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    anatomy

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    6 views68 pages

    Untitled 8

    Uploaded by

    kyle
    anatomy

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 68
    Learn to Predict Dave Plummer loves telling people around the pool that he hasa pg valve in his heart. At the age of70, Dave required replacement ofa heart valve. The surgeon. ‘opened Dave thoracic cavity by making ‘longitudinal midline incision fom the Superior tothe inferior margin of his sternum through the skin and underlying spfttiesue. Then he utthe sternum with ‘bone saw along the same line so that the ight and left halves ofthe stemum could be spread apart enough to expose the hear. After the defective valvehad been replaced, the surgeon wired the ‘two halves ofthe stemum back together. For several days after the surgery, Dave ‘experienced significant discomfort in his back and although he storted wolking within fen days, he could not resume his ‘orm swimming routine unt 2 months later. ter learning about bone repair and anatomy in chapter 6, and study Jing the structure of individual bones ‘and their relationships to each other in chapter 7, name the specific parts ofthe skeletal system and the tissue layers of the bone thatthe surgeon cut. Also, ‘explain Dave'sback discomfort and why hhe could not resume swimming sooner. 192 PART2Supportand Movement i The average adult skeleton has 206 bones (table 71; figure 7.1). 7.1 Skeletal Anatomy Overview Although this is the traditional number, the actual number of bone rare from person to perton and decreases with age at Leanwinc ourcomes a sinc nes some sd Anatom use several common terms to describe the features After reading ths section, you should be able to ‘of bones (table 72). Most of these features involve the relationship A. Define the anatomical termsfor bone features. between the bones and associated soft tissues. Ifa bone possesses a B, List the two anatomical portions of the skeleton. tubercle (to0'ber-Kt: lump) or a process (projection), most likely a ligament or tendon was attache to that tuberde or process during lf [TABLE 7.1 | Number af Named Bones sted by Category ‘Axial Skeleton Appendicular Skeleton ‘Shul Crankum) Pectoral Gre Braincase reurocraniom) Scapula Pare Ufc and igh lewd Upper umd Unpared ingle Huenerus ta Radius Phalanges ‘Taz gileand upperlimb bones PelvicGrde oval bane Lower int Fema ‘ia tule Poets 2 2 2 ‘Bones Associated withthe Skull ‘Audtory ossicles Males ‘Tot girdle ad lower mb bones Totalapenicalasteletonbonet “otal esl seeton bones ‘Totalappendcua skeleton bones Total Bonet Blew Bs “oul ib cage bones “ott ax skeleton bones siel- & FUNDAMENTAL Figure Axial Skeleton Appendicular Skeleton Axial Skeleton Anterior view FIGURE 7.1 (APIFY Complete Skeleton fone the alton ested the et ned ight hand clus hones fhe pend shen ae sein the cet {ihestelzon nt stown nthe stoma poston) Description Mainpart Erlarged, often rounded end Constiction between head and bad cage Bend EgLagens i (a Hol Tunnel cute covty General temnfora depresion Depression nthe margin of bone Litdepit Deen rarow depression If a bone has a smooth, articular surface, that surface was part of joint and was covered with articular cartilage. If the bone has a foramen ({6-ri'men; pl. foramina; fo-rami-nd; hole) in it, that foramen was the opening through which a nerve or blood vessel passed, Some skull bones contain mucous membrane-lined air spaces called sinuses, "The bones of the skeleton are divided into axial and appendicu- lar portions gure 7.) YouRPRoGREss ~~ |. How are ps, projections and openings in bones related to soft issues? What do each ofthe following terms mean: tubercle, condyle, spine, foramen, fossa? 3. What are the two anatomical portions ofthe skeleton? Axial Skeleton Leanwic ourcomtes 1 ‘After reading this ection, you should be able to [A Describe the general functions of theaxial skeleton and listits parts, B. List the major sutures ofthe skull and the bones they ‘connect. ‘C. Name the bones ofthe skull and describe their features {as seen from the superior posterior lateral, anterior, and inferior views. D. Name the bones that compose the orbit of the eye. E. List the bones and cartilage that form the nasal septum. F. Describe the locations and functions of the paranasal, sinuses G. List the bones of the braincase and face. . Explain the unique structure ofthe hyoid bone. . Describe the shape of the vertebral column, listits divisions, and state its functions. |. Discuss the common features of the vertebrae and ‘contrast the structure of vertebrae from each region. List the bones and cartilage ofthe ribcage, including the three types of ribs. ‘The axial skeleton is composed ofthe skull, auditory ossicles, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and ribcage (thoracic cage). The axial skel- «ton forms the upright axis of the body. It protects the brain, the spinal cord, and the vital organs housed within the thorax, Skull ‘The shall, or cranium (kr’né-im), protects the brain: supports the ‘organs of vision, hearing, smell, and taste; and provides a founda tion for the structures that take ai, food, and water into the body. ‘When the skull is disassembled, the mandible is easily separated from the rest ofthe skull, which remains intact. Special effort is needed to separate the other bones. For this reason, itis conve- nent to think ofthe skull, except for the mandible, as single unit. The top of the skull i called the calvaria (kal-va'ré-), or skullcap Its usually cutoff to reveal the skull’s interior, The exterior and Interior ofthe skull have ridges, lines, processes, and plates. These Structures are important for the attachment of muscles or for articulations between the bones of the skull. Selected features of the {ntact skull ate listed in table 7.3 and are visible in figures 7.2-7.12 “The fetal skullis considered in chapter Superior View of the Skull ‘The skull appears quite simple when viewed from above (igure 7.2). Only four bones are seen from this view:the frontal bone, two parietal bones, and a small part ofthe occipital bone. ‘Te paired parietal bones are joined atthe midline by the sagittal suture, and the parital bones are connected to the frontal bone by the coronal suture. CHAPTER? Seitlsytem 195 TABLE 7.3 | Processes and Other Features of the Skull Nchaltines Occiptalcondye Palatine process Prengoié hams Prengoid plates (redial arate Ramus Stylo process Temporaines| Internal Features Cistagalt Pavous portion Sela tunica Sagital suture Lamodo.s suture Ridges onthe mandibie and max containing the teth shown in gure 76) Posterior inerior comer ofthe mandite shown inigue 74) -Anachment pot fo the temporals muscle shown nfigue74) Chin resembles bent knee; shown n gues 74 and 7.6) Posterior thi of he hard palate Ghown in gure 79) Region where the mandible rtculates withthe skull Shown in figure 74) Depression where the mandible articuates withthe shl shown in figure 7.12) Enlargement poster othe er attachment te for severalmuscles that move the head (chown in fgures73,74,and 7.12) [Attachment points for several posterior neck muscles (shown in igues73 and 7:12) Poin ankultion between the tl andthe vertebral colina (shown a gures73and 7.12) Aner two-thirs ofthe hare palate own infu 79 a 7.12) Hooked process onthe inferior end of te meet pterygoid plate, around which the enon of foe palatine muscle pases an portant dental landmark own in abe 772) Bory plates onthe nfror aspect ofthe sphenoi bone: heater pterygoid ple the ste of tachment fortwo muscles ofmastiaton (cheng shown in Rgutes 79 an 712) Portion of the mandible superior tothe angle show in igue 74) Attachment ste for thee musces tothe tongue, pharyn, and hyo bone) and some ligaments (shown in Bgure 74) ‘tachment st forthe temporas muscle whch closes the jw shown infigue 74) Process inthe anterior part the braincase to which ne ofthe connective tksue coverings of ‘the rain (duramater connects showin gues 79 and 7.1) Thick ntl partof temporal bone containing themidleandinner ers andthe auton sideshow in igure 7.11) Bony srectureesemblinga sade nich the puta glen ocated (showin igue7.1) roto Interior temporaline Superior tempore FIGURE 7.2 Superior View ofthe Skull (The names ofthe bones seein bold) FIGURE 7.3 Posterior View ofthe Sul! (ne names othe bones ten bold) Posterior View of the Skull “The parietal and occipital bones are the major structures visible in the posterior view (figure 73). The parietal bones are joined to the ‘occipital bone by the lambdoid (lam doyd) suture. Occasionally, extra small bones called sutural (s00'choor-il) bones (wormian bones) form along the lambdoid suture ‘An external occipital protuberance is present on the posterior surface ofthe occipital bone (figure 7.3). It can be felt throagh the scalp atthe base of the head and varies considerably in size from, person to person. The external occipital protuberance isthe site of attachment of the ligamentum nuchae (noo'ké; nape of neck), an clastic ligament that extends down the neck and helps keep the hhead erect by pulling on the occipital region of the skull. Nuchal lines, set of smal ridges that extend laterally from the protuberance, are the points of attachment for several neck muscles Lateral View of the Skull TThe parietal boneand the squamous pat of the temporal bone form a large part of the sie of the head (figure 74). The term temporal ‘means related to time, and the temporal bone is so named because the hair ofthe temples is often the first to turn white, indicating the passage of time, The squamous suture joins these bones. A prominent feature of the temporal bone isa lage hole, the external auditory canal (external acoustic meatus), which transmits sound ‘waves toward the tympanic membrane. The external ear, oF air- cle, surrounds the canal. Just posterior and inferior to the external auditory canal salarge inferior projection, the mastoid (ras'toyd) process. The process can be seen and felt as a prominent lump just posterior tothe ear, The process is not solid bone but is filed with ‘avities called mastoid air cells, which are connected to the mide car. Important neck muscles involved in rotating the head attach {o the mastoid process. The superior and inferior temporal lines, which are attachment points of the temporalis muscle, one of the major muscles of mastication, arch across the lateral surface of the parietal bone “The lateral surface ofthe greater wing ofthe sphenoid (s8'noyd) bone is immediately anterior to the temporal bone (figure 7.4), Although appearing tobe two bones, one on each side of the skull, the sphenoid bone is actually a single bone that extends com- pletely across the skull. Anterior to the sphenoid bone is the zygomatic (2i'g6-mat'ik) bone, or cheekbone, which can be easily seen and felt on the face (figure 75). “The zygomatic arch, which consists of joined processes from the temporal and zygomatic bones, forms a bridge across the side Coronal autre Supaterempoca ine Inferior ompora tine Perietal bone Squamous suture “Temporal bone Occipital bone Lambdoid suture Marea onde Esernal story canal Occiptomastes suture aston process Stykid process cf femporal bone Tempel process cf zygomatic bone Mansur ramus Angle of manaile Boay of mance Lateral view FIGURE 7.4 ‘ight Lateral View of the Skull (he names of the bones rein bol) of the skull (see figure 7.4). The zygomatic arch i easily elton the side ofthe face, andthe muscles on each side ofthe arch can be felt as the mandible opens and closes (igare 7.5) ‘The maxilla (mak-sil’; upper jaw) is anterior and inferior 10 the zygomatic bone to which it is joined. The mandible (lower jaw) is inferior to the mala and articulates posteriorly with the temporal bone (see figure 7). The mandible consists of two main portions: the body, wich extends anteropostriorly, and the ramus (branch), ‘which extends superiorly from the body toward the temporal bone. ‘The superior end of the ramus has a mandibular condyle, witich, articulates with the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone, and the coronoid (kér's-noyd) process, to which the powerful temporal, _usele, one of the chewing muscles, attaches. The alveolar process of the maxilla contains the superior set of teeth, and the alveolar process of the mandible contains the inferior teeth. Anterior View of the Skull ‘The major structures seen from the anterior view ae the frontal, bone (forehead), the zygomatic bones (cheekbones), the maxilla, and the mandible (figure 7.6). The teth, which are very promi- nent inthis view, are discussed in chapter 24. Many bones of the face can be easly felt through the skin (figure 7.7). CHAPTER? Seletlsytem ‘Supraotal foramen ‘Supraotal margin ‘Sphenoid bone (orator wing) Nasal bone Lacrimat bone Nasolanmal canal Inraottal foramen Zygomatic bone Corona process ‘ofmandibe Masia ‘Alveolar processes From this view, the most prominent openings into the skull are ‘he orbits andthe nasal cavity. Each ofthe two oxbits is acone-shaped fossa with ts apex directed posteriorly (Figure 78; see figure 7.6). Frontal bone Supranrta margin 2ygomatic arch Nasal bone Zygomatic bone Maite Mastotsprocess Mental protiberence Maneible ‘Angle of mantle FIGURE 7.5 Lateral View of Bony Landmarks on the Face FUNDAMENTAL Figure (coronal suture cabena ‘supractal margin ‘Temporal bone Nasa! bone Intaortal margin Zygomatic bone Perpendcuiar pate bf ethmoid bone Vomer Frontal bone Pasital bone Supracbtal ramen Optic cana (Cx plate of rota bone Spnenot bone eter wa) Sipotor ota tesie Lacrma bone Ita ramen ite nase conch Ineior nee conch peor na pine oblique ine of mance Manele Mandibudae symphysis a [Arterior view FIGURE 7.6 Anterior View of the Skull (the names ofthe Bones ae nba) Frontal bone = LD Mandible \ oral prowbarance FIGURE 7.7 Anterior View of Bony Landmarks on the Face (he names othe bones aren bold) They are called orbits because the eyes rotate within the fossae ‘The bones ofthe orbits provide both protection for the eyes and attachment points for the muscles that move the eyes, The major portion of each eyeball is within the orbit, and the portion of the ye visible from the outside is relatively small, Each orbit contains blood vessels, nerves, and adipose tissue, as well as the eyeball and the muscles that move it. The bones forming the orbit are listed im table 7.4 “The orbit has several openings through which structures com- ‘municate hetween the orbit and other cavities. The nasolacrimal duct passes from the orbit into the nasal cavity through the naso- lacrimal canal, carrying tears from the eyes to the nasal cavity. The ‘opticnerve for vision passes from the eye through the optic canal at the pesterior apex ofthe orbitand enters the cranial cavity. Superior and inferior fissures in the posterior region of the orbit provide ‘openings through which nerves and blood vessels communicate with structures in the orbit or pass tothe face. ‘Superior orital sure ————_ Inferior eval fesure FIGURE 7.8 Bones of the Right Orbit (ne nares ofthe bones arein bol) ‘The nasal cavity (table 7.5 and figure 79: see figure 7.6) has a pear-shaped opening enteriorly and is divided into right and left halves by nasal septum (sep'tim; wall). The bony part ofthe nasal septum consists primarily ofthe vomer and the perpendicular plate ‘of the ethmoid bone. Hyaline cartilage forms the anterior partof the nasal septum. ‘The external part of the nose, formed mostly of hyaline car- tilage is almost absent inthe dried skeleton and is represented by the nasal bones and the frontal processes of the maxillary bones, which form the bridge ofthe nose, ‘Adex blow tothe nose may result a“broken nose List at east vee bones that may be broken. Pets Cer eee Ee — Root and posterolateral wal Lateral a Foor CHAPTER? Seletlsytem Supreottaloramon Frontal bone: Optic cana Posterior ana artror ‘ema oramina Ethmois bone Lacrimal bone Opering to ‘slnsrmal canal Maxi Infraortal foramen Intraoral gow “The lateral wall ofthe nasal cavity has three bony shelves, called the nasal conchae (kon’k), which are directed inferony (gure 7.9). ‘The inferior nasal concha is a separate bone, and the middle and superior nasal conchae are projections from the ethmoid bone. The conchae increase the surface area in the nasal cavity, thereby facilitating moistening of, removal of particles from, and warming, of the air inhaled through the nose. Several ofthe bones associated with the nasal cavity have large cavities within them called the paranasal sinuses, which open into, the nasal cavity (figure 7.10). The sinuses decrease the weight of the skull and act as resonating chambers during voice production Compare a normal voice with the voice of a person who has a cold and whose sinuses are “stopped up.” The sinuses, which are Poi kaeketied ool septum, tera wal Lateral wat Lacerta Foor Floor and tera al ‘Septem a ‘Cita galt ‘Cait plate Horizontal pate ‘palatine bone Palatine process ‘of manila, Incisive canal Hard palate Modal preyooid plate Palatine process of maxilla (a) Nasal septum 9s sen from helt nasa cavity.) Right eer nasal wall as seen rom nse the nasal cavity withthe nasal septum removed. (he names ofthe bonesarein boll) ‘named for the bones in which they are located, include the frontal, ‘maxillary, and sphenoidal sinuses. The cavities within each ethmosd bone form a maze of interconnected ethmoidal air cells collec- tively called the ethmoidal labyrinth, or the ethmoidal sinuses. Interior of the Cranial Cavity The cranial cavity is the skull cavity occupied by the brain. The ‘cranial cavity can be exposed by cutting away the calvaria the upper, domelke portion of the skull. Removing the calvara reveals the floor ‘of the cranial cavity (igure 7.11). That floor can be divided roughly {nto anterior, middle, and pesterior cranial fossae, which are forma as the developing braincase conforms to the shape ofthe brain. A prominent ridge, the crista galli (krista gil’é; roosters comb), is located in the center of the anterior fossa. The crsta gai {sa point of attachment for one ofthe meninges (mé-nin'j2) the dura mater, thick connective tissue membrane that supports and protects the brain (sce chapter 13). On each side of the crsta gall isan olfactory fossa. An olfactory bulb rests in each fossa and receives the olfactory nerves forthe sense of smell. The cribriform (kri'i-forms sievelike) plate ofthe ethmoid bone forms the floor of each olfactory fossa. The olfactory nerves extend from the crantal cavity into the roof of the nasal cavity through sieveike perfora- ‘tons in the crbriorm plate called olfactory foramina (see figure 7.92 and chapter 15). Frontal sinus ———— Sphencidal sinus thmoisl abyss (sinuses) Maxllry sinus ———~~ FIGURE 7.10 Paranasal sinuses CHAPTER? Seletlsytem Frontal sinus thmoial labyrinth (sinuses) Sphenadal snus Maxilary sinus (0) Anterior view (Lateral ew Xray ofthe sinuses aera view Xray of the snes, anteie view The body of the sphenoid bone forms a central prominence within th flor ofthe cranial cavity. This prominence is modified into a structure resembling a saddle the sella turcica (sea tr’ sii, ‘Turkish saddle), which is occupied by the pituitary gland. An optic canal is located on each side just anterior to the sella turcica, The lesser wings ofthe sphenoid bone form a ridge to each sie of the ‘optic canals. This ridge separates the anterior cranial fossa from, the middle cranial fossa, ‘The petrous portion of the temporal bone extends postero- laterally from each side ofthe sella turciea, This thick, bony ridge (petrous, rocky) is hollow and contains the middle and inner ears. ‘The petrous portion separates the middle cranial fossa from the posterior cranial fossa. Several important openings in the oor of the middle cranial {fossaare the superior orbital fissure, the foramen rotundum, the foramen ovale, the foramen spinostim, snd the internal opening of the carotid canal (table 7.6). The foramen lacerum (1i-ser'ur), fn the flor of the carotid canal, san artifact ofthe dried skull. In life, is filled with cartilage. ‘The prominent foramen magnum, through which the brain is connected to the spinal cord, isin the posterior fossa. A hypo- slossal canal is located on the anterolateral sis of the foramen, ‘magnum. Jugular (jig'0-lar; throat) foramina lie on each side of the foramen magnum near the base of the petrous portion. An, internal auditory canal is located about midway up the face of each petrous portion (table 7.6) Inferior View of the Skull, ‘Viewed from below with the mandible removed, the base of the skull is comple, with a numberof foramina and specialized surfaces (igure 7.12). The foramen magnum passes through the occipital bone just slightly posterior tothe center ofthe skull base. Occipital condyles, smooth points of articulation between the skull and the vertebral column, lie on the lateral and anterior margins ofthe foramen magnum. ‘The major entry and exit points for blood vessels that supply the brain can be seen from this view. Blood reaches the brain through the intemal carotid arteries, which passthrough the carotid (a-rotid; putto sleep) canals, and the vertebral arteries, which pass through the foramen magnum, An internal carotid artery enters the inferior opening of each carotid canal (ee figure 7.11) and passes through the carotid canal, which runs anteromedially through the temporalbone. A thin pate of bone separates the carotid canal from ‘the middle ear, allowing person to hear his or her own heartbeat — for example, when frightened or after running, Most blood leaves the brain through the internal gular vein, which exit through the jugular foramina located lateral to the occipital condyles. ‘Two long, pointed styloid (stiloyd; stylus- or pen-shaped) processes projec fom the flor ofthe temporal bone (se figures 74 and 7.12). Three muscles involved in moving the tongue, hyoid bbone, and pharynx attach to each process, The mandibular fossa, ‘where the mandible articulates with the rest of the skull, is anterior to the mastoid process atthe base ofthe zygomatic arc FUNDAMENTAL Figure FIGURE 7.11 (APIBY) Floor of the Cranial Cavity Fovamen spinosum carotid canal (framen lacerum is inferir) ‘The roo ofthe sal has been removed, athe Boos sen from superior The names ofthe bones arin bot “The posterior opening ofthe nasal cavity is bounded on each side by the vertical bony plates of the sphenoid bone: the medial pterygoid ((e'i-goyd; wing-shaped) plate and the lateral ptery- sgoid plate. The medial and literal pterygoid muscles, which help ‘move the mandible, attach tothe lateral pate (see chapter 10). The omer forms most of the posterior portion of the nasal septum and can be seen between the medial pterygoid plates in the center of the nasal cavity ‘The hard palate, or bony palate, forms the floor of the nasal cavity. Sutures join four bones to form the hard palate: The palatine processes of the two maxillary bones form the anterior ‘two-thirds ofthe palate, and the horizontal plates of the two pa tune bones form the posterior one-third of the palate. The tissues ‘of the soft palate extend posteriorly from the hard palate. The hard and soft palates separate the nasal cavity from the mouth, enabling ‘humans to chew and breathe atthe same time. Individual Bones of the Skull ‘The skull, or cranium, is composed of 2 separate bones (table 7. see table 7.1). In adaltion, the skull contains six auditory ossic 202 Cleft Lip or Palate uring fetal development, the facial bones sometimes fail to fuse with one another. A cleft lip results ifthe manillae donot form normally, anda cleft palate occurs when the palatine proceses ofthe maaillae donot fuse with one another. A reromion process Caracol process tenis ay \ Inraglencid tubercte Intaspinous ssa Lateral (alr) border (0) Posterior view Spine of seapula Supraspnous. fossa of scapula Super borer. ot seapua, ‘Acromion process ‘ot scaputa Acromil en ctcanicle Coraccid process cot ccapue, Body of clave (2) Superior viow (q Right scapula, arterr view.) ight scapula posterior view. (Right avi, spat view (Photograph of the ght scapula and cai rom asupett view, ‘showing the eloonshp between the col endothe dace nthe aromion process ofthe cop. 224 PART2 Supportand Movement some shoulder and arm muscles. A glenoid (glé‘noyd, glen'oyd) cavity located in the superior lateral portion of the bone, artcu- lates with the head ofthe humerus. “The clavicle (se figures 720, 722, and 723¢) isa long bone with a slight sigmoid (S-shaped) curve Iti easily seen and fl in the living human (sce figure 7.21). The lateral end ofthe clavicle articulates with the acromion process, and its medial end artcu- Jates with the manubrium of the sternum, hese articulations form the only bony connections between the pectoral girdle and the axial skeleton, Because the clavicle holds the upper limb away from the body, it facilitates the limbs mobility. Swab laff he wampotine mer backyard. she wav crying and holding her ight shoulders her ‘mother took hertothe emergency oom Dr Smart

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