Electronics Engineering 1

Prepared by: Armando V. Barretto

 References
• Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory by Boylestad and Nashelsky
• Principles of Electronic Devices by William D. Stanley
• Electronic Principles and Applications by A. B. Bhattacharya
• Electronic Circuit Analysis and Design by Donald A. Neamen
• Electronics Made Simple by Henry Jacobowitz
• Teach Yourself Electricity and Electronics by Stan Gibilisco
• Electron Devices by Bakshi and Godse
• Electronic devices and circuits: principles and applications by Deshpande
• Integrated Electronics by Millman and Halkias

Grading System

Final Grade = (Q1+Q2+Q3+Q4+2FE+2PE)/8

Passing Grade=>60
 Course Outline
• Atomic Structure and Electron Emission
• Vacuum tubes
• Semiconductor Materials
• Semiconductor Diode
• Semiconductor Diode Circuit Analysis
• Rectifiers Using Semiconductor Diodes
• Clippers
• Resistor- Capacitor (RC) Networks
• Clampers
• Voltage Multiplier Circuits
• Zener Diode Applications
• Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
• Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) DC Biasing
• Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Bias Stabilization
• Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Amplifier Basic Design
• Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Small AC signal Analysis
– Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Hybrid Equivalent Model
 Course Outline
– Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Hybrid  Model
– Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Z Parameter and Y Parameter Models
 Atomic Structure And
Electron Emission
Prepared by: Armando V. Barretto
 Brief History
• 1802 – John Dalton performed experiments that showed that matters consist of
elementary particles, and he suggested that all matters could be broken down into
elements which is composed of particles he called atoms (Greek word for
“indivisible”).
• 1897 – J.J Thomson discovered the electron and proposed a model for the structure of
atoms.
• 1900 – Max Planck showed that when you vibrate atoms, such as when you heat a
material, you can measure the energy in discrete units, which he called quanta.
• 1905 – Albert Einstein explained that light absorption can release electrons from atoms,
a phenomenon called photoelectric effect.
• 1911 – Ernest Rutherford experimented on bombarding atoms with alpha rays and he
found out that alpha particles went smoothly through the foil, and only occasional alpha
particles veered away from its original path. He thought that negative electrons orbited
a positive center just like planets orbit the sun.
• 1912 - Niels Bohr theorized that an atom consists of a central nucleus of positive
charge around which tiny negatively charged electrons revolve in fixed orbits (Bohr’s
Theory), that electrons can only orbit at a certain distance from the nucleus, and that an
atom radiates energy when an electron jumps from a higher energy orbit to a lower
energy orbit.
• 1919 – Ernest Rutherford identified particles of the nucleus as discrete positive charges
of matter which he called protons (from Greek word “first”). He also found proton
mass at 1,836 times as great as the mass of electron.
• 1932 -James Chadwick discovered the neutron.
 Atomic Structure
• Atoms are the tiniest particles of elements.
• An atom consists of a central nucleus of positive charge, around which
negatively charged electrons revolve.
• The nucleus of an atom is made up of protons which are positively charged,
and neutrons which are electrically neutral (no charge).
• The differences between elements is the number and arrangement of protons,
neutrons, and electrons in their atoms.
• Each element has a certain number of electrons and protons.
• An electron has a radius of about 10-15 meter and is more than twice as big as a
proton.
• An electron has a mass of about 9.11 x 10-28 grams.
• A proton is heavier than an electron (around 1840 times heavier than electrons)
• A neutron has about the same mass as a proton.
• Practically the entire weight of an atom is made up of the weights of the
protons and neutrons.
• Atomic weight is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom.
• Atomic number is equal to the number of electrons revolving around the
nucleus or the number of protons within the nucleus.
• Number of neutrons = atomic weight – atomic number
 Atomic Structure
• The positive charge on each proton (+1.602 x10-19 C) is equal in magnitude to
the negative charge on each electron (-1.602 x10-19 C).
• The number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons in the
atom.
• An atom is electrically neutral in its stable state (number of electrons =
number of protons).
• The orbits of electrons are arranged in “shells” about the nucleus.
• Each “shell” has a definite maximum capacity of electrons.
• The capacity of successive shells from the nucleus out is 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 18,
and 2 electrons.
• The outermost shell contains not more than 8 electrons.
• The outermost shell determines the chemical valence and physical
characteristics of an atom.
• The outermost shell is the only one from which electrons are easily dislodged
to become “free” electrons.
• The number of electrons in an incomplete outermost unfilled shell is called
valence electrons.
• The valence electrons determine if an atom can easily give or gain electrons,
and thus if the element could react with other elements.
 Atomic Structure
• Trivalent elements have three valence electrons.
• Tetravalent elements have four valence electrons.
• Pentavalent elements have five valence electrons.
• Hydrogen has the simplest atomic structure, having an atomic number of 1
(one electron and one proton).
• Some elements such as Helium are chemically inert and could not react with
other elements because they could not share electrons with other elements.
Their outermost shell are completely filled up with maximum possible
number of electrons.
• Elements could have different number of neutrons, but the number of
electrons and protons is always the same. Differing number of neutrons result
to various types of isotopes for a given element.
• Different number of neutrons for an element results to different atomic
weights for the element, but each element has one particular isotope that is
most often found in nature.
– Example is Carbon could have an atomic weight of 12 (C12) or 14 (C14).
• Chemical compounds are formed when different elements join together to
share electrons. Compounds are different from ordinary mixture of elements.
 Atomic Structure
• Molecules are the particles which result when atoms of elements join together
to form a chemical compound.
• The natural form of elements is also its molecule. An example is two atoms of
oxygen can combine to form a molecule.
 Free Electrons
• Free electrons are electrons dislodged from the outer shell of an atom.
• Free electrons may exist by themselves such as electrons moving from one
metal plate to another plate.
• Free electrons constitute the electric current in a conductor.
• Many substances contain a number of free electrons, which could move from
one atom to another atom.
• Materials capable of having many free electrons, and which could carry
electric current, are called conductors.
• Materials which are only capable of having very few free electrons are called
insulators.
• Materials which are capable of having not so many free electrons are called
semiconductors. Semiconductors are also capable of carrying electric current.
• The more free electrons there are in a material, the better it will conduct.
• There are no perfect conductors or insulators.
• When a battery is connected across a conductor, free electrons will move in an
orderly fashion towards the positive terminal of the battery.
 Ions
• An ion is an atom or molecule that has become charged or electrically
unbalanced, due to the loss or gain of electrons.
• A positive ion (cation) is an atom or molecule that has lost an electron/s.
• A negative ion (anion) is an atom or molecule that has gain an electron/s.
• Ionization does not change the chemical properties of an atom but it produces
an electrical change.
 Electron Emission
• Electrons may leave a certain material through the process of electron
emission.
• To enable electrons to leave a certain material, they must perform a certain
amount of work to overcome the restraining forces, and they must be
imparted sufficient energy to do this work.
• The energy which could be imparted to electrons may be in the form of heat,
light, electric or magnetic fields, or kinetic energy from particles colliding
with the electrons.
• The four principal methods of obtaining electron emission from a certain
material are:
1. Thermionic emission (primary) – a material which is usually a metal is
heated to increase the kinetic energy of unbound (free) electrons, to
allow them to escape the surface of the material.
 The higher is the temperature of the material, the higher is the
number of electrons which could escape.
 This is the most commonly used in vacuum tubes such as cathode ray
tubes (CRTs) and pentodes.
 Electron Emission
2. Photoelectric emission – a material is exposed to light radiation and
light energy (quanta) is transferred to the electrons on the material to
enable them to escape the surface of the material.
3. Field emission (cold-cathode emission or antoelectronic emission ) – a
material is subjected to a strong electric field (i.e., a high positive
voltage) to dislodge electrons from the surface of the material.
 Negatively charged electrons are attracted towards the positive side
of the field.
 The higher is the electric field intensity, the higher is the number of
electrons which could be dislodged.
4. Secondary emission – electrons are dislodged after colliding with high
speed electrons which strike a material.
 Kinetic energy from the high speed electrons are transferred to the
dislodged electrons.
 The dislodged electrons are called secondary emission electrons.
 Vacuum Tubes

Prepared by: Armando V. Barretto

 Vacuum Tubes
• One of the most useful electronic device ever used is the vacuum tube.
• Vacuum tubes are no longer widely used, but a certain type of tube which
uses more or less the same principle as the vacuum tube, is still used to a
great extent. This tube is the cathode ray tube (CRT) which is used in
televisions and computer monitors.
• There are many types and uses of vacuum tubes.
• During 1904 to 1947, the vacuum tube was the electronic device mostly
used in electronics.
• The vacuum tube diode (two elements also called Fleming tube) was
introduced by J. A. Fleming in 1904. Vacuum tube diodes can be used to
convert ac voltages to dc voltages.
• The vacuum tube triode (three elements) was introduced by Lee De Forest
in 1906. The triode can be used to amplify (increase the amplitude) of
signals. He called it an “audion”.
• In early 1930s, the vacuum tube tetrode (4 elements) and vacuum tube
pentode (5 elements) were introduced.
• On December 23, 1947, the transistor which replaces the vacuum tubes in
many applications, was introduced by Walter H. Brattain and John
Bardeen at Bell Telephone laboratories.
 Vacuum Tube Diode
• The vacuum tube diode is the simplest of all vacuum tubes, but its applications
are not the same as the others.
• Below are schematic symbols and construction of a vacuum tube diode.

Anode

Cathode Filament
(heater)
Vacuum Tube Diode
Schematic Symbol
(Separate Heater)

Anode

Vacuum Tube Diode

Construction With Cathode
Used As Heater
Cathode
Source: http://www.answers.
Vacuum Tube Diode com/ topic/vacuum-tube
Schematic Symbol
 Vacuum Tube Diode
• The vacuum tube diode has two elements (electrodes) which are:
1. Cathode (also called emitter) – is the main source of electronic
emission.
 The cathode is heated directly (cathode is the heater) or indirectly
(using separate heating element called filament ) to induce
electron emission, in the form of thermionic emission.
2. Anode (also called plate or collector) – the electrons emitted from the
cathode could be attracted to the anode depending on the polarity and
intensity of applied voltage between the anode and the cathode.
 If the anode is positive enough with respect to the cathode,
electrons which has escaped the surface of the cathode will be
attracted towards the anode.
 If the voltage between the anode and cathode is zero, or if the
voltage of the anode is negative with respect to the cathode,
electrons at the cathode will not be attracted towards the anode.
• Both electrodes are enclosed in a vacuum glass or metal, and are attached
to conductors which are extended to the outer portion of the enclosure to
serve as connection points to the circuit.
• The enclosure is made a vacuum to prevent the collision of electrons with
other particles, and to prevent oxidation of the filament.
 Vacuum Tube Diode
• A relatively small voltage is applied to the filament to heat up the cathode.
• A vacuum tube diode can be used as a rectifier to convert ac voltages to dc
voltages. Many electronic devices use dc voltages instead of ac voltages as
power supplies.
• Below is a circuit diagram of a rectifier using a vacuum tube diode and a
filter using a capacitor (C1).
Conventional Current Flow Vp

t
Electron flow
Secondary Voltage (AC)
Primary Secondary K
A
+ Vp
220 volts RL t
ac C1 Rectifier Output Without Capacitor
(Pulsating DC)
-

Vp
Transformer
t
Filter Output
Vp=peak voltage of secondary
(DC Voltage With Lower Ripple)
 Vacuum Tube Diode
• The transformer is typically used to step down the primary voltage to a lower
voltage at the secondary.
• The vacuum tube diode is used to convert the ac voltage at the secondary to a
pulsating dc voltage (positive voltage with ripple).
• During the positive half of the secondary voltage, the anode is positive with
respect to the cathode, and electrons at the cathode are attracted to the anode
resulting to a current flow in the direction indicated.
• The electron flow is opposite to the conventional current flow.
• During the negative half of the secondary voltage, the anode is negative with
respect to the cathode and electrons at the cathode are not attracted towards
the anode. There is no current flow across the diode and the output of the
rectifier is 0 volt.
• The capacitor C1 is used as a filter that converts the pulsating dc voltage at
the output of the rectifier to an almost pure dc voltage.
• During the positive half of the secondary voltage, the vacuum tube diode
conducts and there is current flow. The capacitor is charged with the
indicated polarity (positive at the top).
• During the negative half of the secondary voltage, the vacuum tube diode
does not conduct and there is no current flow across the diode. The capacitor
discharges through the load, thus continuing the supply of current to the load
RL.
 Vacuum Tube Triode
• The vacuum tube triode (audion) is the simplest vacuum tube which could
be used to amplify (increase the amplitude) of signals.
• Below are schematic symbols, construction, and a picture of a vacuum tube
triode.
Anode
Control Grid

Filament
Cathode (heater)
Vacuum Tube Triode
Schematic Symbol
(Separate Heater)

Anode
Control Grid
Vacuum Tube Triode Vacuum Tube Triode
Construction With Cathode Source:
Cathode Used As Heater http://www.answers.com/
topic/vacuum-tube
Vacuum Tube Triode Source: http://www.answers.com/
Schematic Symbol topic/vacuum-tube
 Vacuum Tube Triode
• The vacuum tube triode has three elements (electrodes) which are:
1. Cathode (also called emitter) – is the main source of electronic emission.
 The cathode is heated directly (cathode is the heater) or indirectly (using
separate heating element called filament ) to induce electron emission, in
the form of thermionic emission.
2. Anode (also called plate or collector) – the electrons emitted from the cathode
could be attracted to the anode depending on the polarity and intensity of
applied voltage between the anode and the cathode, and the voltage at the
control grid. It typically has a large positive voltage relative to cathode.
 If the anode is positive enough with respect to the cathode, electrons which
has escaped the surface of the cathode could be attracted towards the
anode depending on the polarity and intensity of the voltage at the control
grid.
 If the voltage between the anode and cathode is zero, or if the voltage of
the anode is negative with respect to the cathode, electrons at the cathode
will not be attracted towards the anode.
3. Control Grid – is used to control the electron flow from cathode to anode.
 It is placed between the cathode and the anode and therefore has greater
effect on the electric field within the tube.
 Its construction is in such a way that many electrons could pass through it
and reach the anode (assuming anode is positive relative to cathode).
 Vacuum Tube Triode
 The control grid voltage is usually made negative with respect to the
cathode.
 If the control grid voltage is made less negative, more electrons will
be attracted towards the anode (assuming anode is positive relative to
cathode).
 If the control grid voltage is made more negative, less electrons will
be attracted towards the anode (assuming anode is positive relative to
cathode).
 The control grid voltage, although it could be varying, is usually not
made positive with respect to the cathode to prevent control grid
current and distortion of the output signal.
 By varying the control grid voltage, the anode current and the anode
to cathode voltage can be varied to a great extent.
 There is a certain negative voltage at the control grid in which the
anode current becomes zero, even though the anode is positive
relative to the cathode.
 The smallest negative voltage between the control grid and the
cathode that is capable of cutting off the anode (plate) current is
called cutoff bias.
 Vacuum Tube Triode
• Below is a circuit wherein a vacuum tube triode is used as an amplifier.
Vi=Vs = input voltage

RA 0v
Cc2 VGC
0v Vs
A Vs is
G VBB -VGG superimposed
on - VGG.
VO =
K
VAC RL Output
Vs = VAC
voltage VAC =
Source VGC
voltage Unfiltered
VACQ output voltage
- VGG
0v

Basic Vacuum Tube Triode Amplifier Vo = Filtered

VO
output voltage

0v
 Vacuum Tube Triode
• -VGG is used to make the voltage at the control grid negative with respect to
the cathode.
• If the control grid is made positive with respect to the cathode, electrons from
the cathode will be attracted to the control grid , anode current can reach
saturation point, and tube could be damaged.
• +VBB is used to make the voltage at the anode positive relative to the cathode,
so that electrons at the cathode could be attracted towards the anode.
• The input signal (Vs) is an ac signal and it adds to, or subtracts from, the
supply voltage -VGG.
 The peak voltage of the input signal (Vs) is not made larger than -VGG to
prevent the control grid from becoming positive relative to the cathode.
 During the positive half of the input signal (Vs), the control grid becomes
less negative relative to the cathode. More electrons from cathode are
attracted towards the anode. No electrons are attracted towards the control
grid because it is still negative relative to the cathode.
 During the negative half of the input signal (Vs), the control grid becomes
more negative relative to the cathode. Less electrons from cathode are
attracted towards the anode. No electrons are attracted towards the control
grid because it is negative relative to the cathode.
 Vacuum Tube Triode
• The variations in electron flow from cathode to anode produces variations in
the current across RA . The variations in current flow across RA produces
variations in the voltage across RA and across the anode and cathode.
• Small variations in the input signal (Vs) produces large variations in the
voltage across RA and across the anode and cathode, thus amplifying the input
signal.
• The voltage relationships at the output loop can be expressed as:
VBB  VRA  VAC  IA RA  VAC +
VAC  VBB - IA RA
where : VRA  voltage across RA
VAC  voltage across anode and cathode Vs electrons IA VAC VO
IA  anode current  current across RA

• The output voltage (Vo) is 1800 out of phase with input voltage (Vs).
• C1 is used to filter out the dc voltage between the anode and cathode.
Note:
• When electrons hit the anode, secondary emissions can take place and a cloud
of electrons can be produced inside the tube. The cloud of electrons is called
space charge.
• The space charge, having a negative charge, repels electrons from the cathode.
 Vacuum Tube Tetrode
• The vacuum tube tetrode is similar to a vacuum tube triode except it has an
additional electrode (screen grid) to improve the performance of the vacuum
tube.
• Below are schematic symbols of a vacuum tube tetrode.

Anode Anode

Control Grid Screen Grid Screen Grid

Filament Control Grid

(heater) Cathode Cathode

Vacuum Tube Tetrode Vacuum Tube Tetrode

Schematic Symbol Schematic Symbol
(Separate Heater)

• The screen grid is placed between the anode and the control grid.
• The screen grid is used to reduce the capacitance between the anode and
the control grid because the capacitance could cause unwanted oscillations in
the circuit. The capacitance serves as a feedback path for signals.
• The screen grid is made positive with respect to the cathode.
 Vacuum Tube Pentode
• The vacuum tube pentode is similar to a vacuum tube tetrode except it has
an additional electrode (suppressor grid) to improve the performance of the
vacuum tube.
• Below are schematic symbols of a vacuum tube pentode.
Anode Anode
Suppressor Grid Suppressor Grid
Screen Grid Screen Grid
Control Grid Control Grid
Filament Cathode Cathode
(heater)
Vacuum Tube Pentode Vacuum Tube Pentode
Schematic Symbol Schematic Symbol
(Separate Heater)

• The suppressor grid is placed between the anode and the screen grid.
• The electrons hitting the anode produces secondary emissions and these
electrons could go to the screen grid and reduce the anode current if the
suppressor grid is not present.
• The suppressor grid is usually directly connected to the cathode so that
electrons due to secondary emissions will be repelled back to the anode.
 Vacuum Tube Parameters
The following are parameters used to describe the characteristics of vacuum
tube triodes, tetrodes and pentodes:
• Amplification factor- is a measure of how effective is the control grid in
overcoming the electrostatic field produced by the plate, or a measure of
how effective is the control grid voltage in determining the plate (anode)
current, compared with how effective is the plate voltage in determining
the plate (anode) current. It can be computed as:

ΔEb small change in plate (anode) voltage

 (with Ib constant)  (with Ib constant)
ΔEc small change in control grid voltage
 amplification factor

• DC Plate Resistance – describes the opposition (resistance) of the tube to

dc current flowing through the cathode and anode (dc resistance of tube).
It can be computed as:
Eb anode voltage
Rp    dc plate resistance
Ib anode current
 Vacuum Tube Parameters
• AC Plate Resistance – is the ratio of a small change in plate voltage to
the change in plate current produced, when the control grid voltage is
held constant.

Eb small change in anode voltage

rp  ( with Ec constant)  ( with Ec constant)
Ib change in anode current
 dc plate resistance

• Transconductance – is the ratio of the small change in plate current to a

small change in control grid voltage producing it, when the plate voltage
is held constant. It is a measure of how effective is the control grid
voltage in controlling the plate current.

ΔIb small change in anode current

gm  (with Eb constant)  (with Eb constant)
ΔEc small change in control grid voltage
 amplification factor
 Vacuum Tube Parameters
• The amplification factor, ac plate resistance, and transconductance are
related by the following equations.

Eb Eb / Ec 

rp   
Ib Ib / Ec gm

rp 
gm