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as one unit to regulate and produce desirable

• It is recommended to study Module 1 results.
first because it has a bigger weight
(10%) rather than Module 2 (5%) in the Note: A single system can be interconnected and
Preliminary Examination. linked to another to form interconnected systems
for extended capabilities.
Module I.
Examples of interlinked systems: Mechatronics
INTRODUCTION TO and Robotics, DVD player to audio speaker
INSTRUMENTATION AND
Note: A system can be classified by either single-
METROLOGY input single-output (SISO), multiple-input
multiple-output (MIMO), multiple-input single-
Module Outline: output (MISO), or single-input multiple-output
✓ Introduction to Instrumentation and (SIMO). The first two are the common types of
Process Control systems.
✓ Units and Control Standards
✓ Measurement Systems PROCESS CONTROL
Control System – set of devices that manages, Process Control – is an automated changing of
commands, regulates, and controls the behavior process based on monitored results. It involves
of other devices or systems to obtain a desirable sensing the output of the process and compares it
result. It is a bridge that interacts with inputs to to a value (called set point) and will change
produce desirable outputs and to maintain them process if there is a deviation from this value.
at that level.
PROCESS MANIPULATED CONTROLLED
RANDOM DISTURBANCE VARIABLE CONTROL VARIABLE VARIABLE MEASURING OUTPUT
VARIABLES PROCESS
ELEMENT ELEMENT

MEASURED PROCESS
CONTROL VARIABLE
INPUT VARIABLES OUTPUT VARIABLES ERROR SIGNAL
SYSTEM
CORRECTION SIGNAL
PROCESSOR
MEMORY
CONTROL VARIABLES
SET
POINT
Block Diagram – most efficient way of
representing any system. It is a schematic form
that defines all the main parts of a control system Control Element Parts
– the input variables, the control variables, the
random disturbance variables (if there are any), Actuator with power circuit and supply –
and the output variables, and how they function devices that control an input variable depending
on the value of a signal sent from the controller
(called correction signal). In
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process control, it is usually called the final
control element (FCE).
Types of actuators:
• Pneumatic Valve Actuators – adjusts the
position of the valve by converting air
pressure into rotary motion or linear
motion. Examples are piston and
diaphragm actuators.
• Electric Valve Actuators – an electric
actuator is powered by a motor that
converts electrical energy to mechanical
torque.
• Hydraulic Actuators – consists of a
cylinder or fluid motor that uses hydraulic
power to facilitate mechanical operation.
Measuring Element Parts
Sensors – devices that can detect physical
variables, such as temperature, light intensity,
motion, pressure, which will be used as
processing techniques that can be used for further
applications.
Transducers – devices that converts one form of
energy to another form. Active Transducers do not
need any external source of power for their
operation, also called as self-generating type
transducers. Example includes a piezoelectric
transducer. Passive Transducers need external
source of power for their operation e.g. thyristors.
Transmitters – devices used to amplify and
format signals such that they are suitable for
transmission over long distances with reliability
(e.g. maximum power transfer and minimum
power loss).
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Feedback Element Parts
Converter – are devices that converts a signal to
another format without actually varying its
energy form or frequency response.
Controller – devices that monitor signals from
the measuring element (specifically the
transducer) such that it will adjust and limit the
process’s capabilities according to a predefined
program by controlling and activating the
necessary actuators.
Note: In Process control, Programmable Logic
Controllers (PLCs) are used as feedback
element. PLCs are microprocessor-based,
industrial digital computers used for control of
manufacturing processes (e.g. assembly lines and
robotic devices).
Three types of controllers:
• Discrete Controllers – have only two
modes of operation: on or off. Example is a
home hot water heater. This type of
controller keeps the process variable
within proximity of set point called the
dead zone.
• Multistep Controllers – controllers that
have at least one other possible position in
addition to on and off. They operate
similarly to discrete controllers, but as
setpoint is approached, this controller
takes intermediate steps.
• Continuous Controllers – controllers
that automatically compare the value of
the PV to the SP to determine if an error
exist. (see PV and SP definition below).
Tuning parameters in continuous controllers:
• How much correction must be made –
Proportional mode of controller
 ECE-ELEC3 – INSTRUMENTATION
• How long should the correction be applied
– Integral mode of controller
• How fast should the correction be applied
– Derivative mode of controller
Control Strategies:
• Feedback Control
❖ Single-loop feedback
• Overcoming disturbances
❖ Cascade
❖ FeedForward
❖ Ratio
• Constraints
❖ Split-Range, Override/Select
Control
• Multivariable
❖ Multi-loop
❖ Decoupling
❖ Multivariable control
Multivariable Loops – are control loops in which
a primary controller controls one process
variable by sending signals to a controller of a
different loop that impacts the process variable of
the primary loop.
Feedforward Control – is a control system that
anticipates load disturbances and controls them
before they can impact the process variable. The
user must have a mathematical understanding of
how the manipulated variables will impact the
process variable.
Signaling Elements and Definitions
Set Point (SP) – is the desired or target value in a
closed loop system for a process in a system.
Measured Process Variable (MPV)– is the
output of the sensor which will be compared to
the set point to produce an error signal.
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Error Signal – is the output of the measuring
element which is the difference between the
measured process variable and the set point. A
value close to zero would pertain to the desired
output.
𝑒(𝑡) = 𝑆𝑃 − 𝑀𝑃𝑉
Correction Signal – is the output of the controller
which drives the actuator to set the level of the
input variable to produce an input to the process
according to its value. Also called controller
output.
Manipulated Variable – is a signal that serves as
input to the process that varies accordingly to the
correction signal from the controller to the
actuator.
Controlled Variable – is the signal that serves as
output of the process which is being monitored by
the sensor.
Disturbances - are unwanted signals that tend to
mix with the measured variable which may come
externally or from internal circuitry.
Control Objective – the objective function that
needs to be controlled during the process.
Two controller design factors:
1. Be able to identify a process variable, be
able to measure it through a measuring
element, and be able to transmit this
measurement to the designed controller.
2. Has a final control element (FCE) to
receive the controller output, and this FCE
can react such that it can set the level of the
process variable depending on the
controller output to produce a consistent
process variable response.
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Sample Problems manual mode (manual adjustment

1. A block diagram of a home heating system by the driver) to automatic mode
is shown below. Determine the following: (adjustments are done by the
control objective, process variable, controller).
measurement sensor, measured • The adjustments are through the
process variable, set point, controller speed of the car; the controller
output or correction signal, final computes and sends a correction
control element, manipulated variable, signal every time to the gas pedal.
and disturbance signal. • A small magnet is attached to the
rotating output shaft of the car and
a magnetic field detector to the
HEAT LOSS
FROM HOME
SIGNAL TO FURNACE
VALVE
MANIPULATED FUEL
FLOW TO FURNACE body of the car above the magnet.
DESIRED HOUSE This is used instead of measuring
TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE ERROR SIGNAL THERMOSTAT
CONTROLLER
SOLENOID
VALVE
HOME HEATING
PROCESS
car speed directly because it is
inexpensive and can be measured
THERMISTOR
reliably.
OUTPUT
(TEMPERATURE)
• For each rotation, the magnet
passes by the detector and the
THERMISTOR event is registered by the circuitry
as “click”. As the drive shaft spins
faster or slower, the click rate and
car speed proportionally increases
or decreases.
Control Objective: Maintain house temperature
despite heat loss. HILLS, WINDS,
Process Variable: House temperature SIGNAL TO GAS MANIPULATED GAS
CURVES

Measurement Sensor: Thermistor PEDAL FLOW RATE

Measured Process Variable: Thermistor output CAR SPEED CRUISE CAR SPEED
Set Point: Desired temperature ERROR SIGNAL CRUISE
CONTROLLER
GAS
PEDAL
CONTROL
Controller Output: Signal to furnace valve PROCESS

Final Control Element: Solenoid Valve

CLICK RATE OF THE
Manipulated Variable: Fuel flow to furnace MAGNET AND
Disturbance: Heat loss from home DETECTOR

MAGNET AND
2. Show the block diagram of a cruise control DETECTOR

system in a car with the following

specifications:
• The control system is enabled by
pressing a launch button at the car
control panel.
• At desired cruising speed, a second
button switches the controller from

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PROCESS FACILITY CONSIDERATIONS 3. Data Presentation – this element presents

1. Electrical supply – required for all control
systems and must meet all standards at the
plant. This includes uninterruptable
power supply (UPS) installation, isolating
transformer to prevent electromagnetic
interference (EMI), and proper grounding
of equipment.
2. Air supply – required to drive pneumatic
actuators in some facilities. This includes
dirt, moisture, oil free air.
3. Water supply – required in many cleaning
and cooling operations, for steam
generation.
4. Installation and Maintenance – must be
considered when locating instruments,
valves and so on.
5. Safety – top priority in all facilities.
MEASURING
INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEMS
Measuring systems - instrumentation systems
that provide users a numerical value
corresponding to the variable being measured.
Elements of a measuring instrument system
the measured value in a form that enables
the user to recognize it. Examples are
needle pointers (analog), visual display
unit (digital), and chart recorders.
Performance Specifications of
Instrumentation and Process Systems
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS – are performance
characteristics after the system has stabilized for
a period of time. These are specifications used in
steady-state response analysis.
Accuracy – It is a measure of how much the
measured value deviates from the true value, or
how close it is to the actual measurement value. It
is often expressed as a percentage of the full range
output or full scale deflection (FSD).
𝑀𝑉
%𝐹𝑆𝐷 = ± 𝑥100
𝑆𝑃𝐴𝑁
where MV = calibrated measured value
and SPAN is the difference between the highest
and lowest possible readings a measuring device
can read.

1. Sensor – discussed earlier.

2. Signal Processor – this element takes the
output from the sensor and converts it to
into a form suitable for display or onward
transmission for further processing
(called signal conditioner). Examples of
signal processors are filters, operational
amplifiers and so on. Examples of signal
conditioners includes Wheatstone Bridge
that converts resistance change to voltage
change such that the voltage change can be
amplified.

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quantity being measured according to

whether that value has been reached by a
continuously increasing or decreasing
change.
• Non-linearity error – arises due to
assumption of linear relationship for a set
of measured values.
o Linearity – is the measure of the
proportionality between the actual
Lowest
Accuracy value and the output over its
operating range.

Highest Accuracy

Sample Problem:
1. A thermometer has a maximum and
minimum reading of 120o F and -20o F,
respectively. A reading of 49o F was
obtained from one test measure. The NIST
calibration standard is 50o F. Determine HYSTERESIS
the FSD percentage accuracy. ERROR

(50𝑜 𝐹 − 49𝑜 𝐹)
%𝐹𝑆𝐷𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = ± 𝑥100
120𝑜 𝐹 − (−20𝑜 𝐹)

%𝐹𝑆𝐷𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = ±0.71%

• Reading Accuracy – Accuracy taken as a

percentage.
• Absolute Accuracy – Accuracy taken as a
value/number.
NON-LINEARITY
• Error pertains to the difference between ERROR
the true value and the experimental value.

𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝐴𝑉 − 𝑇𝑉

Errors in Instrumentation Systems

• Hysteresis Error – used for the difference

in outputs given from the same value of

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• Insertion Error – error that is a below, where a range from 0 to 2 is

consequence of loading effects. Loading considered as a dead space.
happens when attempting to measure a • Resolution – smallest change in variable
variable and this process modifies and in which the measuring system will
changes the variable being measured. respond.
Thus the term insertion is coined because
inserting/adding a measuring device
tends to change the true value of the
measurement.

R= 4 ohms
12V ITV= 3A

RA = 1 ohm
A
R = 4 ohms
12V IEV= 2.4A (Insertion Error)

Note: Always choose ammeters with lower
internal resistances. Conversely, choose
voltmeters with higher internal resistances such
that there’s a minimum addition of resistances.
This way, measurements are still accurate.
Range – limits of a measuring device from where
it can measure and vary. It is also the highest and
lowest readings a measuring system can
accommodate. Span refers to the difference of the
highest and lowest readings of a measuring
system.
Example: Range: -50 psi to 100 psi
Span: 150 psi
• Dead Band or Dead Space – refers to the
range of inputs that have no outputs. This
happens for measuring devices that needs
to reach a certain threshold before it can
measure a variable. Example shown
DEAD
SPACE
Precision – is the degree of freedom of a
measuring system from random errors. High
precision means values are close to each other,
while low precision means values are scattered
throughout. For the example below, data 2 is
more precise than data 1.
Note: A high precision value does not
automatically mean a high accuracy value.
• Repeatability – ability of measuring
system to give same values for repeated
measurements of the same input.
• Reproducibility – same as repeatability,
but with the extent of having certain parts
of the system altered or reinstalled.
Sensitivity – refers to how much the output
changes when the quantity being measured

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changes by a relative amount. Sensitivity of a the time that given value settles down to the
series of inputs and outputs are calculated by steady-state threshold. These are specifications
determining their slope. used in transient response analysis.

SETTLING TIME

RISE TIME

PEAK TIME

Sample Problem
1. Determine the sensitivity of the measuring Response Time – time taken for the system,
instrument readings below. when subjected to a change in input signal, to
change its state by a specific percentage of its total
Load (kg) 0 2 4 6 response to that change (usually 95%).
Deflection 0 18 36 54
(mm) Rise Time – time taken for the system to change
from a specific percentage of the total transient
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 18 − 0 response (usually 10%) to a specific percentage
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = of the steady state output (usually 90%).
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 2−0

𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 9 𝑚𝑚/𝑘𝑔 Settling Time – time taken for the system to

Stability – the ability to give the same output
when used to measure a constant input over a
period of time.
• Drift – change in output over a period of
time.
• Zero Drift – changes in output when
there’s no presence of input. Offset
pertains to the reading of an instrument
with zero input.
settle to a specific percentage of the steady state
value (usually 2% or 5%).
For other terms involving the time response
analysis of control systems, recall concepts in
ECE511 – Feedback and Control Systems.
Reliability – defined as the probability of the
system to operate at an agreed level of
performance.

Note: The reliability of a control system is likely to

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS – behavior of a
change with time.
system between the time the input changes and

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• Probability – the likelihood of something

to happen. High probability would mean a NATIONAL STANDARDS
low failure rate. Failure Rate corresponds
to the probability of a system to fail the CALIBRATION CENTRE
specific required performance. STANDARDS

# 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 INSTRUMENT

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 # 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 MANUFACTURERS

𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 IN-COMPANY

# 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠 STANDARDS
=
# 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑥 # 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑
PROCESS
Requirement of a measurement system: fitness INSTRUMENTS
for purpose.
Safety Procedures in Design of
Calibration of Measurement Systems Measurement Systems
Calibration – process of comparing the output of Employers:
a measurement system against standards of • Ensure the process plant is operated in a
known accuracy. safe way.
• Provide a monitoring and shutdown
Classification Standard Unit system for processes that might result to
Primary Mass Kilogram hazardous conditions.
(kg)
Length Meter (m) Employees:
Time Second (s) • Must take reasonable care for themselves
Temperature Kelvin (K) and other employees
Current Ampere (A) • Prevention of damaging or misuse of
Luminous Candela (cd) measuring equipment
Intensity
Amount of Mole (mol) Design of measuring systems:
Substance • Failure of a single component in a system
Supplementary Plane Angle Radians should not create a disastrous situation.
(rad) • Foreseeable modes of failure should be
Solid Angle Steradian considered for fail-safe designs.
(sr) • Systems should be easily checked and
readily understood.
The calibration of an instrument is likely to be
traceable back to National Standards in the
following way:

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Module II. degrees or radians. Arc-minute is an

INTRODUCTION TO SENSOR angular displacement of 1/60 of a degree.
• Angular Motion – measure of the rate of
TECHNOLOGY, MECHATRONICS, rotation.
AND ROBOTICS • Vibration – measure of a periodic motion
about a fixed reference point or the
shaking that can occur in processes.
Module Outline:
✓ Pressure Sensors Examples of Displacement Sensors:
✓ Displacement Sensors • Potentiometer – Is a variable resistor that
✓ Level Sensors has a sliding contact (or rotating contact)
✓ Temperature Sensors that increases resistance as an increase in
✓ Flow Sensors length of the contact.
✓ Control Valves • Strain-Gauged Element – consist of a
✓ metal foil strip, flat length of metal wire, or
Displacement Sensors a strip of semiconductor material that can
• Can be used to measure a change in be attached to surfaces like wall panels. An
linear position or speed. increase in length causes an increase in
• Can be used to measure change in resistance, and same goes to a decrease in
angular position. length.
• Can detect motion.
• Can detect presence of nearby objects i.e.
proximity.

Has two groups – direct contact or non-contact

with objects being monitored.

Parameters in Displacement Sensors:

• Absolute Position – measured
displacement with respect to a reference A strain gauge (Image taken from Google).
point.
∆𝑅
• Incremental Position – measured = 𝐺𝜀
displacement without respect to a 𝑅
reference point.
Where the left side is the fractional
• Rectilinear Motion – measured by the
resistance, and the right side are the gauge
distance traversed in a given time. Velocity
factor (proportionality constant) and the
or speed are measures of a rate of change
strain.
of position. Acceleration is the rate of
change of speed or velocity.
• Capacitive Displacement Sensor – a
• Angular Position – measurement of a
sensor in a way that it detects linear
change in position about a fixed axis in
displacement by a change in the distance

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between plates, area change, and varying
relative permittivity. This can be
visualized by the formula below:
𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
Push-pull displacement sensor – an example of a
capacitive sensor (Image taken from Google).
• Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT) – a transformer
with a primary coil and two secondary
coils. The primary coils and secondary
coils are separated by a magnetic core that
depicts the displacement being measured.
Increasing the displacement from the
central position of the magnetic would
induce a higher displacement.
• Optical Encoders – device that produces
a digital output for any linear or angular
displacement. Has two types - change in velocity of a known mass.
incremental encoder (analog display for
angular displacement) and absolute
encoder (analog display of binary
numbers of several digits to represent
output).
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ENGINEERING
An 8-bit absolute encoder. (Image taken from
Google).
• Light interference lasers – used for very
accurate incremental position
measurements. Example includes the
Moire Fringes - these are produced when
light passes through two gratings which
have rulings inclined at a slight angle to
each other.
• Hall Effect Sensors – detects changes in
magnetic field strength and are used as a
close proximity sensor. Its typical signal
processing capabilities are voltage
changes. Magneto Resistive Element (MRE)
are Hall effect sensors that changes
resistance for a change in magnetic field
strength.
• Accelerometers – senses speed changes
by measuring the force produced by the
❖ Tachogenerator – consists of a coil
mounted in magnetic field. The size
of the alternating EMF is the
measured angular speed, wherein
the alternating EMF is produced by
rotation of the coil.
❖ The incremental encoder discussed
earlier can be used as a speed
sensor.
• Vibration Sensors – uses acceleration
devices to measure vibration e.g.
Micromachine Accelerometer.
 ECE-ELEC3 – INSTRUMENTATION
• Optical Proximity Sensors – detects
motion by sensing the presence or absence
of light.
Types:
❖ Photoelectric switches – can be
transmissive (detected object
breaks a beam of light), or reflective
(detected object reflects a beam of
light to detector).
▪ Emitter can be a Light-
Emitting Diode (LED).
Detector can be a Darlington
pair (phototransistor that
increases sensitivity).
❖ Photodiode – Light striking the
diode can result to switching
(either high or low) of the outputs.
❖ Photoconductive Cell – Resistance
reading of this cell depends on the
light intensity applied to it.
❖ Pyroelectric sensor – A sensor that
produces a voltage signal when
there are changes in the infrared
radiation emitted. This is used for
home-alarm systems for burglar
sensing.
• Switch Sensors
❖ Mechanical Switches
▪ Limit Switches – a switch
preventing the travel of an
object in a mechanism past a
predetermined point.
▪ Reed Switches – a non-
contact switch sensor that
consist of two overlapping,
but non-touching, strips of a
spring magnetic material
sealed in glass or plastic
envelope.
❖ Proximity Switch
▪ Capacitive Proximity Switch
– can be used with metallic
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and non-metallic objects.
The proximity of the object
is determined by a change in
capacitance due to
separation between the two
plates.
Pressure Sensors
• Can be used to measure and detect
pressure, specifically air pressure.
Parameters used in pressure sensors:
• Density, 𝝆 – defined as the mass per unit
volume.
• Specific Weight, 𝜸 – weight per unit
volume of a material.
• Specific Gravity – a dimensionless value
since it is a ratio of two measurements in
the same unit. It is the density of a material
divided by the density of water, or the
specific weight of a material divided by the
specific weight of water at a specified
temperature.
• Static Pressure, 𝑷𝒔 - is the pressure of
fluids or gases that are static or not
moving.
• Dynamic Pressure, 𝑷𝒅 – is the pressure
of fluid or gases that are in motion.
• Impact Pressure or Total Pressure, 𝑷𝒕 –
is the sum of the static and dynamic
pressure on a surface or object.
• Total Vacuum or Zero Pressure –
experienced in outer space.
• Atmospheric Pressure – pressure of
Earth’s surface. Value is fixed at 14.7 psi or
101.36 kPa.
• Vacuum – pressure measurement
between total vacuum and normal
atmospheric pressure.
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• Absolute Pressure – pressure with • Psi (relative to atmosphere) = psia

respect to a vacuum. Unit is in pressure per (relative to vacuum) – atmospheric
square inch absolute (psia). pressure
• Gauge Pressure – pressure with respect
to atmospheric pressure. Unit is in Pressure Formulas:
pressure per square inch gauge (psig). Hydrostatic Pressure – pressure in a liquid and
• Differential Pressure – difference is denoted by the formula:
between two measured pressures. Express
as delta P or ∆𝑃. 𝜌 = 𝛾ℎ

Measuring units in pressure: Where p is the pressure (psi or pascals), 𝛾 is the

• Pounds per square foot (psf) or pounds specific weight (pound per cubic feet or newton
per square inch (psi) per cubic meter), and h is the distance from the
• Atmospheres (atm) surface.
• Pascals or kilopascals
• Torr Hydrostatic Paradox – states that the pressure
• Bar at a given depth in a liquid is independent of the
• Head (sometimes used as pressure shape of its container.
measurement). It is the pressure in terms
of a column of a particular fluid. Buoyancy – is the upward force exerted by an
object immersed in liquid. It follows the
Pressure Conversion using Ball Parking: Archimedes’ principle.
• 1 psi = 7 kPa
𝐵 = 𝛾𝑉
• 1 inch Hg = 0.5 psi
• 100 inch H20 = 3.5 psi
Where B = buoyant force (lb), 𝛾 = specific weight
• 1 bar = 1 atm = 14.7 psi
(lb/cubic feet), and V = volume of the displaced
liquid (cubic feet).
Pressure Conversion using Accurate
Measurement:
Pascal’s Law – states that the pressure applied to
• 1 psi = 6.89 kPa an enclosed liquid or gas is transmitted to all parts
• 1 inch Hg = 0.49 psi of the fluid and to the walls of the container.
• 100 inch H20 = 3.61 psi
• 1 bar = 14.5 psi = 100 kPa 𝐴𝐿 𝐹𝑆
𝐹𝐿 =
𝐴𝑆
Other conversion factors:
• Psig = psi + atmospheric pressure Where 𝐹𝐿 = force exerted on large piston, 𝐹𝑆 =
• Psig = psia = psi (if measuring differential force exerted on small piston, 𝐴𝐿 = area of large
pressure) piston, and 𝐴𝑆 = area of small piston.
• Psia (relative to vacuum) = psig (relative to
atmosphere) + atmospheric pressure

GENESIS MARR N. PRINCIPE

NECES ACADEMICS COMMITTEE 17-18
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Examples of pressure sensors:

• Gauges – major group of pressure sensors
that measures pressure with respect to
atmospheric pressure.
• Diaphragm Sensors – consists of a thin
layer or film of a material supported on a
rigid frame. Pressure is applied to one side
of this film for gauge sensing.
Bellows for measurement and control (Image taken
❖ Silicon Diaphragm – uses a silicon from Google).
semiconductor.
• Capsules - two diaphragms joined back to • Bourdon Tubes – hollow, cross-sectional
back. Pressure is applied to the space beryllium shaped into a three quarter
between the diaphragms, forcing them to circle. Examples include: C-shaped
be apart to measure gauge pressure. Bourdon tube and the helican Bourdon
tube.

A static pressure capsule (Image taken from

Google).
• Bellows – similar to capsules, but the
diaphragms are separated by a corrugated
tube. They can be used as direct measuring
or as a pressure transducer along with the
LVDT.
A C-shaped bourdon tube (Image taken from
Google).
• Barometers – used to measure
atmospheric pressure (no longer used
today).

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NECES ACADEMICS COMMITTEE 17-18
 ECE-ELEC3 – INSTRUMENTATION
• Manometers – good examples of pressure
measuring instruments but are now rare
to find because of new inventions.
❖ U-tube manometer – consists of U-
shaped glass tubes partially filled
with water.
❖ Inclined manometer – manometers
used to measure low pressures.
❖ Well manometer – alternatives to
inclined manometers.
• Piezoelectric Pressure Gauge – produces
a voltage between their opposite faces
when a force or pressure is applied to the
crystal, which is called the piezoelectric
effect. A diaphragm is used to apply
pressure to the crystal.
• Vacuum Instruments – used to measure
pressure below atmospheric pressure.
❖ Pirani Gauge – special setups using
thermocouples can measure down
to about 5 torr.
❖ Ionization Gauges – can be used to
measure down pressure to about 2
torr.
❖ McLead Gauge – is a device to
measure very low pressure, from 1
to 50 torr.
Level Sensors
• Can be used to measure and detect level of
liquids and free flowing solids in
containers.
Level Formulas:
Pressure – in level sensing, pressure is an
indirect measure of liquid levels. Increasing
depth increases the pressure.
∆𝑝 = 𝛾∆ℎ
GENESIS MARR N. PRINCIPE
NECES ACADEMICS COMMITTEE 17-18
ENGINEERING
Where ∆𝑝 = pressure change, ∆ℎ = depth, and 𝛾 =
specific weight.
Buoyancy – another indirect measure of liquid
levels. As discussed earlier in the pressure
sensors, it is the upward force exerted by an
object immersed in a liquid. From this formula
𝐵 = 𝛾𝑉 = 𝐵 = 𝛾 𝑥 𝑑 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
The level can be calculated by using the weight of
a body in a liquid, 𝑊𝐿 (equal to its weight on air,
𝑊𝐴 , minus the buoyant force B). Substituting this
formula to the Buoyant force formula will net the
level (depth):
𝑊𝐿 − 𝑊𝐴
𝑑=
𝛾 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
Level can be also calculated using the volume of a
specific container.
𝑊 = 𝛾𝑉
Thus for a cylindrical container, the level (depth)
can be calculated as:
𝑊
𝑑=
𝛾𝜋𝑟 2
Examples of Level Sensors:
• Direct Sensing – directly measures the
level of the liquid.
• Sight Glass – simplest method for
direct visual reading. It is mounted
vertically adjacent to the container.
• Floats (angular arms or pulleys) –
can be a simple float with level
indicator outside the tank or can be
an angular arm float.
• Radionic Gauges – uses gamma
radiation from a radioactive source
as a level indicator.
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• Displacer – uses the change in the (𝐶𝑑 − 𝐶𝐴 )

𝑑= 𝑟
buoyant force of an object to 𝜇𝐶𝐴
measure level of a liquid. The
buoyant force on a cylindrical
displacer is given by

𝛾𝜋𝑑 2 𝐿
𝐹=
4

Where d = float diameter and L =

length of the displacer submerged
in liquid.
The weight sensed by the force
sensor is calculated as:
A capacitive probe. (Image taken from Google).
𝑊𝐹𝑆 = 𝑊𝐷 − 𝐹 Where 𝐶𝑑 = capacitance of
the probes, 𝐶𝐴 = capacitance
without liquid, mew is the
dielectric constant
separating both plates, and r
is the height of the plates.
❖ Conductive Probes – used
for single-point
measurements in liquids
that are conductive and
nonvolatile as a spark can
occur.
❖ Ultrasonics – combines the
A displacer sensor. (Image taken from Google). features of a conductive and
capacitive probe: it can be
• Probes – can be conductive, used for either single-point
capacitive, or ultrasonic. measurement or continuous
❖ Capacitive Probes – can be monitoring measurement.
used in nonconductive • Indirect Sensing – uses pressure
liquids and free flowing to monitor level of the liquid.
solids (continuous ❖ As discussed back in the
monitoring) for level pressure sensors section,
measurements. the pressure at the bottom
of a container can be used to
𝑑 calculate the depth(height)
𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶𝐴 𝜇 + 𝐶𝐴
𝑟 of the fluid. 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ

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NECES ACADEMICS COMMITTEE 17-18
 ECE-ELEC3 – INSTRUMENTATION
❖ Bubbler devices – requires a
supply of clean air or inert
gas.
Level sensing using the bubbler method. (Image
taken from Google).
❖ Radiation method – the flow pattern of a fluid and it is denoted by
sometimes used in cases
where liquid is corrosive,
very hot, or detrimental to
installing sensors.
❖ Resistive Tapes – resistive
element placed in close
proximity to a conductive
strip in an easily
compressible
nonconductive sheath.
❖ Load Cells – used to
measure the weight of a
tank and its contents.
❖ Paddle Wheels – driven by
electric motors can be used
for sensing the level of
solids in the form of power,
grains, or granules.
GENESIS MARR N. PRINCIPE
NECES ACADEMICS COMMITTEE 17-18
ENGINEERING
Flow Sensors
• Can be used to measure and detect flow
capacity of a liquid in an enclosed medium.
Parameters in flow sensors:
Laminar Flow – average velocity of a liquid is
very low; fluid particles tend to have a smooth
flow and pace.
Turbulent Flow – average velocity of a liquid is
high; fluid particles flow smoothly in layers on a
rolling effect.
Viscosity – property of a gas or solid that is a
measure of its resistance to motion or flow.
Reynold’s Number – derived relationship
combining the density and viscosity of a liquid
with its velocity of flow and the cross-sectional
dimensions of the flow. This is used to determine
𝑉𝐷𝜌
𝑅=
𝜇
Where V = average fluid velocity, D = diameter of
pipe, rho is the density of the liquid, and mew is
the absolute viscosity.
𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 ≤ 2000
{𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟, 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑥 2000 < 𝑅 < 5000
𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 > 5000
Energy Factors – suggests that flow equations
are based on the law of conservation of energy. An
example is the Bernoulli equation which states
that the total energy in a given point is equal to
the total energy in all other points in the flow. And
thus, the energy is held constant all throughout.
Flow Rate – volume of a fluid passing a given
point in a given amount of time.
Total Flow – volume of a fluid flowing over a
period of time.
 ECE-ELEC3 – INSTRUMENTATION
Flow Formulas:
• Continuity Equation – states that if the
overall flow rate in a system is not
changing with time, the flow rate is held
constant at any point of the system.
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴
Where Q = flow rate, V = average velocity,
A = cross-sectional area of the pipe
For sectional pipes with different areas,
the continuity equation is
𝑄 = 𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2
• Mass Flow Rate – related to volume flow
rate, Q, by the formula 𝐹 = 𝜌𝑄, where F =
mass of liquid flowing, and rho is the
density of the fluid. Since a gas is
compressible, continuity equation can be
modified to
𝛾1 𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝛾2 𝑉2 𝐴2
Flow Losses
• Outlet Losses:𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝑜𝑢𝑡 , where 𝐶𝑑
is the discharge coefficient (see flow data
handbook).
• Frictional Losses – losses due to friction
between fluid and restraining walls of
container.
𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝐿 =
2𝐷𝑔
Where hl = head losses, f = friction factor
(depends from Reynold’s Number), L = length of
pipe, V = average fluid velocity, D = diameter of
pipe, and g = gravitational constant.
• Fitting Losses – losses due to coupling
and fittings.
GENESIS MARR N. PRINCIPE
NECES ACADEMICS COMMITTEE 17-18
ENGINEERING
𝐾𝑉 2
ℎ𝐿 =
2𝑔
Where K is the loss coefficient (found in
handbooks).
• Form Drag – impact force exerted on
devices protruding into a pipe due to fluid
flow.
𝐴𝑉 2
𝐹 = 𝐶𝐷 𝛾
2𝑔
𝐶𝐷 = 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
Examples of Flow Sensors:
Flow Rate Measurements
• Orifice Plate – a simple metal diaphragm
with a constricting hole. The effect of
introducing it is to constrict the flow to the
orifice opening and the flow channel to an
even narrower region of the orifice.
• Venture Tube – has a gradual tapering of
the pipe from the full diameter to the
constricted diameter. It’s advantage over
the orifice plate is its ability to handle large
amounts of suspended solids.
• Flow Nozzle – Two types: Venturi nozzle –
is effectively a venturi tube with an inlet
which is considerably shortened, and a
standard nozzle which is a shorter version
of the Venturi nozzle.
• Dall Tube – is another variation of the
venturi tube that gives a higher differential
pressure and a low pressure drop. It is not
used with slurries (semiliquid mixture e.g.
cement).
• Elbow – can be used for differential
pressure measurement.
• Pilot Static Tube – an alternative method
of measuring flow rate, but has some
disadvantages in measuring flow, in that it
really measures the fluid velocity at the
nozzle.
 ECE-ELEC3 – INSTRUMENTATION
• Rotameter – a variable-area meter used
as a direct visual indicator for flow rate
measurements. It is a vertical tapered tube
with a T shaped weight.
A glass tube rotameter (Image taken from Google).
• Turbine Flow Meter – a rotating flow rate
device that has a multi-bladed motor
mounted in the center of the pipe and
rotates at a speed proportional to the rate
of flow of the fluid or gas passing over the
blades.
• Moving Vane – can be used to measure
open channel flow.
A moving iron vane meter (Image taken from
Google).
GENESIS MARR N. PRINCIPE
NECES ACADEMICS COMMITTEE 17-18
ENGINEERING
• Electromagnetic Flow Meter – used for
measurements involving conductive
liquid.
• Vortex Flow Meter – used for fluids
causing a rotating or swirling motion that
results into vortices.
• Coriolis Flow Meter – a C-shaped pipe
through which fluid can flow; together
produces an angular acceleration by being
set into vibration.
• Pressure Flow Meter – uses a strain
gauge to measure the force on an object
placed in a fluid or gas flow.
A Dall Tube (Image taken from Google).
Mass Flow Measurements
• Anemometer
Dry Particular Flow Rate
• Can be measured as the particulate are
being carried on a conveyor belt with the
use of a load cell. Flow rate is given by 𝑄 =
𝑊𝑅
where W = weight of material on length
𝐿
of the weighing platform, L = length of the
weighing platform, R = speed of the
conveyor belt.
Open Channel Flow Measurement
• open channel flow occurs when the fluid
flowing is not contained in a pipe, but
rather in an open channel.
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• Parshall Flume and Weir – similar to a

Venturi tube and orifice plate,
respectively, to measure open channel
flow.

Temperature Sensors
• Can be used to measure and detect
temperature of any device.
Thermopile sensors (Image taken from Google).
Examples of Temperature Sensors:
• Thermometer – Consists of a small bore • Optical Pyrometer – also called a
graduated glass tube with a small bulb disappearing filament pyrometer, device
containing a reservoir of mercury. The used to measure temperature by sensing
height to which the liquid expands is the the heat radiated from a hot body through
measure of temperature. a fixed lens that focuses the heat energy on
• Bimetallic Strips – is constructed by to a thermopile.
bonding two metals with different
coefficients of thermal expansion.
• Resistance Temperature Detectors
(RTD) – are simple resistive elements in
the form of coils of metal wire. They can be
also a metal film deposited on a former.
𝑅 −𝑅
❖ 𝛼 = 𝑅100𝑥1000 , where alpha is the
0 An optical pyrometer (Image taken from Google).
slope of the RTD’s resistance curve.
• Thermocouples – formed when two Control Valves
dissimilar metals are joined together to
form a junction. The potential difference Pneumatic and hydraulic systems use control
between these metals is the temperature valves as actuators to give direction to the flow of
measurement. fluid through a system, control its pressure and
• Thermistors – semiconductor control the rate of flow.
temperature sensors made from mixtures Types of valve include: Directional Control
of metal oxides. Valves, Pressure Control Valves, and Flow
• Thermopile – a number of thermocouples Control Valves.
connected in series, to increase sensitivity
and accuracy by increasing the output Directional Control Valves – widely used in
voltage when measuring low temperature control systems as elements for switching on and
differences. off hydraulic or pneumatic pressures. Specifically,
it stops or starts the flow of fluid in some part of a
pneumatic/hydraulic circuit.

GENESIS MARR N. PRINCIPE

NECES ACADEMICS COMMITTEE 17-18
 ECE-ELEC3 – INSTRUMENTATION
ENGINEERING

Shuttle or Spool Valves – valves that has a spool
moving horizontally within the valve’s body.
Raised areas, termed lands, block or open ports to
give required valve operation.
Guides in reading control valve schematic
symbols:
Example: Derive the operation of the following
directional control valve schematic symbol.
ports attached to it. Usually, the second
box is the area of no operating condition.
• Read initial conditions of unoperating box.
For the example given, there is no initial
flow from 1 to 2.
• Read remaining box operations. For the
given example, if the valve is switched to
position 1, there will a flow from 1 to 2.

• Valve actuation methods should be also

taken into consideration. For the given
example, there are no actuation symbol
and thus it is a manually operated valve.

• Number of boxes – specifies the number of

valve operating positions. Thus for the
example given, the number of operating
positions is 2.
• P or 1 indicates pressure supply ports, R
(or 5) and S (or 3) are the exhaust ports,
and A (or 4) and B (or 2) are the signal
output ports.
• Depict elements presented, as shown
below. Thus for the given example, there
are 2 ports, thus the given control valve is Example: Explain the operation of the following
a 2-input 2-position control valve, or 2/2 valve system.
valve.

• There must be a box that has no operating

conditions, e.g. a box that has all inputs

GENESIS MARR N. PRINCIPE

NECES ACADEMICS COMMITTEE 17-18
 ECE-ELEC3 – INSTRUMENTATION
ENGINEERING

Type: 3/2 solenoid-activated valve with return

spring

Initially when the solenoid circuit is open (off

switch) there’s a flow from 2 to 3, and 1 is closed.
Once the switch at solenoid circuit is closed, there
will be a flow from 1 to 2, and 3 is closed.

Flow Control Valves – valves used to control

flow using pneumatic action to move a valve and
stem and hence a plug or plugs into the flow path.
The plugs alter the size of the gap through which
fluid can flow. Valves having 1 plug are termed
single seated, while valves having 2 plus are
termed double seated.

Positioners – instruments that help improve

control by accurately positioning a control valve
actuator in response to a control signal. They
receive an input signal either pneumatically or
electrically and provide output power to an • Linear Plug – the change in flow rate is
actuator. proportional to the change in valve stem
displacement. Using ratio and proportion:
Other types of Flow Control Valve Bodies:
𝑄 𝑆
• Globe =
• Ball 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥
• Butterfly
Where Q and S are flow rates at a specific stem
• Diaphragm
displacement, respectively, and 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 and
• Gate
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 are the maximum flow rate and maximum
stem displacement, respectively.
Plug types:
• Quick-opening Plug – a large change in
flow rate occurs for small movement of the
valve system.

GENESIS MARR N. PRINCIPE

NECES ACADEMICS COMMITTEE 17-18
 ECE-ELEC3 – INSTRUMENTATION
ENGINEERING

• Equal Percentage Plug – the amount by

which the flow rate changes is
proportional to the value of the flow rate
when the change occurs.
𝑆
𝑄 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥
=( ) References:
𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛
Fundamentals of Industrial Instrumentation and
Rangeability – ratio of the maximum to Process Control by William C. Dunn (Chapter 1)
minimum rates of controlled flow. Valves are
often not required to handle the maximum Instrumentation and Control Systems by William
possible flow and term turndown is used: Bolton (Chapter 1).
𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 =
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

Control Valve Sizing – used for the procedure of

determining correct size, i.e. diameter, of the
valve body.

∆𝜌 𝑚3
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 √
𝜌 𝑠

∆𝜌 𝑚3
𝑄 = 2.37𝑥10−5 𝐶𝑉 √
𝜌 𝑠

∆𝜌 𝑚3
𝑄 = 0.75𝑥10−6 𝐶𝑉 √
𝐺 𝑠

Where G = specific gravity, 𝐴𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑉 = valve flow

coefficient.
The valve size can now be determined by using
this table:

GENESIS MARR N. PRINCIPE

NECES ACADEMICS COMMITTEE 17-18