measurement of the fingerprint spectrum itself, but
also the measurement of spectral changes has received much
attention, particularly in biomedical applications [23], [24].
For such applications, a high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of
the measurement as well as a high dynamic range (DR) of the
system is required.
THz frequency-domain spectroscopy (THz-FDS) system
based on continuous wave (CW) photonics technologies offers
advantages of high SNR and high linearity of measurements,
high frequency resolution, and compactness compared to the
THz-TDS [25]. Since 1998 [26], THz-FDS has been developed
as a homodyne system shown in Fig. 8(a), where amplitude
of the THz wave is modulated at ωl for the lock-in detection.
In the homodyne-type THz-FDS, two free-running lasers are
used to generate frequency-identical beat signals both for the
RF generation and coherent detection. Although this system
enables us to measure the amplitude and phase information of
the THz wave, the homodyne detection requires a delay-time
modulation to separate those information.
NAGATSUMA et al.: MILLIMETER-WAVE AND THz-WAVE APPLICATIONS ENABLED BY PHOTONICS
Fig. 9. Experimental setup of the modulation spectroscopy system based
on the self-heterodyne technique. EDFA: erbium-doped fiber amplifier,
UTC-PD: uni-traveling-carrier photodiode, PCA: photoconductive antenna,
TIA: transimpedance amplifier, SHG: second harmonic generator.
Recently, we demonstrated the self-heterodyne type
THz-FDS in which the amplitude and phase information can
be measured at the same time without delay-time modula-
tion [12]. In the self-heterodyne system, as shown in Fig. 8(b),
the frequency of the laser1 is coherently shifted with an
optical frequency shifter (FS). Thus, the RF and LO signals
have the same frequency/phase noise at the different average
frequencies. The detected IF signal in the self-heterodyne
system can be written as i (t) ∝ A(ω) cos (ωs t + φ (ω) + ωτ ),
where ω, A(ω), φ (ω), ωs , and τ is the THz angular frequency,
amplitude, phase, shift frequency, and delay-time between
RF and LO path, respectively. By using two-phase lock-in
amplifier, amplitude and phase information of the THz wave
can be measured at the same time. More recently, robust
THz self-heterodyne system using phase noise compensation
technique has been demonstrated to reduce system phase
drift due to ambient temperature variations [27]. Nowadays,
although the system is based on free-running lasers and fiber-
optic components, precise THz phase measurement, which
is limited only by the SNR of the amplitude measurement,
has been realized based on the balanced self-heterodyne tech-
nique [11]. The phase measurement sensitivity of our balanced
self-heterodyne system is almost one order of magnitude better
than that of the conventional systems in which limitations
arise from phase instabilities in the optical components and/or
laser linewidth. The experimental verification of the theoretical
relation between the SNR of the amplitude measurement and
standard deviation of the phase measurement will open a new
era of precise spectroscopic measurement based on Microwave
Photonics.
Moreover, the self-heterodyne technique paves the way
for the sensitive measurement of spectral changes induced
by external excitation of the sample, because the measure-
ment speed is limited only by the lock-in time constant.
Here we demonstrate a THz frequency-domain modulation
spectroscopy, THz-FDMS, which offers highly sensitive mea-
surements of spectral changes [28].
Figure 9 shows the experimental setup for the modula-
tion spectroscopy based on the self-heterodyne technique.
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Fig. 10. Amplitude signal demodulated by the LIA1 with the lock-in time
constant of 1 sec.
Two frequency-detuned 1.55-μm free-running lasers were
combined to produce a beat signal. The THz wave was
generated by photomixing at the UTC-PD and detected by
the photoconductive antenna (PCA). The frequency of the
laser1was shifted with the optical frequency shifter (FS).
The shift frequency was 500 kHz. In this proof-of-concept
experiment, the THz frequency was set at 0.38 THz. Note that
the frequency of the THz wave can be tuned by changing this
frequency difference. The high-resistive silicon (Si) substrate
(thickness: 400 μm, resistivity: 4000 cm) was placed in
the THz path as a sample and was excited by the 775-nm
laser light, which was generated from 1.55-μm laser3 using
second-harmonic generator (SHG).
Figure 10 shows the amplitude signal demodulated by
the lock-in amplifier1 (LIA1) with the lock-in time constant
of 1 sec. The power of the CW excitation laser was 7.3 mW.
Due to the fluctuation of the system, it is difficult to measure
the amplitude changes induced by the free carrier generation.
For the modulation spectroscopy, the excitation laser was
chopped at 1.7 kHz. The time constant of the LIA1 was
set to 10 μsec. The amplitude signal detected by the LIA1
was then fed into the second lock-in amplifier (LIA2) for
the tandem demodulation. The lock-in time constant of the
LIA2 was 1 sec. The amplitude signal demodulated by the
LIA2 is proportional to the amplitude modulation depth of
the THz wave, thus it is proportional to the amplitude loss of
the THz wave due to the free carriers generated by the 775-nm
laser light. Figure 11 shows an amplitude signal demodulated
by the LIA2. The excitation power was 7.3 mW. The excitation
laser was turned off at t = 36 sec. As can be seen in Fig. 11,
we can clearly observe the amplitude changes due to the
photo-induced free carriers. The SNR of this experiment was
about 14 dB at this condition. This means that at least 14-dB
enhancement of the sensitivity can be realized by the modu-
lation spectroscopy.
The current demonstration is based on the external
photoexcitation. The system might be adapted to, for example,
0600912
Fig. 11. Amplitude signal demodulated by the LIA2.
measurement of spectral changes due to the conformational
changes of photoreceptor proteins [23], [24]. Not only the
optical modulation but also the mechanical and electrical
modulation can be adapted to this system. Our THz-FDMS
will be a powerful tool for characterization of chemical and
biomedical materials based on the fingerprint spectra changes.
IV. N ON -P OLARIMETRIC S ELF -H ETERODYNE EO
D ETECTION T ECHNIQUE AND I TS A PPLICATION
Visualization of the field evolution of the continuous waves
in the millimeter-wave and THz-wave regions with high
phase and spatial resolution is a new approach to studying
physical dynamics of unique beams such as non-diffractive,
self-reconstructing, and vortex beams. As the near-field visu-
alization can reveal device dynamics, it is also useful for
diagnosing the radiative devices such as antennas [29]–[31].
An EO detection technique can be used for THz field visu-
alization [32], because of its large detectable bandwidth and
negligible perturbation compared to measurement techniques
in which metallic antennas or waveguides are used as a probe.
By applying the self-heterodyne technique to the conven-
tional polarimetric EO detection system, we demonstrated the
visualization of the freely propagating continuous THz wave
(125 GHz) using a small ZnTe EO crystal mounted on an
optical fiber as an EO sensor [33]. Although the amplitude
and the phase distributions were visualized, we found that
the stability and the repeatability of the measurements were
too low for practical applications because of the sensitivity
fluctuation attributed to the polarization fluctuation of the
probe beam [34].
Recently, we have demonstrated a new system, in which
a non-polarimetric EO detection technique [13] was adapted
to the self-heterodyne system to solve the intrinsic problem
of the conventional polarimetric EO detection technique [35].
In the non-polarimetric self-heterodyne system, the EM field
to be detected is up-converted to the optical frequency region
through the phase modulation of the probe beam in the
EO crystal. Then, the generated sideband is down-converted to
IEEE JOURNAL OF QUANTUM ELECTRONICS, VOL. 52, NO. 1, JANUARY 2016
Fig. 12. Experimental setup of EO detection system based on non-plarimetric
self-heterodyne technique. EDFA: erbium-doped fiber amplifier, FS: optical
frequency shifter, UTC-PD: uni-traveling carrier photodiode, MHA: metal
hole-array, PD: photodiode, TIA: transimpedance amplifier, LIA: lock-in
amplifier.
the IF frequency band by the optical coherent detection. Based
on this new non-polarimetric self-heterodyne system, we also
demonstrated the characterization of an F-band (90-140 GHz)
horn antenna [14].
Here, we demonstrate that the visualization of the EM field
reveals that the subwavelength metal hole-array (MHA) struc-
tures act as a wavefront converter in the THz region [36].
Figure 12 shows a schematic of the non-polarimetric self-
heterodyne EO detection system, which is quite similar to
the schematic of spectroscopy system (Fig. 8). Two free-
running 1.55-μm lasers were also used for both the generation
of the THz wave ( f THz = f 2 − f 1 − f s = 125 GHz,
f s = 500 kHz) by the UTC-PD and detection of
the THz wave by the EO sensor. A 4-dimethylamino-N-
methylstilbazolium (DAST) crystal (1 mm × 1 mm × 1 mm)
mounted on a polarization maintaining fiber (PMF) was used
as the EO sensor. In our system, the invasiveness of the
sensor can be negligible, because the size of the EO crystal
is small enough (less than λ/2 = 1.2 mm) [35]. Instead,
a point-to-point measurement is required. It should be noted
that although the invasiveness will be increased, a large
EO crystal together with the CMOS image sensors can be
used for a real-time visualization [37].
The THz waves (RF signal) modulated the probe beam
(LO signal) inside the EO crystal to generate sidebands. The
modulated signal was reflected and passed through an optical
filter. The signal was detected by the photodiode (PD). The
amplitude and phase of the IF signal were measured by the
lock-in amplifier. The relative phase between the RF and LO
signal was adjusted by the optical delay line.
In the experiment, EM-wave distributions in XY, YZ,
XZ planes are visualized with and without the MHA by
scanning the EO sensor to prove the beam-collimating effect.
The MHA used in our experiment was triangle patterns with
a hole diameter of 1.5 mm and periodic of 2.5 mm. The
electric field vector is parallel to the XZ plane (E-plane). The
MHA was placed at the distance 2 cm from the horn antenna
surface. Figures 13(a) and (b) show experimental results in
NAGATSUMA et al.: MILLIMETER-WAVE AND THz-WAVE APPLICATIONS ENABLED BY PHOTONICS
Fig. 13. Experimentally visualized EM wave distribution in E-plane.
(a) without the MHA, (b) with the MHA.
Fig. 14. Experimentally visualized 3-dimensionals EM wave distributions
(a) without the MHA and (b) with the MHA.
E-plane without and with the MHA, respectively, measured
with the lock-in time constant of 3 msec. The measured
area is 5 cm × 5 cm corresponding to 250 × 250 pixels.
We can see clearly the transformation from the spherical wave
front (Fig. 13(a)) to the planar wave front (Fig. 13(b)) in
the phase images. Figures 14 (a) and (b) show the experi-
mentally visualized 3-dimentional electric-field distributions of
freely propagating THz waves at 125 GHz without and with
the MHA, respectively. The beam-collimating effect by the
MHA is confirmed through both amplitude and phase images.
Next, we investigate the characteristic of this effect by
comparing the radiation patterns with and without the
MHA (Fig. 15). These radiation patterns were calculated based
on the near to far-field transformation technique [36]. All of
the data are normalized to the maximum value of radiation
patterns without the MHA. As for both E- and H-plane, there
are peak power reduction of about 2-dB when inserting the
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Fig. 15. Radiation patterns of the horn antenna (without the MHA) and with
the MHA. (a) E-plane, (b) H-plane.
MHA. On the other hand, the half-power beam width (HPBW)
of radiation patterns with the MHA is narrower than that
without the MHA. In particularly, as for the E-plane, HPBW is
12.1° and 7.6° for radiation patterns without and with MHA,
respectively. As for the H-plane, HPBW is 25.6° and 11.7° for
radiation patterns without and with MHA, respectively. This
indicates interesting property of the MHA, k-vector filtering
property.
V. T ERAHERTZ P HOTONIC C RYSTALS
AND T HEIR A PPLICATIONS
Photonic crystals are periodic dielectric microstructures,
which are on a scale comparable to wavelengths of
interest. Photonic crystals allow manipulation of photons or
electromagnetic waves because of their optical mode design,
with the modes forming a dispersion relationship between
the photon energy and wave vectors that is analogous to
the behavior of electrons in solid-state crystals with periodic
potential distributions [38]. They have been extensively
studied as photonic components to guide and manipulate
optical signals in near-infrared light-wave regions over the
last few decades [39]–[44].
Recently, we have started exploring the concept of photonic
crystals in THz regions as a technology platform on which
the THz waves can be manipulated in a compact structure
for the development of integrated circuits (ICs) [15], [45]
as well as discrete components, such as filters and
absorbers [46], [47]. The low-loss transmission lines on a thin
planar platform should be the most fundamental components
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Fig. 16. (a) Schematic top view of photonic-crystal waveguide. (b) Simulated
electric-field intensity distribution of waveguide mode.
Fig. 17. Theoretical absorption loss of Si for various resistivities as a function
of frequency.
used to develop ICs. Both electronics and photonics technolo-
gies can be used for the fabrication of THz transmission lines.
Metallic transmission lines based on conventional electronics
have been widely studied. However, the propagation loss is
as high as ∼10 dB/cm in the THz regions owing to the high
absorption loss of metals [48]–[52].
As the platform, we have focused on photonic-crystal
slabs [15], [45]–[47], [53]–[56] consisting of a
two-dimensional (2D) lattice of air holes formed in a
silicon (Si) semiconductor because the strong confinement of
the THz waves can be achieved in the simple planar structures
without using metals. The photonic-crystal slab can easily
be fabricated with great accuracy by using a well-established
semiconductor processing technology, and the absorption
loss because of free-carrier absorption can be controlled
by varying the carrier density or resistivity. Appropriate
photonic-crystal designs show a photonic bandgap (PBG)
where no optical modes exist [57]. Introducing a line defect
into the photonic crystal by disturbing the periodicity can
create a compact waveguide as a THz transmission line in
the PBG region, as shown in Fig. 16.
The propagation loss of waveguides can be categorized into
radiation loss and absorption loss. Theoretically, no radiation
loss in the photonic-crystal slab waveguide is expected under
the total internal reflection (TIR) condition in the vertical
direction to the slab because the THz wave can be completely
confined in both the vertical and in-plane directions by the
TIR and PBG effect, respectively [58]. The absorption loss in
Si is basically determined by the free-carrier absorption related
to the resistivity [47]. Figure 17 shows the absorption loss of
bulk Si as a function of frequency with different resistivities
IEEE JOURNAL OF QUANTUM ELECTRONICS, VOL. 52, NO. 1, JANUARY 2016
Fig. 18. Propagation loss of experimental plots and theoretical curves of
photonic-crystal waveguides at 330 GHz for different Si resistivities.
calculated using the Drude model and assuming n-type Si [59].
The absorption loss increases as the frequency decreases.
At fiber-optic communication frequencies, the absorption loss
is estimated to be as low as ∼10−3 dB/cm for a Si photonic
crystal with a resistivity of ∼10 cm [60]. However, the
absorption loss for the THz waves can be significant compared
with that in the light-wave region according to the Drude
model. This indicates that a higher resistivity is important
to apply the photonic technology to the THz region while
keeping the ultralow propagation loss of THz photonic-crystal
waveguides made from Si.
In order to measure the propagation loss at 300-GHz
band, the photonic-crystal waveguides with the lattice constant
a = 240 μm with the air-hole radius of 72 μm were
fabricated using photolithography and plasma etching from an
n-type 200-μm-thick Si substrate with different resistivities.
The transmittance of the waveguides with different lengths
were measured using a THz spectroscopic system based on
CW electronic sources [54], and then the propagation loss was
carefully evaluated for each resistivity. Figure 18 shows the
propagation loss for various Si resistivities at 330 GHz. The
experimental plots agreed with the curve simulated using a
three-dimensional finite-difference time-domain method. The
loss decreased as the resistivity increased. The propagation
loss of the 20-k cm sample was 0.04 dB/cm. This value is
two or three orders of magnitude smaller than that reported for
metallic lines (4–25 dB/cm) at the 300-GHz band [48]–[52].
In addition, this is also the smallest ever reported magnitude
among various photonic-crystal waveguides, including those in
the light-wave region (2 dB/cm) [44], [61], to the best of our
knowledge. This indicates that the propagation losses for the
photonic-crystal waveguide in the THz region is determined
by the material absorption of Si, not the radiation loss owing to
structural errors caused by the fabrication process as reported
for the light-wave region.
The demonstrated ultralow-loss photonic-crystal waveguide
technology is applicable to various compact and low-loss
THz components such as a diplexer, a filter, a bend, a branch,
and a coupler, leading to development of a THz IC based on a
photonic-crystal slab. Figure 19 shows the schematic image of
the THz IC for frequency-division wireless communications,
NAGATSUMA et al.: MILLIMETER-WAVE AND THz-WAVE APPLICATIONS ENABLED BY PHOTONICS
Fig. 19. Schematic image of THz IC based on photonic-crystal slab for
frequency division wireless communication.
Fig. 20. Photo of the THz transceiver prototype using a photonic-crystal
platform.
which consists of a diplexer (frequency selector) [55], grating
coupler (input/output wireless interface to free space) [53],
and THz receiver [15], [56] and transmitter mounted on a
PC slab platform. In our first demonstration, the development
of a transceiver prototype consisting of resonant tunneling
diodes (RTDs) with a baseband circuitry, which is composed
of a coplanar waveguide, bonding wires and a coaxial con-
nector [62] for both the transmitter and receiver, is now in
progress (Fig. 20) [63]. Details will be presented elsewhere.
VI. C ONCLUSION
In this paper, we have described how effectively to
develop applications in untapped frequency regions from
100 GHz to 10 THz, taking full advantages of extremely
broadband nature of photonics, and demonstrated some of
our recent applications in communications and measurements.
Use of optical fiber cables also makes it easy to handle
high-frequency signal distribution or cabling in the practical
instrumentation. These features will not be replaced with
electronic systems, even though the operation frequency of
electronic devices is increasing up to the THz region.
Future issues of millimeter- and THz-wave systems include
integration/packaging technologies of devices/modules for
optical generation and detection of radio waves in order to
make application systems low cost and low power consump-
tion. As an alternative to the semiconductor-based integration
0600912
approach [64], we have described our recent challenges to
realizing THz transceivers by using photonic crystals as a
platform.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Prof. M. Nagai,
Prof. M. Ashida, Dr. S. Diebold, Mr. K. Oogimoto,
Mr. Y. Yasuda, Mr. M. Yata, Mr. Y. Koda, Mr. Y. Inubushi,
Mr. Y. Fujita, and Mr. H. Nakajima of Osaka Univer-
sity, Mr. D. Ohnishi, Mr. T. Mukai, and Dr. E. Miyai of
Rohm Co. Ltd., Dr. H. Uchida of Arkray, Inc for their technical
support and help.
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NAGATSUMA et al.: MILLIMETER-WAVE AND THz-WAVE APPLICATIONS ENABLED BY PHOTONICS
Tadao Nagatsuma (M’93–SM’02–F’15) received
the B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees from Kyushu Uni-
versity, Fukuoka, Japan, in 1981, 1983, and 1986,
respectively, all in electronic engineering. In 1986,
he joined the Electrical Communications Labora-
tories, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corpora-
tion (NTT), Atsugi, Japan. From 1999 to 2002, he
was a Distinguished Technical Member with NTT
Telecommunications Energy Laboratories. From
2003 to 2007, he was a Group Leader with NTT
Microsystem Integration Laboratories, and was an
NTT Research Professor from 2007 to 2009. Since 2007, he has been
with Osaka University, Japan, where he is currently a Professor with the
Division of Advanced Electronics and Optical Science, Department of Systems
Innovation, Graduate School of Engineering Science, and the Director of
the Science and Technology Entrepreneurship Laboratory. His research fields
include ultrafast electronics, and millimeter-wave and terahertz photonics.
He is a fellow of the Institute of Electronics, Information and Communica-
tion Engineers (IEICE), Japan, and the Electromagnetics Academy. He cur-
rently serves as an Associate Editor of the IEEE P HOTONICS T ECHNOLOGY
L ETTERS and the Director of the IEICE. He is a member of the IEEE
Microwave Photonics Conference Steering Committee, the IEEE Microwave
Theory and Technique Technical Committees, MTT-3: Microwave Photonics,
and MTT-4: Terahertz Technology and Applications.
He was a recipient of numerous awards, including the 1989 IEICE Young
Engineers Award, the 1992 IEEE Andrew R. Chi Best Paper Award, the
1997 Okochi Memorial Award, the 1998 Japan Microwave Prize, the 2000
Minister’s Award of the Science and Technology Agency, the 2002 and 2011
Asia–Pacific Microwave Conference Prize, the 2004 Yokosuka Research Park
Award, the 2006 Asia–Pacific Microwave-Photonics Conference Award, the
2006 European Microwave Conference Prize, the 2007 Achievement Award
presented by the IEICE, the 2008 Maejima Award, the 2011 Recognition
from the Kinki Bureau of Telecommunications, Ministry of Internal Affairs
and Communications, the 2011 Commendation for Science and Technology
from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, and
the 2014 IEEE Tatsuo Itoh Award.
Shintaro Hisatake (M’10) was born in Kochi,
Japan, in 1976. He received the M.E. and
Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from
Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan, in 2000 and
2003, respectively.
He was engaged in the development of frequency
stabilization and line-width reduction techniques for
visible laser diodes from 2000 to 2003. In 2003, he
joined the Graduate School of Engineering Science,
Osaka University, Osaka, Japan, where he is cur-
rently an Assistant Professor. His research interests
include millimeter-wave and terahertz wave generation, modulation, and detec-
tion based on photonics and their applications to communications, sensing,
and imaging. He is a member of The Optical Society, Institute of Electronics,
Information and Communication Engineers, and The Japan Society of Applied
Physics. In 2014, he received The Optics Prize for Excellent Papers 2013 from
the Japan Society of Applied Physics, and the Osaka University Presidential
Awards for Encouragement (2014, 2015).
0600912
Masayuki Fujita (S’00–M’02) received the B.E.,
M.E., and Ph.D. degrees from Yokohama National
University, in 1997, 1999, and 2002, respectively, all
in electrical and computer engineering. During the
Ph.D. work, he achieved the first room-temperature
continuous wave operation of microdisk lasers and
the lowest threshold current of 40 μA in GaInAsP
lasers. He also proposed and demonstrated a
microgear laser. In 2002, he joined the Quantum
Optoelectronics Laboratory at Kyoto University,
as a Post-Doctoral Fellow and started research on
photonic crystals, including spontaneous emission control in a photonic
crystal and highly efficient light extraction in light-emitting diodes and
silicon light emitters. From 2006 to 2010, he was an Assistant Professor and
from 2010 to 2011, a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Electronic
Science and Engineering at Kyoto University. He is currently an Associate
Professor with the Division of Advanced Electronics and Optical Science,
Department of Systems Innovation, Graduate School of Engineering Science,
Osaka University, Toyonaka. His research interests include terahertz-photonic
materials and devices and photonic nano and microstructures.
Prof. Fujita is a member of the Japan Society of Applied Physics (JSAP),
the Laser Society of Japan, the Institute of Electronics, Information
and Communication Engineers, Japan, and the Japanese Photochemistry
Association. From 1999 to 2002 and from 2003 to 2006, he was a Research
Fellow of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). From
2015, he became the Research Director of the Strategic Basic Research
Programs (CREST) of the Japan Science and Technology Agency.
He has received various awards, including the Best Student Paper Award
from the Optoelectronic and Communication Conference (2000), the
Academic Encouragement Award from JSAP (2001), the JSPS Award for
the Most Promising Young Scientist (2006), a Research Award from the
Research Foundation for Opto-Science and Technology (2007), a Paper
Award from the Laser Society of Japan (2007), and the Osaka University
Presidential Awards for Encouragement (2013, 2014, 2015).
Hai Huy Nguyen Pham received the B.E. degree
in mechatronics engineering from the Ho Chi Minh
City University of Technology, Ho Chi Minh City,
Vietnam, in 2012, and the M.E. degree in electronic
engineering from Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
in 2015. He is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree
with the Graduate School of Engineering Science,
Osaka University, Toyonaka, Japan. His study inter-
est is involved in terahertz waves measurement using
electro-optic sensor. He received the Best Poster
Award from MTSA2015/TeraNano-6 in 2015. He is
a Student Member of the Institute of Electronics, Information and Commu-
nication Engineers and the Japan Society of Applied Physics.
Kazuisao Tsuruda received the B.E. degree in elec-
trical and electronic engineering from the University
of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan, in 2008, and the
M.E. degree in electronic engineering from Kyushu
University, Fukuoka, Japan, in 2011. He is cur-
rently pursuing the Ph.D. degree with the Graduate
School of Engineering Science, Osaka University,
Toyonaka, Japan. In 2011, he joined the Research
and Development Division, ROHM Company, Ltd,
Kyoto, Japan. His study interests include terahertz-
photonic materials and devices. In 2013, he received
the Best Student Paper Award First Place from the IEEE Microwave Photonics
Conference in 2013.
0600912
Shigeru Kuwano (M’92) received the B.E., M.E.,
and Ph.D. degrees from Osaka University, Osaka,
Japan, in 1987, 1989, and 1992, respectively, all in
communication engineering. He joined NTT Cor-
poration in 1992, where he was engaged in the
research and development of the optical transmission
system, optical networking, LAN technology based
networks, and wireless system. He is currently a
Senior Research Engineer with NTT Access Net-
work Service Systems Laboratories, where he is
involved in the research and development of optical
and wireless converged networks.
He is a Senior Member of the Institute of Electronics, Information and
Communication Engineers, Japan.
IEEE JOURNAL OF QUANTUM ELECTRONICS, VOL. 52, NO. 1, JANUARY 2016
Jun Terada (M’02) received the B.E. and
M.E. degrees from Keio University, Kanagawa,
Japan, in 1993 and 1995, respectively. In 1995, he
joined the NTT LSI Laboratories, where he was
engaged in research on low-voltage analog circuits
and high-speed front-end circuits for optical trans-
ceivers. He is currently a Senior Research Engineer
and a Supervisor with NTT Access Network Service
Systems Laboratories, where he is responsible for
research and development management of optical
and wireless converged access networks.
He is a member of the Institute of Electronics, Information and Communica-
tion Engineers, Japan. He has served on the Technical Program Committees of
the Symposium on VLSI Circuits and Asian Solid-State Circuits Conference.