Greek Prose Usage A Companion to Greek Prose Composition G.S. Thompson Bristol Classical PressFirst published in 1955 by Macmillan & Co. Ltd. This edition published in 1998 by Bristol Classical Press an imprint of Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd The Old Piano Factory 48 Hoxton Square, London NI 6PB © 1955 by G.S. Thompson All rights reserved, No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 1-85399-554-1 Available in USA and Canada from: Focus Information Group PO Box 369 Newburyport MA 01950 Printed in Great Britain by Booksprint, BristolPREFACE It will be obvious that this is no more than a collection of notes on Greek prose usage, taken mainly from the | works of Thucydides, Xenophon, Plato and Demosthenes. I began to make it some years ago when I could not find a handy reference book for my Sixth Form pupils ; I hope it may be of use to others who feel the same need. For all errors of fact or form I am alone to blame. G.S8. T.CONTENTS Oratio Recra Statements (including Potential) Commands Questions Oratio OBLiqua Indirect Statements Indirect Commands Indirect Questions Subordinate Clauses Verss oF HINDERING, DOUBTING, ETC. Verps OF PRECAUTION Verss OF FEARING Fivau CLauses Consecutive CLAUSES ConpitionaL SENTENCES ConpiTIons IN ORATIO OBLIQUA WISHES TEMPORAL CLAUSES CausaL CLAUSES ConcessitveE CLAUSES CoMPARATIVE CLAUSES CoRRELATIVES Reative CLAUSES Impersonal Venas Tue Uses oF THE PARTICIPLES vii PAGE 13 13 15 17 18 19 21 23 26 32 36 37 41 43viii GREEK PROSE USAGE Tue Uses or THE INFINITIVE THE ADJECTIVE THE ADVERB Tue ARTICLE Pronouns SussEcT AND PREDICATE APPOSITION Tue Uszs OF THE CASES Tue Uses or THE PREPosITIONS Tue VERB Tue VERBAL ADJECTIVE Tue NEGATIVE CoNJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES EncuisH INDEX Greek INDEX PAGe 66 1 76 71 80 87 91 93 107 “116 127 129 132 143 147ORATIO RECTA OR DIRECT SPEECH A. STATEMENTS The Indicative Mood is used to express a statement ; the negative is ov. But the statement may be modified with ‘may’, ‘might’, ‘could’, ‘would’ and the like in English, a use often called potential. In Greek the optative with dy is used : or dv, He may (ete.) go. ovdoluqv d+ infinitive or accusative and infinitive. I should like, please. This use is often much the same as a polite request or even an open future (‘I shall’). The imperfect and aorist indicatives with dv mean ‘would have’, ‘could have’, ‘might have’ and the like: eBovddunv dv, I should have liked. émotedcare dv, you might have believed. These uses are similar to conditional apodoses, but the imperfect with dy referring to present time is uncommon in the potential sense. But: uot dv ¢8éxet, I am inclined to think. Notes.—(i) This use must be distinguished from the iterative use of the imperfect with dy : Binpcbrwv dv, T used to ask. (it) dp’ @edjoas dv+ infinitive, would you mind ? #8dws dv + optative, I should like to. tdxa (rdy') dv 901, perhaps he will (may, would) come. rdy' dv $\Gev, perhaps he would have (might have) come. 12 GREEK PROSE USAGE (iii) The imperfects ée., (€)ypqv, e€jv, without dv, are used with the infinitive to form a kind of potential expression : &et ce rodro movfjaat, you should have done this. eff cor rotro movjaa, you might have done this. In these cases the non-fulfilment of the condition is definitely implied (‘but you did not’). For the Participle of the Potential see Further Notes on Conditional Sentences and Notes on Participles. A cautious assertion is expressed by px} with sub- junctive : B}) toGr0 dAnbés §, I rather think this is true. A cautious negation is expressed by py) od with subjunctive : Hh 0d rob70 xaAensv f, perhaps it may not be difficult. #1 obx F 8iSaxrdv, perhaps it is not teachable. B. Commanps (in the 2nd and 3rd persons) (i) Afirmative—The imperative is used, present for general, aorist for particular commands : Adye, speak, einé yor, tell me. meBou rots vopos, obey the laws. dnedOérw, let him go away. The infinitive is sometimes found for imperative in Plato and Thucydides, more often in the poets. (ii) Negative —Use x7} with the present imperative for a general prohibition, 4.7 with the aorist subjunctive for a particular prohibition : pi xAénre, do not steal. 14} déOp, let him not go away. Occasionally the aorist imperative is used in the 3rd person : . paSels tpoo8oxqadrw, let no one expect.GREEK PROSE USAGE 3 Commands (or exhortations) in the lst person are expressed by the present or aorist subjunctive, with y7 if negative ; they are often (almost always in Ist person singular) introduced by dye or dépe (‘come !’) : (u}) dré\upev, lot us (not) depart. Norzs.—(i) Sometimes the future indicative (2nd person) is used for a command, with negative od or pr}: tadryy ti miorw puddgere, hold on to this security. This is especially common with émws (negative 7). See Verbs of Precaution. Sms por w} épeis, don't tell me. (ii) od yx} with future indicative (2nd person) expresses a strong prohibition, with the aorist subjunctive (usually 1st or 3rd person) an emphatic negation (the distinction is not always kept) : od } Anprhoees. Don’t talk nonsense, o8 pi) mavowpar. I will never cease. ob8énor’ odbev uy) yévyTat. Nothing will ever happen. obSels peer pelvy raw nodeuler. None of the enemy will remain any longer. With Svvapyas and eiui the present subjunctive is found : 08 pif oot Buvawras dvréyew of nodduios. The enemy will not be able to resist you. (iii) z¢ od; is used for an exhortation : - rf ob cxonodper; let us consider. C. QUESTIONS The indicative is usually the mood (negative od), introduced by an interrogative pronoun or adverb : tls el; who are you?4 GREEK PROSE USAGE If there is no interrogative word, the question may be indicated only by the sense (or the speaker's tone), but often particles are used as follows : pa or ¥ (chiefly poetical) for an open question. ” ob A . , oy ob (nonne ergo n} for a question expecting the answer ‘Yes’. pa pif or pf Bay OF pay pH | for a question expecting the answer ‘No’. dp" ody (num igitur ?) Alternative (or Double) Questions have 7 for ‘or’ and have either no introductory particle or mérepov or moTepa. ‘Or not’ is # of; or 7} pas A single question with 7 is used following a more general question and suggesting the answer to it : rlva ratrv; 18 wdoiov agixrar; What message is this you bring? Is it that the ship has come ? Norus.—(i) dAdo 71 7}; or dAAo 7 used for ‘is it not ?’: No 7H oBiv Kwdver mapedvat; Surely nothing prevents him from coming forward ? dMo tt yewpyds prev els; Ia it not (true) that one will be a farmer ? (ii) 74s od; in indignant or impatient questions : més ob Sewdv dors; is it not diegraceful ? (iii) w&s dv; + optative expreases a wish : mas dv €\8or; I wish he would come. (iv) tis wdfev el; who are you and whence? (v) bo ri rabra Adyess; for what purpose do you say this? eneSdy zl yévqras; when what happens ? (vi) rl roGro degas; what is this that you said tGREEK PROSE USAGE 5 (vii) od«odv =‘therefore’, with no negative signifi- cance. ovxovy =‘not therefore’. Both may introduce questions. (viii) kal mags expresses doubt or disbelief of what has just been stated. és xat asks for additional informa- tion. Deliberative Questions, mainly in the Ist person, are put in the subjunctive, present or aorist, and may be introduced by an interrogative pronoun or adverb or by Bovaret, BovAeabe, OeAecs (in poetry) : ti elnw; what am I to aay? BovAct eirw tadra; am I to say this? The negative is yn. Deliberative questions in the 3rd person are found with the indefinite 71s, meaning ‘we’ in general, but the construction with 5e7 is more usual. To translate ‘what was I to do?’ the imperfects See and (€)ypv are used with the accusative and infinitive : rf ter juds mouetv; what were we to do? Answers to questions can be expressed in many ways, eg.: YES NO pédora nord ye mas yép ob; ovBands advu pev obv oldeis, odSénore (giving a more vat precise answer) dywye (I do) Notes.—(i) ydp is used to mean ‘Yes, no, for’. dors yap ofrw, yes, for ao it is. (ii) The answer to dMo te 7; (=dp’ od;) is: ov8dy dio, that is the case,6 GREEK PROSE USAGE Exclamations. ‘How’ is os, with adjectives and adverbs and yerbs: ds dareios 5 dip, how polite the man is! ds dmmoas, how you helped me! how kind of you! The pronouns are the same as the relatives :. daos, ‘how great !’, etc. There is no exclamation mark in Greek.ORATIO OBLIQUA (INDIRECT OR REPORTED SPEECH) (Note——Conditions in Oratio Obliqua are under Conditional Sentences.) A, STaTEMENTS (1) The accusative and infinitive construction (nega- tive od) is used after verbs of saying and thinking, par- ticularly after dni, olouar (olwar), mydopat, vouile, Soxew. If the subject of the infinitive is the same as the subject of the verb of saying or thinking, it is in the nominative, though not expressed unless emphatic (adrds). The tense of the infinitive is the same as that of the corresponding verb in the oratio recta. Examples : dq rev ddedpév mapeivas. He said his brother was present (my brother is present). éby (abros) rojoat. He said he (himself) had done it (I did it). ovx édn moujoew. He said he would not do it (I shall not do it). Nores.—(i) aay that. . . not, of dn. I think that. . . not, otk ofopat, od vopifw. L hope not to, odk éAnile. I wish not to, od BovAopat. (ii) otouas Setv (I think I must) is used as one verb with nominative and infinitive. (iti) 30xéw (‘I seem’) is usually personal : 5 Mya or Boxetre. You seem to me to (it seems to me that you, I think that you) speak well. Boxed po: (or simply Boxd). I think that I...8 GREEK PROSE USAGE Used impersonally, Soxe? means ‘it seems good’ : Soxe? pot, it seems good to me, I decide (with the infinitive). (iv) Verbs of saying and thinking are often personal in the passive : Ayerat 6 Kopos, it is said that Cyrus... but also Adyera: rév Kopoy with the infinitive. . (v) The accusative of the reflexive pronoun, when used for the more usual nominative, is more emphatic : Tynodpevos éuaurdv émeinéorepov elvar. Thinking myself to be more reasonable. (vi) For the negative in this construction see also Notes on the Negative. (2) After Adyw (aorist lov), the indirect statement is translated by 67 or ws with a finite verb (subject in the nominative) ; the same mood and tense are used as in the direct speech, negative ov. Norg.—or generally introduces a fact, «ds the speaker's impression of it. The dri clause is continued with ody, wore, ydp, with the verb in the indicative or optative; but the nominee | and infinitive often takes its place : accusative drexpivavro dr dBvvara optow etn. . . mates yap afcr elev... Bedidvar BE... They answered that it was impossible for them . . . for their children were . . ., and they feared . . . This construction is common with other verbs of saying, like dzoxpivopat, ‘answer’, dyyéAAw, ‘announce’ (also used with participle), but not with dnye : Spare} gre of moutoes (nousoos). He said (replied) that he would not do it (I shall not do it). After a historic main verb the optative may be used in the 6r. clause, both for indicative and subjunctive ofGREEK PROSE :-USAGE 9 oratio recta, but.this change is not made with past indicatives in unreal conditions (see Conditions in Oratio Obliqua). Nore.—ér: may introduce the actual words of the speaker : amfyyedev én of AaxeBaipséviot xedevovow vuds. He reported : ‘The Lacedaemonians bid you’, én 8x absdpxns xdopos pol dorw 4 708 dvBpds dper}. She said, ‘My husband’s valour is sufficient ornament for me’. (3) With verbs of hoping,. promising and swearing the future infinitive is used, with the subject, if expressed, in the nominative. Negative yy: Smoxvoduas ph abrés dmévar, I promige not to go away myself, Nores.—(i) A ‘that’ clause after these verbs will take the accusative (or nominative) and infinitive, with the tense of direct speech ; the negative is p17 : Stopwdpevos pyBev elvar col Kal Dirinnw mpadypa. Swearing that you and Philip had nothing to do with each other. (ii) The negative od is found where it negatives a single word, ¢.g. of dy =‘I deny’. (iii) Verbs of admitting, attesting, being convinced and the like are often used with negative j17j (a ‘confident assertion’); enenelopqy pare ypddovr’ dv euod ypdibas BéArcov pndéva. I was convinced that no one would move better resolutions than myself. (iv) With éAaifw and other verbs of ‘saying, and think. ing the potential aorist infinitive with dv often stands for the future, expressing contingency as: opposed - ‘to cer- tainty (negative ov) : Bamba rods "APqvalous ob dv mepudeiv. He hoped that the Athenians would not allow toei) GREEK PROSE USAGE dosjaler adrods whetor' dy Bhéwrew . . . nat PeBalous pUdaxas éce- ofa. He thought they would be likely to do most injury and would be sure to prove strong guards. The aorist infinitive with éAwi{w refers to the result immediately looked for : Pmlov xerpdoaabar 76 'Prfyrov, They hoped te subdue Rhegium. The phrases ¢Amis éort, ‘there is hope’, ev Amid: elvar, ‘to be hopeful’, cAwiSa exe, ‘to have hope’, have the future infinitive or potential aorist infinitive with dv or most often the aorist infinitive : & edelBs Fy dvadaBedv viv médw. He was hopeful of capturing the city. (v) F pay (‘verily’) is used with future infinitive after verbs of swearing : Spooay F pi» Bonbjoew. They swore to bring help. (4) With verbs of knowing and perceiving the accusa- tive (or nominative) and participle construction is used : ol8a dpapréy. I know that I did wrong. odro8a duavr® duaprévn (or duapriiy). T am conacious of having done wrong. fo8orro rods nodewlous mpooBarodvras. They perceived that the enemy would attack. Such verbs are: ola, yyvicnw, émforapa, ‘know’, opdw, ‘see’, aic@dvopat, ‘perceive’, ruvOdvopat, ‘ascer- tain’, eJpicxw, ‘find out’, dxovw, ‘hear’, Sedkvupe, gaivw, dnAdw, aropaivw, ‘show, point out’, pepynyat, ‘remember’, émAavfdvopat, ‘forget’, dyyéAAw, ‘an- nounce’, ovvoiSa euaurd, ‘I am conscious’, Nortrs.—(i) The construction with oz: or as is used with many of these verbs, frequently with olSa andGREEK PROSE USAGE ll éniorapat, and usually when the verb of knowing or perceiving is itself in the participle : aloBsnevos Sre denyBduny. Peresiving that I had become hateful . . . ol’ dre (like 84Aov rx), used in parenthesis, has the value of an adverb: ‘surely’, ‘obviously’, ‘certainly’ : odr’ dv duets of8” dre enavcacbe modepoivres. Nor would you certainly have stopped making war. (ii) dyyé\Aw and verbs meaning to learn and hear often have the accusative and infinitive (rarely verbs meaning to know) : dxodw 8 elvas ey 7 arparesuars 'PoBlous. I hear Tam told (iii) The genitive and participle is found with alcGdvo- pat, ‘perceive’, dxotw, ‘hear’, yeuvnar, ‘remember’, émAavOdvopar, ‘forget’. The genitive is used for some- thing perceived by oneself, the accusative for something learnt by hearsay (the genitive of the object, the accusa- tive of the object-clause) : that there are Rhodians in the army. ixovea abrob Siadeyouevov, I heard him conversing. qeovea avrav Siareydpevov, I heard (they told me) that he wes conversing. fodéyqy abrey emBnuotvra. I heard that he was in town. (iv) of8a, éxiorayat with infinitive mean ‘I know how to...’; emdavBdvopar with infinitive means ‘I forget to... , Hepegpae with infinitive means ‘I remember to . . .”: pepvijoOw dvhp dyaBds efvar, remember to be a good man. (¥) 3 of8’ dr, ‘certainly’, 54Aov re, “obviously ’. (6) Verbs of emotion are followed by i for ‘that’ with the indicative, negative un. Such verbs are Gavpdlw,12 GREEK PROSE USAGE ‘wonder’, dyamdu, ‘rejoice’; aicydvoyat, ‘am ashamed’, dyavaxréw, ‘am indignant’ : Gaupdlw ef pndels dpyiterar. I am surprised ‘that no one is angry. xardrlnfis obk ddiyy ef wépas wnddv goras. No small perplexity that there is to be no end. Norus.—(i) The negative may be od (cf. 3, note ii) : dyavaxrd et Didianos ob Aumet. I am indignant that Philip fails to annoy, (ii) dre is used with these verbs in a causal sense (‘because’), The negative is ov. (iii) Do not confuse this use with that of the participle with these verbs, e.g. : at seeing to see | ¥% Baupdlw {Sv oe, I am surprised { (iv) Bavpdten Eres HOEdqoe. I wonder how it was that he was willing. (6) No rules are laid down for the use of Sri, cbs or the accusative and infinitive, except that : (1) dnt takes the accusative (or nominative) and infinitive. (2) Aeyen, elzov, drroxpivoyat usually have ore (ex- cept Adyw in the passive). But ¢ Adyws ry mdAw maiBevory elvas. I say that the city is an education .. . (3) Verbs meaning ‘to think’, e.g. olowat, Hydopat, vopitw, Soxéw, usually take the accusative (or nominative) and infinitive. (4) Other affirmative verba declarandi take either Gr. or the accusative (or nominative) and infinitive. : (5) A€yw (chiefly in the passive) is used with the accusative and infinitive regularly when itGREEK PROSE USAGE 13 means ‘they say’, ‘it is said’; when it means ‘command.’ it takes the dative and infinitive. B, Iyprrect Commanp The infinitive (negative p47) is used to translate the English infinitive with verbs of asking, advising, com- manding and the like. ' Such verbs are : Tell, command, order A¢€yw+ dative, xedevw + accusative advise nrapawéw + dative warn vouberéw + accusative ask, beg airéw +accusative, déidw + accusative claim afideo dissuade, forbid otk édw + accusative ovx elwv ipds mpoécBat, I was bidding you not to sacrifice. The tense of the infinitive is usually present for con- tinuous action, aorist for single action, but the distinction is not always made. The infinitive is usually active, with the subject often understood : fuvé8pous éAdoBar éxéAevov, They bade (them) choose commissioners. Nores.—(i) odx déidw may be used for dfidw yi} : ovx dgiof rizwpetoBat, he asks him not to punish. (ii) The 3rd person singular imperative of oratio recta becomes infinitive when reported (e.g. in the terms of treaties) : fy B¢ sus dAlanqrat, 700 AaPdvros elvar Soddov. And that, if anyone is captured, he should be the slave of his captor. (Oratio recta: go7w SoiAos.) C. INDIRECT QUESTION The indirect interrogative pronoun or adverb intro- duces the indirect question ; the verb is put in the same tense and mood as in oratio recta, but after a historic main verb the mood may be changed to optative.14 GREEK PROSE USAGE [See note (iv).] The negative is the same as in oratio recta : Apsury avrots drdbev dpixowro. T asked them where they had come from. A single indirect question introduced by ‘if’ or ‘whether’ is translated by «i, the verb being in the same tense and mood as the oratio recta, or changed to optative after a historic main verb. The negative is either od or py. A double indirect question takes dmdérepov, wérepov (wdrepa) followed by q for ‘or’. ‘Or not’ is 7 od or 7h et. — . Examples of indirect questions : pspeny abrav et { ee) eet, I asked him if he wished to come. . ss [ nérepov Bodderar| 4. (3 ot. inane aire pon Roshore) O86" (3 oe I asked him whether he wished to come or not. odx olda ef d7éABw. I do not know if I am to go away. Norxs.—(i) The direct interrogative word may be used and the mood not changed in historic sequence : Ypspqv avréy ris éort, I asked him who he was. (ii) The relatives dc0s, ofos, 6s may introduce an indirect question : dpds pas Soot douév; Do you see how many we are 7? (iii) «¢ is used for ‘if’ or ‘whether’, even with the subjunctive of deliberative question. (iv) Past tenses of the indicative are usually not changed to optative in historic sequence. Conditional indicatives with dy are not changed. (v) The subject of an indirect question i is often put asGREEK PROSE USAGE 16 the object of the main verb (accusativus de quo or anticipatory accusative) : robs AaxeSaipovlous od yeyvelaxw 6, te BovAovrat. As for the Lacedaemonians, I do not know what they want. So also with indirect statement : émordyevor Tiy déBaviv Sr obx av Bidforo. Knowing about the landing that it could not be forced. D. SusorDINATE CLAUSES IN ORATIO OBLIQUA (see also Conditions in Oratio Obliqua) (1) After a primary verb introducing oratio obliqua the verb in the subordinate clause is unchanged. After a historic verb the subordinate verb is commonly changed from indicative to optative or from dv with subjunctive to optative without av, but not a verb in the aorist indicative : dmexpivaro dre Bovdetoorra Gr EUvarro dyaddv. He replied that he would plan whatever good he could. But Apspay ef reves elev pdprupes dv evavrlov dnéBocav. I asked if there were any witnesses in whose presence they had paid the money. The vivid use of the form of oratio recta is, of course, possible : Gmexpudpny Sri por Avovredot dhomep Exe Exerv. I replied that it was better for me to be as I was, (2) This is true also of virtual oratio obliqua, especi- ally with ed =‘to see if,in case’, 67. =‘on the ground that’, éws =‘until’, where the use of the optative after a historic main verb shows the virtual oratio obliqua. See also Further Notes on Conditional Sentences (iii) : drooréMe dv8pa és ras *:\Ojvas ef rs dpa ev8oiev, He despatched a man to Athens, to see if they would surrender. Boker adrois meipAcar et Bivawro. They decided to try, if haply they could.16 GREEK PROSE USAGE Notre.—A relative or adverb clause in oratio obliqua may be attracted to the accusative and infinitive : robrov wvBoloyotar Baxrdhov dépeww, bv mepteAdpevov éxBivat. This man, they relate, was wearing a ring, which (the shepherd) took off and went away. éneibi 8° obv ndoas ras Yuxas rods Blous ipjoBa:, mpoarévar mpds Tip Adyeow. Then, he said, when all the souls had chosen their lives, they went to Lachesis.VERBS OF HINDERING, PREVENTING, FORBIDDING, DOUBTING AND DE- NYING TuEsE verbs take the infinitive with yy; if they are negative, they take the infinitive with ju7 ov : eipyw € php tobro mroveiv, I prevent you from doing this. obx efpyes a€ pt} 08 rodra moveiv. I do not prevent you from doing this. Such verbs are: dpvodpat, deny. euroddv elt, hinder. énayopetw (aor. dneinov), forbid. évavrio0pat, Oppose, dnoyngilouat, vote against. aipyw, prevent. xwAdw, prevent. dnéxw, hold off. Nores.—(i) cwAvw usually takes simple infinitive. (ii) Present and aorist infinitives are used, but with verbs of denying the aorist has a past meaning : dgapvetra: ut) Aafeiv, he denies having received. (iii) A genitive of the article and infinitive may be used with xj, but not with yy od : (od) eipyes oe 700 pr) Toro rrouiv. TI (do not) prevent you from doing this. (iv) The infinitive with 76 ju} (ro 7} od) is also used ; oder adrods dmAveras 4 frixla 73 pr) odyl dyavanreiy. Their age does not save them from being distressed. 7VERBS OF PRECAUTION AND STRIVING Tusse verbs take émws (yy) with the subjunctive, or, more frequently, the future indicative. The future indicative is usualiy unchanged in historic time, but the future optative is found. Such verbs are : émpedoopa, take care. mpdrrw, arrange, @AaBospa, take care. épdw, see to it, pee por, it is a care to me. oxondw, 800 to it. anovddtw, am eager. ¢vAdrropat, am on my guard, Bnxevdpa, contrive, dporritw, am anxious. Tapaoxevdlouat, prepare. Norses.—{i) ¢povritw, ‘I am anxious’, and dpa, ‘beware’, are followed also by yx (17 od) with subjunc- tive or optative (see Verbs of Fearing). (ii) epuddgavro jury maBeiv. They were on their guard against suffering. So occasionally other verbs of precaution take the infinitive. (iii) If the verb of precaution is in the imperative and its subject is also that of the subordinate verb, it is often omitted ; the dws clause is equivalent to a command or prohibition : énws (u}) T0870 noujous, mind you do (don’t do) this. (iv) dpa, cxoma can be followed by ei (‘if, whether’). See Indirect Questions. 18VERBS OF FEARING THERE are three constructions : (1) Fears ror THE FuturE.—y7, ‘that, lest’, 47) od, ‘that not’, with the subjunctive in primary time, the optative in historic time : dofodpa uw} edpuper, I am afraid that we may find. We also find rj and émws yy with the future indicative, This emphasizes the realization of the fear : gPoPoduat 7) evpryjcoper, I suspect we shall find. (2) Fzars ror THE PRESENT AND Past.—j7}, py) od with the indicative : PoRodpar py 7é8qxev, I am afraid that he is dead. (3) With the infinitive, as in English, sometimes with the article : doBodpa: (73) droBaveiv, I am afraid to die, I fear death. Norsgs.—(i) When ‘I am afraid of’ means ‘I have not the courage to’ (prae timére nél6), use the infinitive : otherwise use 27. (ii) The future optative is not used for a future fear in historic time. (iii) Words implying danger and the like take this construction, as also ionredw, ‘I suspect’, dxvd, ‘I hesitate’. But xvdvvedw takes the infinitive : éxwbdvevacv dv iad Bapqvar. It would have been in danger of being destroyed. Note also xwSuvedw elvat, ‘I probably am’, (iv) For the elliptic use of yf and py) od see Direct Statements. 1920 GREEK PROSE USAGE (v) An indirect question occasionally follows a verb of fearing : od SéBorxa ef Didtrmos £4 (pres. indic.). I am not afraid if Philip is alive. (vi) A causal clause with or, ‘because’, may follow a verb of fearing. (vii) pu) roAAdKes = ‘lest perchance’: srorompoas py} modus rods dypods mapaXlmp. Suspecting that he might perchance pass by his estate . . .FINAL CLAUSES - Purpose is expressed by iva, ws, émws with the sub- junctive in primary sequence, the optative in historic sequence. Negative 7: Siavocira: rHv yédupay Adoat, iva pi} SiaBijre. He intends to destroy the bridge, that you may not cross. Nores.—(i) yj (='for fear lest’) is used with sub- junctive or optative for a negative purpose. Negative od. (ii) dws (u7}) with the future indicative, as with verbs of precaution, sometimes expresses a final clause : of avppaxor ob8é 8c’ &v dMo rpépovrar Saws paxoivras, The allies are being maintained for one purpose only, that they may fight. (iii) dv is sometimes used with os, dzws and the subjunctive, e.g. : ds dv udOgs, that you may learn. But where va dv occurs, it means ‘wherever’. (iv) iva is the usual conjunction (except daws in Thucydides). (v) iva with the past tenses of the indicative expresses an unfulfilled purpose : kal pty dfidv y Fv dxodoat, iva Frovoas dvBpav Biareyouevuw. Yet it would have been worth while listening, that you might have heard men conversing. (vi) The present subjunctive and optative is used for continuous or repeated action. The aorist subjunctive and optative is used for momentary or single action. 2122 GREEK PROSE USAGE (vii) Other ways of expressing a purpose are : (a) The future participle. (6) The infinitive. (c) The relative pronoun. (d) The genitive of the article with infinitive.CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES (1) wore, preceded by otrws, ‘80’, rosodrov, ‘so much’ and the like is used with the infinitive or accusative and infinitive to translate a consecutive ‘that’ or ‘as to’. The negative is ju7. Nore.—Where the negative ov is found, it is usually due to the fact that the infinitive after dove is an oblique infinitive representing a direct indicative : axotw tos AaxeBaipovious ... . dv dvaxwpeiv, dor’ ol8é xpqudrww dveiaBat trap’ obdevds ob8e. T hear that the Lacedaemonians used to retreat . . . and so used to buy nothing from anyone. (2) It is used with the indicative (or potential opta- tive) when the consequence is an actual fact, particularly with narrative statements in the aorist. The negative is ob : (1) obras doth Sevds dare Sixqy wy S:Sdvar. He is so clever as not to be punished. (2) odrws earl Beds Sore Slkqv od SlSwar. He is so clever that he is not punished. (3) When adore as a connecting relative means ‘so that’, ‘consequently’, ‘and so’, without odrws or the like preceding, the indicative is used : dore xdxwors éyévero, therefore distreas was caused, (4) eg’ & and éd’ dire are used to mean ‘on condition that’, with the (accusative and) infinitive or the future indicative. The negative is 7 in both uses : fuvdByoav ef’ & wi) dduxeiv robs "EMqvas. They came to terms on condition that they did not harm the Greeks, 2324 GREEK PROSE USAGE Notice that the future infinitive is not used except where the infinitive after care is due to the oblique form of the whole sentence : pupla ré ro.adr’ dalle... dave pyBiv Bewdv netocaBac. Tt is folly to hope for such things and so to escape any danger. Here ovS¢v would be more usual. We also find : . fuvéfnoav dore mape8odvat, they agreed to hand over . . . NoreEs.—(i) dore with the (accusative and) infinitive can mean ‘that so’ and with the negative ‘to avoid’. It is indistinguishable in this use from tva pn : nav robo dare pr Sixqv BiSdvac. They do anything s0 as not to pay (to avoid paying) the penalty, (ii) dore with the participle i is found after verbs of perception : spa rév ev fdxcle obra BiaKelpevov Wore ob pdoxovra. T see the young so disposed ag to deny . . (od dn is treated as one word ; hence negative ov.) (iii) ofos =dare : €yd rovotros olos pndevl melPeoBar, I am such a man as to obey no one, (iv) So the relative after rovodros, equal to dere with the demonstrative. Negative p.7} : inpage yap obros roaGra &' & vdv puotras. For he did such things that he is now hated for them. (v) The infinitive with av after dare representa & direct optative with dp : dare Wbiora dv odds adrous plrrew . . 8o that they would most gladly throw themselves . . .GREEK PROSE USAGE 26 (vi) as with infinitive is found for dove : dbs meoverrobvras Biieqv wh B:Sdvat. So as to avoid paying the penalty by fraud. (vii) doov =dare : edetrero Tis vuKrés daov axotatous SieADetv. So much of the night was left as to enable them to paas through in the dark.CONDITIONAL SENTENCES THEY consist of an ‘if’ clause (protasis) and a main clause (apodosis), A. Present SUPPOSITIONS (1) Particular : e? + present indicative ; . present indicative : el fouxiar dyer, obxére Bei Adyeww. If he is at peace, there is no longer need to speak. (2) General : édy (qv or av) + subjunctive (present or aorist) ; present indicative : dav 2XOy Odvaros, oideis ovAerar dmoBaveiv, If (ever) death comes, no one is (ever) willing to die. (3) Unfulfilled : ef + imperfect indicative ; dv + imperfect indicative : ef drysdvro, Baypacrérepov av Fy. If they were being honoured it would be more wonderful. B, Past Suprositions (1) Particular : ¢/ + past indicative ; past indicative : €1 0408 Fv, ode Fv aloxpoxepd}s. If he was the son of a god, he was not avaricious. (2) General : «¢ + optative (present or aorist) ; imperfect indicative : i twas BopuBoupévous aiaPorro, xatacfewivat thy rapaxiy éretparo, If (ever) he saw any falling into disorder, he tried (would try) to quiet the confusion. 26GREEK PROSE USAGE 27 (3) Unfulfilled : e¢ + aorist indicative ; dv + aorist indicative : rat tows dv dneBavov, et pay 4 dpxi) xaredvOn, Perhaps I should have perished, had not the government been put down. C. Future Svprosirions (1) Open : éav + subjunctive (present or aorist) ; . future indicative ; or: et + future indicative ; future indicative : dav tys viv, nére dace afxor; If you go now, when will you be at home ? paMov er. proodpar, ob Sixaiws, ef pi} eyot dvubijaere. I am the more hated, not rightly . . . unless you are going to attribute it to me. (2) Vague : ef + optative (present or aorist) ; dy + optative (present or aorist) : ei lous viv, adr’ dv eins otkous If you were to go now, when would you be at home ? Nores.—(i) The negative in the protasis is 7, in the apodosis ov. (ii) ed + future indicative in an open future condition usually means ‘if you are going to’, ‘if you intend to’ (cd péAAers + future infinitive), (iii) The protasis and apodosis in the same kind of condition (i.e. particular, general or unfulfilled) may refer to different times, each taking the appropriate tense : ef Enpage (npdaces) robr0, xadds elev (Eye, eet). If he did (does) this, it was (is, will be) well. al Expage rodro, nadds av elyev. If he had done this, it would now be well. (iv) The apodosis may be an imperative, a subjunctive of exhortation or prohibition, or an optative of wish. NotEs on GENERAL ConpiTrons.—(i) These condi-28 GREEK PROSE USAGE tions ere indefinite where ‘if’ =‘if ever’, and they are used in the present or past. (ii) ‘Would’ in the eapodosis in past time means ‘used to’, and is to be distinguished from ‘would’ in the apodosis of unfulfilled and vague conditions, (iii) The apodosis in past time (general) may be trans- lated by dy with the imperfect indicative (iterative use) : Sinpdrww dv rods dei mpoaidvras. They used to question everyone they met. Also with imperfect infinitive in oratio obliqua ; dxotw rods AaxeBaipovious . . . av dvaywpetv. I hear that the Lacedaemonians used to retreat. (iv) The construction of general conditions is also used with relative pronouns and adverbs (g.v.). Furtuer Nores on ConpiTionat SENTENCES.—(i) In a protasis, instead of negative yy, we find od du, ‘1 deny’, od 7oAAoi, ‘a few’, and the like, where od is kept as connected with a particular word. (ii) ‘But if not (otherwise)’ is ef 5¢ yy, even if édv precedes, or after a negative : Mi} rowjons tadra: ef 8¢ pi}, alrlay ders. Don’t do this; otherwise, you will be blamed. édy re Bey el BE pp... If need be; otherwise . . . ‘Unless, except’ is ef pu, wAdy et, ef pr) et, Sre pur): ovBey empdySn, ef ph ef ve mpds mepioixovs. Nothing waa done, except against neighbours, od mapeyévovro &rt pi éAlyor. Only a few appeared. dW’ 7j means ‘except’ after a negative or virtual negative: tives EANos kararetnovrar ddr’ # of ddixor; What others are left, except the unjust ? ‘Whether . . . or’ is efre (edvre) . . . etre (édvre).GREEK PROSE USAGE 29 See “Even if? is cat e¢ (dv), cay et (kai dy et). Concessive {‘Not even if’ is oJ8’ ei (édv). Clauses \‘ Although’ is ef kav. ‘Nisi forte’ (ironical) is e¢ 7 dpa. ‘If after all’ is édv (et) dpa, implying an unlikely contingency : fv dpa poh npérepov éhwau, if they should fail to take it... ‘If by chance’ is av (€¢) toAAaxis. (iii) €dy mws with subjunctive, <{ mws with optative are used as virtual conditions, where the apodosis has to be supplied from the context. The meaning is: ‘if haply, to see if, in case, in the hope that’, etc., and the clause is in virtual oratio obliqua : foUder BecucBa, edv muss evBergedpcBa; Are we to ask, to see if we can prove .. .? mpds rv wédv exebpour, et mus emPonBoter. They advanced to the city, in case (the citizens) should make a sally. SrogerBdpevor, ef mus Bedjociav Biidvar abrods. Acting with restraint, in the hope that they should let them pass through. (iv) The imperfects €Sex, xpqv (expiv), fir, etkos Fv and neuter adjectives with #v omit dv in unfulfilled conditions: ¢éS«. with present infinitive —‘ought to’; é5ec with aorist infinitive =‘ought to have’: el wdvres chuodoyotuer . , ., obBtv aMo eer rev wapidvra Aye. If we all agreed . . ., a speaker ought to say nothing else. énet Bpaxts xai cadns efrpxes Adyos. For a short and clear speech had been sufficient. kadév 8 Fu, ef wat tyaprdvopev, rotaBe eleac. It would have been honourable for these men to yield, although we were at fault, Compare the use of &fedov in Wishes (q.v.). dy ec means ‘it would be necessary, there would be need’: ovBiy av Swas viv Eee BovdedeoBar. There would be no need for you to be deliberating now.30 GREEK PROSE USAGE (v) An unfulfilled purpose in past time is expressed by iva, os, drws with imperfect or aorist indicative : obxobr, etrep dAnbes Fv, exp 76 ypappareio eis Tov exivov ¢uBaretv, fva of Bixacral 73 npdypa eyvwoay; Then, if this were true, ought he not to have put the ledger in the box, that so the jury might have understood the matter ? (vi) Sozep el, Home dv «, mean ‘like’, See Compara- tive Clauses. (vii) The position of dv is before the verb, where emphasis is on words before the verb, e.g. an interrogative or negative: mds dv; or ovx av. Otherwise it is put directly after the verb. (viii) od« of8a dy et, od dv olda «i with the optative mean ‘perhaps’ : Perhaps I (er, a} otk dv olfa ef Bwvaluny=odn of8a ef Bvaiyny dy. (ix) The optative with dy in apodosis may be potential, equal to less emphatic present or future and followed by ei with present indicative : mods) dv we droyuyia txor, af obrus ddytords elas. I am very fond of life, if I am so unreasonable. Similarly the potential optative with dv may occur in the protasis : 008? ef px} roufoair’ av Tobro. Not even if you would not do this, (x) A relative clause in a condition has the tense or mood of its verb attracted to that of the condition : Pavpaor} dv ety 4 Siarpif} émdre évedyouse. Marvellous would be the sojourn there, when I should meet (= when I shall meet). (Optative in vague future condition.) odk dy dmaudpny dus dmemeipébqy. I should not have stopped, until I had made trial.GREEK PROSE USAGE 31 (xi) The perfect is sometimes used (for future) of something bound to happen if the condition is fulfilled: 7a mpdypara KexdAvras ef pi) adrés wapéaomat. Things are bound to be held up if I myself am not there. (xii) The pluperfect with dv refers to something that would have been completed in the past and have re- mained so up to the present : Gore ris elpjuns dv Biquaprifes, So that he would finally have missed the peace (and still have been without it). (xiii) Omission of av in apodosis, when it expresses a necessary or vivid consequence ; dv xaropousévur peylators imipyev iyi evar. Tf these measures had been successful, it was within our reach to be the greatest people. (xiv) The optative in protasis is used idiomatically in proverbial expressions, to put the case in a more general way than the indicative : dvbpav owdpévav early, et wh dBixotvro, Hauydtewv. Prudent men keep quiet, unless they be injured. (xv) elzep, edvaep, ‘if really, if as is the fact’ : radra émupidite, emep yet aor mpoorjnew . . . Put this to the vote, if (since) you think it your duty . . . (xvi) dv with the participle (the participle of the potential) : nepl peylarns Kai dvopactordérns naccy dv mpdgews oogs . . « About a very great deed and one which would have been most famous of all. . kal abrot #Biov dv dpdivres (ifB0v dv dpdiev). Because they themselves would be pleased to see . . « OM? dv Exe elmeiv. Though I could say much.CONDITIONS IN ORATIO OBLIQUA (1) AFTER 67, ws, the direct form of the condition is kept in primary time, except for changes of person and the like. After a historic main verb, the indicative'may be changed to optative and édy with subjunctive to «f with optative. But (i) do not change the tense of direct speech ; (ii) do not change past indicatives in unfulfilled condi- tions to optative, either in protasis or apodosis. The same rules apply to indirect questions. For examples see below. (2) With the accusative (nominative) and infinitive construction, it is the apodosis which has the verb in the infinitive. (a) In open conditions, the tense of the infinitive is the same as the tense of the indicative in oratio recta. (b) In unfulfilled conditions, dv with present infinitive stands for dv with imperfect indicative and present optative ; av with aorist infinitive stands for av with aorist indicative and aoriat optative. The protasis follows the rule of (1) above. For examples see below, (3) With the participle construction, the rule is as in (2) above, using the participle for the infinitive. For examples see below. Norrs.—({i) By the vivid construction, the tense and mood of oratio recta may be kept, even in historic time : aponydpever adrois cbs ef pr) dkmduiporev rods AaxeBaipovlovs méAquov eoice, He announced to them that if they did not dismiss the Spartans he would make war. 32GREEK PROSE USAGE 33 (ii) As already said, past indicatives in unfulfilled conditions are not changed to optative. (iii) dv is often attached to the governing verb when followed by accusative and infinitive or participle : ode dv os 80nd, I don’t think I should. (iv) It is probable that only the fudure indicative in a protasis is changed to optative in oratio obliqua, so that the optative (except future) represents either édv with subjunctive or «{ with optative of oratio recta, In other words, e¢ with present or aorist indicative in oratio recta is not changed to optative in oratio obliqua. (v) Virtual oratio obliqua : BeBévros rod Tibpaiorov moda Bibpa, i dméNBou. When Tithraustes offered him many gifts, if he would depart. (Oratio recta: I will give you many gifts, dav dréABys.) Very commonly in a final clause after daws : Eragav etkoot vais, Sms, ei dpa 6 Dopuiuy wapanAéot, of "AByvaiot ph Biaddyouev, They drew up twenty ships, in order that, if Phormio should sail past, the Athenians should not escape. (Oratio recta: dav ¢ Doppiww mapamddn, of ’AGnvaior Siapuyeir od Burfoovrat.) EXAMPLES OF CONDITIONS IN ORATIO OBLIQUA Present Particular : a robro morodaw apaprdvovew. If they are doing this, they are doing wrong. . a {rowley duaprdvocey. elner im et robro | eocataw dpaprdvovaw. dq atrois ct robra roy} duserdvew. foBero abrais et radr0 ze dpoprévorras.34 GREEK PROSE USAGE Present Unfulfilled : «i roGr0 enoiow, hudpravov dy, If they were doing this, they would be doing wrong. elev S11 el robro énolow iudpravov dv. én abrovs et Tob70 enolovy duaprdvew dv. Yobero abros ef roGr0 énofow duaprdvavras av. Past Particular : ed roS10 éraincav jpaprov. . If they did this, they did wrong. elrev ort ei robr0 énolnaav ijpaprov (dpdprosey). &$n adrots el todro énolnaav duapreiv. jiobero abrots et robro énoineay duaprovras. Past Unfulfilled : «i robr0 énoiqoay Fpaptov dv. If they had done this, they would have done wrong. elev ore «i toro énotnoay jpaproy dv, én atrots el rodro noinaay duaprelv dv. jiobero avrods ef roG70 émotnoay dyaprovras dv. Future Open : av rotro mowjowow | « ‘ covra et toro moufoouaw J SHOPTHIOVTAS- If they do this, they will do wrong. elnev 61 édy 70070 Tonjawow duaprifcovrat. el robr0 morjoevav elnev drt {2 totro servo} dpaprijaoiwro, el rodro motjaaey ef roro noufoeay é$n atrots {« robro moujaovaw | dpapriceaBa. et rotro Toufootey el otro Toujoeay qobero abrois { el roto “joo | duaprycopevous. el T0070 Troujoore Future Vague : «i raGro rowley duaprdvacey dv. If they were to be doing this, they would be doing wrong. ef rofro moufoeay dudprovey dv. If they were to do this, they would do wrong.GREEK PROSE USAGE 36 el robr0 noiotey Spaprdvotev dv. el roGr0 maujociav dudprote dv. &n adrods ct toro mowotew — dpaprdvaw dv. fobero abrots ef roir0 mowter _ dpaprdvovras dv. %$q avrods et ror moufoeiav dpapreiy dv. Fiobero atrats ef toro woujocay dpaprovras dv. elnev dn {WISHES (1) For tHE Furure.—eide (ei ydp) + optative (present or more commonly aorist) : <8 2) yévorro, may it not happen! (2) For THE PRESENT.—ciMe (ei ydp) + imperfect indicative : ei yap b Kopos én, would that Cyrus were alive! (3) For THE Past.—ei@e (ci ydp) + aorist indicative : 8 robro Enpager, would that he had done this! Nores.—(i) The negative is j.7. (ii) ee, ef ydp may be omitted in (1), but not in (2) and (3). (iii) SPedov, ‘I ought’, 2nd aorist of ddeiAw, ‘I owe’, is used with present or aorist infinitive to express a wish that cannot be fulfilled. The negative (with the infini- tive) is jj. and ete, t ydp often introduce the wish : 1G" digede (y}) 10070 roueiv. Would that he were (not) doing this! 10° cSfede (4) r0870 morfoas. Would that he had (not) done this! This construction is personal : 0" igedre Kopos iv, would that Cyrus were alive! 36TEMPORAL CLAUSES (1) TuEseE clauses, if expressing a definite fact, have the verb in the indicative (usually a past tense) : énei3} dgixovro, when they (had) arrived. (Note aorist for English pluperfect.) A participle often translates a temporal clause ; the English present often needs the aorist in Greek : ‘hearing this’ is usually raira dxovoas. The present in Greek is to be used if the English means when or while doing some- thing. See also The Uses of the Participles. (2) Ifa temporal clause refers to the future, it takes the indefinite construction (the prospective use): dv +sub- junctive (present or aorist) in primary sequence ; optative (present or aorist) without dv in historic sequence : Srav dmévac xaipds 8oxj, obv aot auds dye. When it seems time to depart, take us with you. ped éws dv EB. T shall wait until he comes (for him to come). Epevov dws 2ABor. T waited until he should come (for him to come). (Do not use the future optative here.) (3) A temporal clause may be general or indefinite, expressing customary action (‘when’ =‘whenever’). dv + subjunctive (present or aorist) in primary sequence ; optative (present or aorist) without dv in historic se- quence. (Compare ‘if ever’ in a general condition and ‘whoever’ in a general relative clause) : io 2N0p Bdvaros, olBels Povderas Srxfoxew. When, whenever, if ever death comes, no one is willing to die. dndre twas ef twas When, whenever, if ever he saw anyone, he tried . . . 37 aiofoiro, énaiparo . . .38 GREEK PROSE USAGE (4) A temporal clause may be generic : yadendis dv rods dMous meicars, 87. ye py8* Suds svapar meiBew. I should have difficulty in persuading the others when I can't even persuade you. Notzs.—(i) In general temporal clauses the main verb is present or imperfect (not future). (ii) The rules for subordinate clauses in oratio obliqua apply to temporal clauses. (iii) The present subjunctive or optative expresses continuous or repeated action. The aorist subjunctive or optative expresses momen- tary or single action. (iv) When dependent on an unfulfilled condition, the clause introduced by éws, etc., ‘until’ takes a historic tense of the indicative (instead of the indefinite construc- tion) ; Houxiay dy Fyov, gus yuoiuny dnepavavro. I should have waited (but I didn't) until they had declared their opinion. (v) expe of and other temporal constructions are used by Thucydides with the subjunctive without dv : uéxpr ob énavélOwaw of npéofes. Until the envoys shall have returned .. , (vi) Common temporal conjunctions are : énei, éve8y, as, “when, after’. dre, éndre, qvixa, ‘at the time when’. pty, ‘before, until’ (see below). dws, pexpr 08, gore, ‘until’. Soov xpévov, éws, Zore, &v Gi, ‘whilst, as long as’. dodxis, ‘as often as’, ened; taxioTa, ‘as soon as’, e€ o¥, ‘since, from the time when’. (vii) Note the forms éveddv, drav, éndrav (émewdy + av, etc). (viii) éws with aorist =‘until’, és with present =‘as long as’.GREEK PROSE USAGE 39 (ix) (a) dre (jvixa) are relative adverbs and mean ‘at the time when’: TlepSixxas Bagireds Fv Sre LirdAnns emer. Perdiccas was king when Sitalces attacked. (b) dre marks a date ; pepoqedvor Sre dveqebpyoe. Remembering the occasion when he retreated. (c) re is used in a causal sense, ‘now that’ ; it is almost equal to om: 6re roivwy 7060" obrws éxet, now that this isso... (x) émed, éwei87) mean ‘now that’, ‘after’ (é7e.59} is more common). The following sentence shows the difference between ore and éretd7 : xal énec5i) eroipa fv, enopetero TH 58h fv enoujaaro dre ent Taudvas dorpdrevae. And now that all was ready, he set off by the road which he had made when he marched against the Paeonians. (xi) obs is used generally with the aorist, and means rather ‘as’ than ‘when’: of TAaratis, obs JoBovro eBov évras robs OnBatous, mpés SupBaow exebpqoav. The Plataeans, becoming aware that the Thebans were inside, came to an arrangement. With the imperfect : of MeAomovvyjator, obs af pnxaval obBiv didérovy, wapeaxeud£ovro mpos rip mepiretyiow, The Peloponnesians, as their machines were of no use, began to prepare for a circumvallation. (5) ‘Before, until’ =zpiv. mpiv with the infinitive or accusative and infintive meana ‘before’. After a negative mpiv means ‘until’ and takes the same construction as other temporal conjunc- tions : wool dndBavov mplv BAAo. yerdabar. Many died before it was clear thet they...40 GREEK PROSE USAGE meipeipevor $8doat mplv rods odepious karaAaBelv 73 dxpa. Trying to anticipate the enemy's seizing the heights. od mpdaber eLeveyxeiv érédunaav médepov mpiv rods otparyyovs auvé- Aaflov. They did not dare to make war until they seized the genorals. od xpi} pe dreddeiv ply dv 5d Sixqv. I ought not to depart until I pay the penalty. Zxacrov éneBe jh mpsrepov pndevds empedetoBar mpl eavrod empedn- Gein. , He tried to persuade each one not to care for anything until he cared for himself. Nores.—(i) mpiv is often preceded by npdrepov or mpdabev in the main clause. (ii) Generally mpcv takes the aorist infinitive : aplv éoBatvery (present), before the embarkation began. (iii) zpiv 7 is found for piv (probably not in Attic prose). So also mpdrepov 7, ‘before’ (for mpérepov mpiv). (iv) Even after a negative, rpiv may mean ‘before’ and take the infinitive : plav audpav otk exfpevce mplv as “AgoBov éXBety, She was not a widow a single day before she went to Aphobus. ob mpiv mdaxew rovs ouppdxous rapexaddoare, Not previously to your suffering did you summon the allies, (v) After historic tenses zpiv dv with subjunctive is used only in oratio obliqua (vivid construction) : ode En dmdva mplv av 18y rév orparnydy. He said he would not go away until he saw the general. (vi) apiv with indicative meaning ‘until’ is sometimes used after an affirmative : WBarpalov, mpl rves etrov. They wondered, until some said . . . mpiv 8, mpiv ye 87, marking the decisive moment ; mapandhara 88 xal of émt rév vedv dnaaxov mply ye 8) of Evpaxdarot Erpepav rods "Abqvalous. Those in the ships were suffering much the same, until finetly the Syracusans routed the Athenians.CAUSAL CLAUSES Ort, Sidre = ‘because’; eet =‘since’ (ereimep, émerdy) 5 ws = as’, The indicative is used, negative od : Eel ob Oédere euot melBeabat, ey adv duiv &popat. Since you will not obey me, I will follow with you. of Lupaxdacor mrelw émoplaavro Ste év peylory Kwddvy Foav. The Syracusans furnished more because they were in the greatest danger, fv 88 dkios b dydy dre odxt "APqvataw pdvew mepreylyvorro. The struggle was more worth while, because they were over- coming not only the Athenians. But in oratio obliqua and virtual oratio obliqua the optative is used for the indicative in the same tense as the oratio recta, except for past tenses in oratio recta, which are not changed. The optative is found only after drt, us, ered. In virtual oratio obliqua the alleged reason is given, after verbs of accusing and the like (‘on the ground that’): rév Iepixdda exduifov dre obk enegdyor. They abused Pericles, because (as they said) he was not leading them out. Norrs.—(i) 8a +é with the infinitive is often used for ‘because of the fact that’. (ii) A participle, sometimes with dre or obs, may take the place of a causal clause: — robrwy obrws dxévrwy, since this is (was) so. (iii) The relative pronoun (doris or ds ye) with the indicative may express a cause (‘in that he . . .’): 4142 GREEK PROSE USAGE kdxioros évopllero doris ot dvréary tots wodeplos. He was considered most cowardly in that he did not resist the enemy. See also Relative Clauses, p. 55. (iv) éwed may equal ‘for’ : énet roodvbe etré, for tell us this much.CONCESSIVE CLAUSES (1) ‘Although’ =édv kai, «¢ wat; ‘even if’=Kal édv (kdv), Kat et; ‘not even if’=ov8’ édv, 00d’ ei. These conjunctions are followed by the construction of the protasis of a conditional sentence ; negative ji : KaAdy dv dv, ef xai thuaprdvoper, rotade «lgat. It would have been honourable for these men to yield, although we were at fault. xairot raira, kai ef pixpd nis Hyetras, peydda Selyyard ear. And yet these are great proofs, even if one thinks them small. Nore.—«dp et (for at dy et), ‘even if’, is used with indicative or optative : kav ef moddal elow, & ye elSos Exovaw. Even if they are many, they have one form. nav ef es LanarqOelq, ead} dada, Even if one were to be deceived, the deceit would be noble. (2) Usually ‘although’ is translated by xatwep with the participle ; negative od (see Uses of the Participles) : katnep eiSéres. Although they knew . . . xainep eer. Although it is possible. xalnep 08 rapévros 700 orparnyos. Although the general was not present. Nore.— Kai tabra THAwKooTos div. And that, too, though of such an age. 43COMPARATIVE CLAUSES (1) érws, ds, domep, xabdrep, mean ‘as’, often with odrw xaé in the main clause : dys, Sonep Mos rs temp dyalG Pera, odrw nat pidois dyabois Popa. : As another man delights in @ good horse, so I delight in good friends. In the Future, they are used with dv with subjunctive : roGr0 nojow bs dpiora dv Bovwpat, I shall do it aa best I can. auiv Bonet BianopedeoBa: thy xebpay ds dv SivwpeBa doweorara. We are determined to march through the land doing as little harm as possible. In the Present, they take the indicative for a definite comparison : . robro Taw cs dpora 8¥vapat, I am doing it as best I can. They take dv with subjunctive for a general comparison : robro det nod dis &pora dv Bivwpat. I always do it as best I can. In the Past, they take the indicative for a definite comparison : roiro énoinea ds dpiora eBuvduny. I did it as best I could, They take the optative for a general comparison : ro0t0 del enolovw ths Sprora Buvaluny. I always used to do it as best I could. Notrs.—(i) dbs rroddusot, like enemies. ds, rt rdxiera, a8 quickly as possible. dbs dx mAciorov, at as great a distance as possible, (ii) Proportion is expressed by dow . . . rocovrw : Sow wAtov . . . rosodrp mAdov, the more , . . the more. 44GREEK PROSE USAGE 45 ’ dowmep means ‘exactly in proportion as . . .’. A double superlative is also used : of larpol pdiora e8vjoxov Sow xal pdAvora npocficay. The doctors died in greater numbers, as they came more into contact. (iii) After tos, ‘equal’, dpotos, ‘like’, 6 abrds, ‘the same’, kai may be used for ‘as’: & tow wat el ph eveOunyOn . . Equally as if he had not thought . . . Also by the relative : rabrav Eofay txew tdprypa smep xal of onral. They seemed to have the same error as the poets. Also by the dative case (g.v.). See also Correlatives (p. 49). (iv) A comparative clause may be attracted into the construction of the main clause : 2} adrovdpous ras év rH ’Aclg nodes elvar, domep Kal ras ev 7h “EMdde. He said that the cities in Asia were autonomous, es those in Greece (are). (v) Notice the frequent use of «ai with a comparison : dow Kal, doTep Kal, Onep Kai. It could be translated ‘as also’, ‘just as’. (vi) ofov means ‘like’,‘for example’. See Correlatives (9), (vii) ody comep comes to mean ‘whereas’ : dw ro8 Kans néayew yerfoecbe, oly Gomep réy mapeABévra xpévev “ Syero dywv .. You will be out of reach of injury, whereas in time past (Philip) carried off . . . (2) ‘Than’ is translated by 7}, with the same construc- tion as precedes it : ndvra p&Mov roujow 7 dnoxpwodpat. I will do anything rather than answer. Preyyow ef twa eBetev Egy dev 4 Ty pavepdv. They questioned whether they knew any other way than the obvious one,46 GREEK PROSE USAGE The genitive of comparison is common when the nomina- tive or accusative follows 7, less common when the dative follows : petteav earl 108 dBedgod, He is taller then his brother. Sut» aloyiov rév Eww (H rots dNois). More disgraceful for you than for the others, It is used with words like dos, Erepos, mpdrepos, mpotepatos, tarepos, varepaios, Staddpw, 76 evavriov, SemrAdavos : Sorepo ris wdyns. Too late for the battle, Th Vorepaig ris dys. On the day after the battle. rH vorepaia # ff ay An 16 mAoiov, droBavoduat. On the day after that of the ship's arrival I shall be executed. It is found with genitives like éAmidos, Adyov, Katpod, yrdins, rod déovros, Tod Svros (reality) : nddov 706 béovros, more than necessary. With mAdov, éAarrov, pelov, 7} may be omitted before numbers without affecting the case : od petov mevraxootous dndereway. They killed not less than 500, But also; ob peiov éfjjxovra oradiwy, not less than 60 stades. pufpus ndéov } etxoow, more than 20 triremes. ov peiov 7} pupta orddia, not less than 10,000 stades, But aAetous, éAdocous are found with 7 or the genitive. Norrs.—(i) A comparison of two properties of the same subject is expressed by two comparatives : dvdpecdrepos 7} Ppovipcsrepos, more brave than wise. (ii) Notice the expression Buvarcbrepor adrol éaurdy, more powerful than ever. (iii) The comparative also means ‘rather’,GREEK PROSE USAGE 47 (iv) The comparative may be used idiomatically for English positive : 088’ Eorw obre peitov ob? Edarrov Yridiopa. There is no decree, great or small. (v) Comparatio compendiaria — Brachylogy of Com- parison : rovraw (gen. of comparison) tiv évavtiay dracay d8éy éAjAvda. I-have come a completely different way from (that of) these men. (vi) The illogical form of comparison is frequent : afiodoydsraroy ray mpoyeyernpdvuv. Literally, Most noteworthy of its predecessors. i.e. More noteworthy than its predecessors. (vii) dAAd 7} =‘than, except’: riva dMov éxouce Adyov, AN’ # rév SpOdv re Kai Bixatov; What other argument have they than the right and just one? (viii) sAqv 7 (and Any e?) used for ‘except’ (mAjv). (ix) Pleonastic use of 7 : ais dv aloxaw ety radrys 86g 4 Boxetv; What reputation could be more disgraceful than this, to be thought .. .? (x) Some ways of expressing the superlative : Bwards ef res dAdos Buvards ais ovdeis dAdos mAciora els Suvduevos } most, very powerful. olos 8wardraros &y rois Buvardbraros xal more dvros mdyou olov Bevordrov And when there was once a most terrible frost. (xi) GBiov dv droBdvoyn } wapabotny ra Sma. I would sooner die than hand over my arms. The second clause does not take dv.48 GREEK PROSE. USAGE (xii) A comparative means ‘too’ : petlov 4 ward Béxpua, Too great for tears, SBecardpws } mpds rip Houta) evbecorépws mapa ri» éovalav Too sparingly for their means. peilov } pepe. Too great to bear (to be borne). This is more usually peilov } dore (us) dépewv. (3) ‘Than if’, 4 «¢; ‘as if’, domep ef (womepe!), ofov ei; ‘as though’, womep av ef (cbomepavei), oldvrep. These take the construction of the protasis of unreal conditions: with the optative, ‘as if one were to do’; with imperfect indicative, ‘as if one were doing’; with aorist indicative, ‘as if one did (had done)’: ob8ey Biddopov wdayer # et dorparedero. He is treated exactly as if he were a soldier. The participle can be used, wy being frequently omitted : domepavel mais (div), like a child. donep dv ef hyodpevor, a8 though thinking. olévrep tuvotvres, a8 though singing.CORRELATIVES DemonstRatives have corresponding relatives ; where in English this relative is ‘as’, in Greek the relative corresponding to the demonstrative is used : odrw(s), 80 ds, 08 rootros, of such @ sort olos, as togodros, of such a size Goos, as Toootrot, a8 many Soo, a8 Sonep 6 atrés, the same | at | as the dative) | otros, this man 6s, doris, Who éxei, there od, where éxeice, thither of, whither éxeifev, thence d6ev, whence tore, then ére, when Examples : Speis roaotro. Gvres Scot viv ovveAnAdbare. You being so many as are now assembled. rosobréy o« eylvwaxov cov iovoy *A@nvatov elvat. { had taken so much notice of you, as I heard you were an Athenian. Notrs.—(i) The agreement of the relative-is as in Relative Clauses (q.v.). (ii) The relative clause often precedes the main clause and the demonstrative is used in the main clause though usually omitted in English. (iii) Notice the expression : olos od dvjp, such a man 4s you. All three words are declined together. (iv) For ofos with infinitive see Consecutive Clauses, 4950 GREEK PROSE USAGE but remember the difference between ‘such . . . as’ and ‘such . . . as to (that)’. (v) ofov means ‘for example’, ‘like’ : ef 8 ad olov drodopuijoat dorw 6 Odvaros evOdvbe. But if death is like leaving this place, (vi) dcov means ‘about’ : Sgov dxrw otadious, about 8 stades (a mile).RELATIVE CLAUSES A. DEFINITE When the relative refers to a definite person or thing (or time, place, manner), it takes the indicative (nega- tive o¥), or any other construction which would occur in an independent sentence : 6 ph yéorro. May it not happen! tay "ABqvaiwy mpéoess, of Ervxov mapdvtes. Ambassadors of the Athenians, who happened to be present. Nores.—(i) év@a, ‘where’, évJev, ‘whence’, are re- latives in prose, except in the phrases évOa kai évOa, ‘here and there’, év@ev xai évfev, ‘on both sides (on one side and on the other)’ and in Xenophon év@a 57, ‘then indeed’. (ii) #8 ds, ‘said he’; 7 8 bs 6 Lwxpdrns, ‘said Socrates’; xai ds, ‘and he’; ds 8’ é¢n, ‘said he’. (iii) 65 pév . . . ds 8€ used in oblique cases for 6 pev ... 6 8é, ‘one . . . another’: adders "EMnvidas ds pev dvarpadv, els ds 58 xardywv robs puyddas. Destroying some Hellenic cities, to others restoring the exiles. (iv) €or of (ots, dy, ols) or efoiv of =‘some’. The imperfect is usually Foay of : gotw év ols, in some things. (v) . . ovx éa6’ dws, impossible, ovd« a6’ Sus ot, undoubtedly, forv re, sometimes. (vi) ovals dors o¥, everybody. ot52 GREEK PROSE USAGE This phrase is treated as one word, e.g. accusative is : oddéva Gvrwa od Karéxdace trav mapdvrew. He broke down all of those present. (vii) Erov 84 napeyyuioavros. : Someone or other passing the word. (vii Bera Spdros Gavpacrod scou, With a wonderful amount of sweat. Oavpaords ws, wonderfully. ds dAnOds, in truth, dis érépws, amiss, (ix) Soar tpépar (donuepar), daily, (x) A preposition is usually omitted with the relative, when it has been used with the antecedent : & 7@ nAoiw &, in the ship in which. (xi) The relative is often not repeated, though in a different case : ols péAer. . . GAAd (ow, who care for , . . but live, The demonstrative is usually put for the repeated relative, if in an oblique case : Sa0i elpyaopevor eiaiv, dfetrerac 8° adrots. Those who have done . . . and to whom there is due. But the relative is repeated if the first clause is negative and the second affirmative : ove ev & Keivras paMov Edd’ ev & 4 Bdga Karadelneras, Not the tomb in which they lie but rather that in which their glory is left behind. (xii) The negative x7} is found with a definite relative when it expresses a cause or result conceived as ideal rather than real : ols pnBd enedOeiv oldv re Fv. Inasmuch as it was impossible even to get at them.GREEK PROSE USAGE 53 Agreement of Relative Pronoun It takes its number, gender, person from its antecedent but its case from its own clause. rods dundpous, of Eruxov mapdyres, dréxreway. They killed the merchants who happened to be present. Note.—When the relative clause contains a predica- tive noun, the relative agrees (a) with the antecedent, when the clause is necessary to complete the sense ; 76 péytarov vdanpa 6 ardas KaXetras. That serious disease called faction. (6) with the predicative noun, when the clause is not essential : gidos, & peyorov dyaddv elval dao. A friend, the greatest blessing, they say. Relative Attraction (a) The relative, when object, is attracted to the case of its antecedent, when genitive or dative: ray Sujpwv dv for rév Suipwv d. So when the antecedent is drawn into the relative clause: als cAaBov vavoly for rais vavolv ds éAaBov. Notes.—(i) doris is never attracted, but daos, olos and 7Aixos are attracted like és. (ii) Attraction does not occur when the relative is connective : ndvruw dv elyov dyabav oor peréwxa, & od gavdites. I gave you a share of all the good things I had, and you despise them. (b) (i) A demonstrative antecedent is often omitted when the relative would be in the accusative: epi dv for rept rovrwy pds (or a). ody ols pddora didets (adv exelvois ofs). With those whom you like most.54 GREEK PROSE USAGE (ii) A demonstrative as antecedent may be omitted in the nominative or accusative : ols ra mdpovra dpxet, ox épéyovras. Those, for whom the present is enough, do not seek . . . dav enol Sv Beouae Saqperfoqre (raira dv. . .). If you supply me with what I need. (iii) The relative may be attracted into the case of an omitted antecedent, with agreement of predicative adjective in the relative clause : Gy &xpwa Bixaluv o88ey mpoBodvat (rovrew & Expwa Sixasa). Not to betray any of the things I considered just. (c) (i) The antecedent may be attracted into the case of the relative and drawn into the relative clause : div dretxovto KepSciv alaxpa vopitovres. Counting disgraceful the profits from which they abstained. Note the omission of the article. (ii) The antecedent may be attracted into the case of the relative, but not drawn into the relative clause : Deyov Sn ndvrew dv Bovrar Expagay (ndvra cv). They said they had done alt the things they needed. Other uses of the relative : (i) dors with the future indicative (negative yn) expresses & purpose in primary or historic time. fuvéBpous édéoBar exéAevoy ofrives gysProovrar. They bade them choose councillors to come to an agreement. The potential dy with optative is also used (for the future indicative) : ful’ av huts wh SuvaipeBa dpixéobar . . . In order that we should not then reach . . . In past time we find : xeiporovelv eBovrccbe ef chy ra mpdypara jueMev us davddrara sew. You wished to pass measures for the utter ruining of the state.GREEK PROSE USAGE 55 (ii) doris or ds ye with the indicative (negative od or v) expresses & cause (‘since, in that’) : of ye pnBe dnd moAredy rovovrew Frere, Since also you do not come from such states. (iii) ovis or ds with the indicative, or dv with the optative (negative ov) expresses a result, usually after negatives : ovbeis dv yévorro obrws aSapudvrivos ds dv peivece. No one would be so unmoved that he would remain firm. (iv) ds is used for the demonstrative : kat ds dxovoas . . ., and he, hearing . . . (v) Connective relative : 0b 8) dvra rév LurdAduny of *ABqvator fippaxov éroujoarro. His son, then, Sitalces the Athenians made an ally, B. INDEFINITE A relative clause with an indefinite antecedent has a conditional force. Negative 7. (1) Present (a) Particular ; indicative in both clauses : & ps) ol8a el rva pi of8a What I do not know I do not (now) think I If there is anything I do not knowj know, | 0088 ofopar eiSévat. This use is also called generic — the sort of thing I do not know. The specific case can always be put generically, (6) General (denoting repetition or indefinite fre- quency): Relative with dv and the subjunctive ; indica- tive main clause : ouppaxety rodras eBéAovas mdvres, obs Gv dpiior wapeakevacpevous (édv twas dpdiat), All men are (atways) willing to join those whom (whomsoever) they see ready.56 GREEK PROSE USAGE (c) Unfulfilled: relative clause imperfect indicative ; main clause dy with imperfect indicative : otk dv emexerpoduer mpérrew {3 ph pmorducha. «wwe We should not be undertaking (as we are) to do what we did not understand, (2) Past (a) Particular: indicative in both clauses : obs ef twas They made a cenotaph for any whom (such as) they did not find. enavnpdbray rév Zwxpdrn 6 yh euenrienr. 1 used to ask Socrates anything I did not remember. (b) General (indefinite frequency) : relative clause in optative; main clause indicative ; erei8} ef mote We used to go in, whenever the prison was opened. Snovov mpodicsterar, rocoGrov nédw enavaxwpeiv ees. As far as they advanced in pursuit, so far they had to retire. (c) Unfulfilled: relative clause in past indicative ; main clause dy with aorist indicative : é el twa. He would not have given what he did not wish to give. (3) Future (a) Open: relative clause with dy and subjunctive ; main clause future indicative : el Poddnras, Busou. I will give him whatever he wanta. (6) Vague: relative clause with optative, main clausé with dy and optative. 6, ad Bovdorro, Botny dv. I should give him whatever he wished, ) ph etpioxor, evordguov abrots éwolaay. dyoryBein, elojuer. | th eBovdero Bodvas, obe av Uunev.IMPERSONAL VERBS (1) Tose denoting weather and natural phenomena, e.g. dew, ‘it rains’, éoewe, ‘there was an earthquake’. (2) 8e7, yp7, ‘must, ought’, take the accusative and infinitive. Note: x6 Bee, dypqw (xp) pe wovetv; What was I to do? What ought I to have done? (3) Those like ééeor71, ‘it is possible’, Soxe?, ‘it seems good’, taking the dative and the infinitive : Boker adrots dneAbetv, they decided to go away. (4) yeAer, ‘it is a care’, takes the dative of the person and the genitive of the noun or the dative and the infinitive. It may have rodro, radra (neuter pronouns) as subject : péAa pot raéra, these things are a care to me. odSdv por peAet tis dperijs, I care not for virtue. erapeédc, ‘it repents’, takes the dative of the person and the genitive of the noun, or a participle agreeing with the dative of the person : perapdde por rabra noujoavri. I repent of having done these things. (5) Passive verbs of saying, e.g. A€yerau, ‘it is said’, elpnrat, ‘it has been said’ (also used personally: see Oratio Obliqua), and the perfect and pluperfect passive of other verbs are used impersonally (with the dative of the agent), e.g. : uiv rapeoxedacrat, preparations have been made by us. obs eipyrat, as has been said (ordered). (8) Verbs like onualver, ‘the signal is given’, éxypuée, 8758 GREEK PROSE USAGE ‘a proclamation was made’, where the real subject is understood (i.e. the herald, the trumpeter) : chs Corpyve rots “EMqaw. When the signal was given to the Greeks. Nores.—(i) davepds, SHAos, Sikatos (‘I am clear, right’) are used personally : BAAol claw ob pevorres. It is clear that they are not staying. Bixauds eles drodoyfoacba.. It is right for me to defend myself. We also find Sixardy dort with the accusative and infinitive, and 8txcaiws dv with optative (‘I should be justified’). So also douxa, ‘I seem’: Zouxer o8 marip clvat, it seems he is not a father. But also abs gouxev, ‘as it seems’. (Note 84Aov dz (as one word), ‘obviously’ (lit. ‘it is clear that’). (ii) Sone? por, ‘it seems good to me (I decide)’. (iii) The negative with impersonal verbs is ov, e.g. ob Se¢; but an infinitive after an impersonal verb takes pe yds Bet pfrore eLanaryPiivas bd rovrwy. We must never be deceived by these men. Sv mpolumnPfvas Bet 4 unde poBvar. (Pleasures) from which one must receive pain firat or not enjoy at all. (iv) The participles of impersonal verbs are used absolutely in the accusative, e.g. déov, ‘it being neces- sary’, Sdfav, ‘it having been decided’. But with verbs denoting weather the genitive is used: JUovros, ‘as it was raining’.THE USES OF THE PARTICIPLES (1) Tue article with the participle is equivalent to a relative clause. (a) Definite : of od BovdAduevor, ‘those who did not wish’. (6) Indefinite: of ux) BovAduevor, ‘any who do not wish’. (2) cis with the future participle expresses purpose : ws is omitted with verbs of motion. Negative od: mpooords mapecxeudlovro ws morqadpevot. They made preparations with a view to making attacks. eewpav pas npdgovras mept av ev 7H view. They sent us to make arrangements about those on the island. The article is frequently used with this participle : 6 hynadpevos oddels égrat, there will be no one to lead us. (3) The participle is used for a temporal clause : éxédevoev avréy BiaBdvra ri OdAacoay émevra draddrreabat, He ordered him to withdraw only after he had crossed the sea. Note éreira (or rdre), ‘only after, not until’. «063s, mapavtixa with a participle mean ‘as soon as’ : «600s dnofefnxéres, immediately after landing. dpa, peragv with a participle mean ‘in the act of, in the middle of, while’ : diya npotéy émeaxonciro, As he went on, he considered . . . toMayob 8% pe erdoxe d¢yovra perate. It often checked me in the middle of speaking. dpr. with past participle means ‘soon after’ : dpm ris pdyns yeyernperys. Soon after the battle had taken place. 5960 GREEK PROSE USAGE (4) xaimep with a participle means ‘although’. Negative od: xatnep otx eiSdres, although they did not know .. . (5) dre, olov, ofa 34 with participle mean ‘because, inasmuch as’. Negative ov : dre voulluv dueivovas elvar duas mpooédaBor, I took you with me, as I thought you better. (8) ws with participle expresses a thought or supposi- tion, ‘on the ground that, thinking that’. Negative od : dre 8é 8bgw dpedfjoas, obs olds re dv ce afew. T shall be thought negligent, on the ground that I am able to gave you. (7) A participle may stand for the protasis of a condition. The tense used is that of the finite verb represented by the participle (present for present and imperfect), but not the future. Negative yz: pdtv aloxpev ravodvres. If you do nothing dishonourable. wh Karqyoptaavros Aloxivou pnBev, 088" av ey Adyov odBév’ enoiod- By Erepov. If Aeschines had made no accusation, I should not now be adding any different argument. (8) &ovep with participle means ‘as it were, as if’, Negative od : Gonep otk énl ool Sv, 08 if it were not in your power. See Comparative Clauses (3). (9) Many participles are used with adverbial force, eg.: dpxépevos, at firat. tedevray, at leat. ideas, sooner. Aabdv, secretly. dvdcas, quickly. xalpuy, with impunity. Oappav, cheerfully. raltwy, in jest, for fun. oweddy, briefly. rl Povdsuevos; with what purpose?GREEK PROSE USAGE 61 Séoy, éfdv (with infinitive), instead of (though you might). rf paSsv, what induces (induced) you to. . .? rl na8dv, what possesses (possessed) you to. . .? Examples : trois dmmedow elpyro Bappodar Siudbxew. Orders had been given to the cavalry to pursue with confidence, ri robr0 pabiv mpoatypayper; What induced him to add this clause ? (10) The participle is used as the complement (instead of the infinitive) after many verbs, such as : dvéxopar, suffer, endure, AavOdvw, escape notice. dyavaxréw, dyGopar, be annoyed. erapéAopat, repent. aloxtvopat, be ashamed. mravw, stop. Epxw, begin. mavopat, cease. BiareAdw, continue. rreptopdw, allow. SiAds eit, be clear, tvyxdvw, happen, Meine, fail. xarends gépw, be annoyed, Fopuar, be glad. ¢0dvex, anticipate. Gapilu, be accustomed, gaivouat, Beem. kaprepéw, persevere. davepds ei, be clear, xduvw, be weary. xatpw, rejoice, Anyw, cease. Nore.—\avédvw, dddvw, rvyydvw are used with the aorist participle. See also pp. 62, 64, 125. Aadev Ody, He came secretly, Afoere rijs noMrelas napaywphaarres. You will insensibly surrender the constitution. al vies $@dvovow adrods mpoxarapuyoioa. The ships get away before them. (11) The Genitive Absolute ; (¢) A noun or pronoun and a participle in agreement in the genitive case form the genitive absolute and are equivalent to adverbial clauses of many kinds, eg. temporal, conditional, concessive, causal. The particle cis is often added to mean ‘because’ xairep, ‘although’, dozep, ‘as if’.62 GREEK PROSE. USAGE The noun or pronoun in this case is not grammatically connected with the main construction of the sentence : as hen since if Kévwvos otparnyodvros Conon waa general. Notz.—The noun or pronoun is sometimes omitted, when it can be easily supplied from the context or-is a general word like av@pumwy or mpaypdruy : otrws eydvrwy, this being so. (6) With Impersonal Verbs (g.v.) the accusative absolute is used : éfév, it being possible. 8éov, it being necessary. So also with passive verbs used impersonally : eipnpévov, when it has been said. And the participle év : abuvaroy dv, it being impossible. But with impersonal verbs of weather the genitive is used : Uovros moAA@, when it was raining heavily. Nores,—(i) tvydv (neuter eorist participle of ruy- xdvw) is used as an adverb =‘perhaps’. (ii) 80€ay radra or Sdéavra radra is found, meaning ‘this being decided’. (iii) An accusative absolute is used with ws or domep in apposition to a sentence meaning ‘in the belief that, considering that’ : obey alroto, ds oby! airoiow dpeNav eooperny. They demand pay, considering that it is not they who will benefit, Notes on ParticreLEs.—(i) AavOdvw and pOdvw areGREEK PROSE USAGE 63 used in the aorist participle to mean ‘secretly’ and ‘sooner, first’ : WAde AaBdv, he came secretly. (ii) Patvopat with infinitive, ‘I seem to. . .’. gatvopar with participle gavepds eipe ” ‘T evidently am’, birds etue » davepov, d9Adv eons, ‘it is plain’, are used with a dr clause. (ai) dpyw, dpyopat, ‘begin’, have infinitive or parti- ciple: 4} vdcos (mpdrov) yp£ato yeréabat, the plague began to happen. dpxw (often with mpéros) with genitive or infinitive frequently means ‘I am first to, I make a beginning of’ : dywrleaaGe rots "EMnar Spat mpdiror édevBeplas. Strive to begin the work of liberation for the Greeks. (iv) aloxdvopat A€ywr, I am ashamed to say (lit. saying). aloxtvoua: Aéyew, I am prevented by shame from saying. (v) With Avorrede?, cupdéper, perapeAer, the parti- ciple is used in agreement with the indirect object : peropéAes wor roujoavrs (for zorjoat). I repent of having done it. (vi) ovk dv POdvors A€ywr, tell me at once, ‘expressing that which, when it takes place, will not take place too soon’ (Madvig). (vii) The negative with participles is oJ, except when the participle equals an indefinite relative clause or the protasis of a condition. See The Negative. (viii) The participles BovAdpevos, 73dpevos, mpoadexe- pevos are used in agreement with a dative depending on ori, yiyverat (Dative of Reference) : Bovdopévy dort 7 mdjGer, the multitude is inclined.64 GREEK PROSE USAGE (ix) For the participle in indirect speech see Oratio Obliqua. (x) The participle is used predicatively : Spa 1h oirw depaforre. At the time of the ripening of the corn. And so in other expressions of time with perd, émi, dua. Also : 8d rovrous ob meoPevras. Owing to these men’s non-compliance. 76 yuplov wri{épevov. The founding of the place. (xi) The present (or perfect) participle is used to express continuous time, like the present and imperfect indicative (see The Verb: Tenses). With #7 in primary time or rére in historic time, it refers to a completed period past at the time of speaking. With é7: it refers to the completion of a period in the future : ént XpuoiBos rére lepwyévns revrijxovta éry. When Chrysie had then been priestess for 50 years. nods érraxdava éry ibn atxoupdry. A city which has been inhabited now for 700 years. TlvOoddpau éxc réocapas pijvas dpxovros. When Pythodorus had stilt four months of office to run. (xii) The perfect participle is used with tuyydvw, AavOdvu, POdvw for a completed action ; al Opa dvewypdvat éruxov, the gates happened to be open. The aorist participle denotes time coincident with the verb : éruyev éAGciv, he happened to come (by chance he came). But: Eruxov addtduevos (imperfect participle). They were camping by chance. erbyxavor Mywr. I happened to be saying.GREEK PROSE USAGE 65 (xiii) When a participle and a finite verb have a common object, that object follows the construction of the participle : és "EXevoiva éoBadtvres eBzwoav. They invaded and ravaged Eleusis. (xiv) eptopdw is used with infinitive (in Thucydides) when it equals édw : PAmgev robs *"APqvatous ray yy ode av wepiibety TunOAvas. He expected that the Athenians would not let their land be ravaged. (xv) The participle of the potential (dv with parti- ciple) : ths réiv ye napdvraw ode dv mpdgavres xeipov. Since their plight could not be worse than it is. See Further Notes on Conditional Sentences (p. 31). (xvi) kal radra dpvodpevos ri xpelav. And that too though he denied the connexion. (xvii) The participle often contains a more important idea than that of the main verb : obBey ray Bedvrww notovvraw Sudv Kaxis ta mpdypar’ eee. The evil plight of your affairs is due to your neglect of duty. guddgas rév xeysdva emyerpet. He waits for the winter to commence operations. (xviii) The participle may express the means by which the action of the main verb is brought about : ras npopdocis Sei Upds dperciv, wioOdv mopicavras. You must remove their excuses by supplying pay. (xix) doa yj with the participle means ‘except in so much as, provided only . . . not’: duidoaew rv vijcor ‘AByvalous, Soa jt) droBalvovras. The Athenians should guard the island, provided only they did not land,m3 THE USES OF THE INFINITIVE (1) Tue Inrinitive as Supsect oR Prepicats.—The article ia used when the infinitive is the true subject :, robré dori 76 dBixety, injustice is this. No article is used when it is predicate or completes the predicate : otro pavOdve xaAetras. This is called learning. oly 480 moMods exOpois exer. It is not pleasant to have many enemies. Nore.—The subject of the infinitive is understood to be 3rd person : Boxeiv yap elbdvar eariv, & obx ofbev. For it is to seem to know what one does not know. (2) Pronative INFINITIVE.—(a) Many verbs (as in English) have an infinitive to complete their meaning. But see The Uses of the Participles for verbs taking a participle instead of an infinitive. (b) Verbs followed by an indirect command have the infinitive. See Indirect Commands. (c) Verbs of hoping, promising, swearing take future infinitive, See Indirect Statements. (d) dyyé\w (mapayyéAAw) with dative and infinitive means “Poend word" (e) xevSuvedw with the infinitive is used to translate ‘perhaps’. xw8uvetw nenovOdvar, perhaps I have experienced . . . (f) wé\Aw is used with present or future infinitive, rarely with aorist. 66GREEK PROSE USAGE 67 (g) éxw and infinitive means ‘I am able’ : al nis dyer ndpous erépous Adyew . . . If anyone can mention other revenues. (3) InriniTivE oF Purrose.—This is used with verbs of electing, appointing, giving, offering and the like: mw Boudiy exdornoay émpedetobar . . . Thoy appointed the council to take charge of . . . riv nédy guddrraw rofs AaxeBaipovtors napéeBuxav. They gave the city to the Lacedaemonians to guard, Notss.—(i) This infinitive is not used in the passive : napéxe davrdv epwray, he offers himself to be questioned. (ii) Verbs of bringing, sending, leaving behind usually have the future participle to express the purpose. (4) Inrinitive witH ADJECTIVES (epexegetic, limit- ing).—(a) Many adjectives like ixavds, Suvards, éroipos, mpobupos, Sewds, dgvos take the infinitive, active or passive : dfvos Bavpdlecba or Bavpdtev, worthy to be admired. Norss.—(i) Sometimes wore is used : dAyat dare, (too) few to... (ii) 3éxacds e¢ye with the infinitive means ‘I have a right, I deserve, it is right for me’. (6) Adjectives meaning ‘easy, hard, beautiful, plea- sant’, like yaAemds, kaAds, 75us, take the infinitive : adds iSeiv, beautiful to see. (c) After a comparative with 7, more usually with dare Or is; peilov 7 pepe, too great to bear. (5) Inrinitive oF Limrration or ABSOLUTE InFint- TIVE, €.g.—- (a) modo Seiv, far from it. 76 vov elvat, at present. éMyou Seiv, almost. oxeddv etretv, almost. BSoxetv por, in my opinion.68 GREEK PROSE USAGE (6) With es or dis ye: dis én nay elreiv. To speak generally. ds (Eos) etreiv, So to speak (not apologizing for a metaphor, but limiting a sweeping or universal statement), e.g. : od8dy émordpevos, cbs Enos eimeiv. Knowing practically nothing. . (Ss) oweddyrt ele. To speak concisely. (The participle cvveAwy means ‘ briefly’). ds dropvioat, a8 a reminder. (c) With dcov or éca : daov y' ene «idévas, a8 far as I know. (d) éxesv elvat, ‘deliberately’, after a negative : ove Sunv Und cod éxdvros «lvar efamaraabar. I did not think to be deceived by you, at least deliberately. vopilwv of 7d tropdver éxdvras elvat Kai pdxeadas owrnplay. Considering that safety lay not in their remaining and fighting, unless obliged . . . (6) Tae INFINITIVE WITH THE ARTICLE.—(a) Used as subject : xarendy 78 perplus elreiv. To speak with moderation is difficult. (b) Used as object, very occasionally : PoPotpevor 73 Karameaeiv. Being afraid of falling down. 78 duvvecbas xiduov tynaduevor . . Thinking resistance nobler. (c) In accusative after prepositions, e.g. 81d, emi, apds, els, kard, mapd : Sid 7d furdiarrdofa, through being domesticated.GREEK PROSE USAGE 69 (d) In genitive, as object of verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs and prepositions, e.g. dvri, vera, mAjv, wepl, ex : 16 dfavis 708 Karopfwoev, the uncertainty of success. x 70d pt) épnyotoba, a8 & result of not being depopulated. Nores.—(i) Phrases like e€ovotay $:Sdvar, mpopacw mapéxew usually take the simple infinitive ; so do verbs like emOupew, péuvnpar, émAavOdvopat. (ii) Verbs of hindering and preventing (g.v.) can take tod with the infinitive. (e) In the dative (i) of cause, (ii) after a preposition : 1 éurerpdrepor elvas, through being more experienced. & 7 Civ én, in living longer. (7) THE ARTICLE WITH THE ACCUSATIVE AND INFINI- TIVE = ‘the fact that’—(a) As subject : 26 xpdvov moAby yeyerfoBar AfOqv rod eumenoiqner dpiv. The fact that much time has elapsed has implanted some forgetfulness in you. (b) As object of a verb or preposition, e.g. ded : Sia. 16 eiwBevar rods moAAods SiarraoGat. On account of the fact that the majority were accustomed to live... (c) In apposition to a noun or pronoun ; dBc por Soxet «5 AdyeaBat, 74 Beods elvar. This, namely that there are gods, seems to me well said. Also expressed by a dre clause : 7d pav GMa dpOds Frovoas, Sri BE ole . . . mapyxovcas. ‘The rest you heard aright, but as to your thinking . . . you misheard. (d) In dative =by reason of. Also used with adjectives and prepositions : rabr’ expafey DDumros rH Bixardrepa afiobv rods OnBalous. Philip did this by reason of the fact that the Thebans mado more just demands.70 GREEK PROSE USAGE (e) In genitive, as for simple infinitive with article : 8 Umbp 708 radra ph yerdoBar dydv. The contest for the prevention of these things from happening. A genitive of purpose is found, generally negative (rare except in Thucydides) : 706 pi) Agords Kaxoupyeiv, to prevent pirates from ravaging. (8) Tue Inrinitive mn Inprreot STATEMENT (9.0.). (9) Tae Invinitive in Inprrzct ComMaND (.v.). (10) Tae InFinitive mv ConsEcUTIVE CLAUSES (q.0.). (11) THe INFINITIVE WITH mpiv (g.0.). (12) Tae Inginitive or Exctamation (often with the article) : 76 Aia vopitew, to believe in Zeus! For the tenses of the infinitive see The Verb.THE ADJECTIVE (1) THE Altributive Adjective stands between the article and the noun or after the noun with the article repeated : 8 cogés dvip or é dvtp 6 aogds, the wise man. The second form is the rarer, chiefly used for a ‘nearer specification’ of an already mentioned object : 76 retyos mepteiAoy 70 Katvdv, they destroyed the new wall. (a) The order, noun, article, adjective, emphasises the adjective : dperis évexa Kai mpobuplas ris év éxelvois tots KwSuvors yevonens. For the sake of their valour and the zeal which they showed in those dangers. (b) Adverbs of time and place are used in this position as adjectives : af viv dv8pes, the men of to-day. 8o also dyay, Aiav, ‘excessive’, adv, ‘celebrated’, dvri- xpus, ‘downright’, ca8dmag, ‘out and out’. (c) A defining genitive stands most commonly between the article and the noun, e.g. 7) 10d marpos otxia, ‘the father’s house’; it commonly comes after the noun with the repeated article and sometimes (for emphasis) before the article and noun. So with defining adverb phrases : 4 ev Mapadine pdyy or 9 dyn 9 év Mapadan, ‘The battle at (of) Marathon. The article is not repeated with a verbal noun : rév rupdvwy xardavats éx ris “EMd8os. The removal of the tyrants from Greece. n712 GREEK PROSE USAGE (d) The partitive genitive follows or precedes the article and noun: it is never used with the repeated article : of Sewdraror tév pyrdpwr, the cleverest of the spoakers. It may be in the attributive position if the last word is a participle or adjective : ai dpiora rév vedy mAdouca, the best sailing ships. (e) The genitives of personal pronouns (except the reflexive) stand after the article and noun : 7 oixta Sudv (ad7od), your (his) house, tv éavro§ warépa, his own father. But: els thy éxelvwy aédv, to the city of those men. (f) Possessive pronouns (adjectives) stand between the article and the noun: o éuds marnp, ‘my father’. But note SodAos tyérepos, ‘a slave of yours’; and as predicate : col SodAoi copev, ‘we are your slaves’. (9) tovodros, rowdade, roootros, Toadade, THALKobros stand in the attributive position: the article is used when the idea of a definite kind is prominent : 6 rotoéros dvjp, such & man as this. (h) Note also : 6 Eos, the rest. of do, the others. } see ateo é repos, the one or the other of two. . of 7oMol, the majority, 16 mold, the greater part. 6 Eu¢pdrns morayds, the river Euphrates. So usually with rivers and mountains, but not cities. The indefinite Setva, ‘such a one’, always has the article in the attributive position, 6 Seva, roy Setva, etc. (2) The Predicative Adjective precedes the article or follows the noun without taking the article : oogds 6 dvijp or 6 dv}p copds, the man (is) wise.GREEK PROSE USAGE | 13 (a) This is the position of the demonstrative pronouns obtos, éxetvos, ode. With another adjective we have : adry 4 orev} d8és. This narrow road. (Sometimes 4 orev) airy d8ds.) emi ras ebaiduns ravras dé ris olxelas xebpas arod orpareéas. To meet these sudden expeditions of his from his native land. The demonstrative (ravras) may be putin the attributive position when an attributive word (éfaidvys) follows the article and precedes the demonstrative ; another attribute following the demonstrative does not need the article (diré ris . . . xebpas). : (6) A predicative adjective with noun, and article is used for an indefinite noun with an adjective : 16 oda Oyréy exoper, We have a mortal body. néoov dye 76 otpdrevpa; How great an army is he bringing? ws bid gidias THs xwpas. As through a friendly country. (c) The predicative position is used with ¢exdrepos, dpdw, duddrepot, éxaotos ; but with éxaoros the article may be omitted : ev dxdory rij oder or ev dxdarn wéda, in each city. (d) It is also the position for personal pronouns, except the reflexive. See (1) (e). (e) a&xpos, ‘the top of’, nésos, ‘ the middle of’ » €oxXaTOS, ‘the extremity of’, have the predicative position : én’ dxpors rois moaiv, on tip-toe. bid dons ris 7éAcws, through the middle of the city. (f) Usually mas, odwras and dos have the predicative position. advres of orparidrat, all the soldiers.4 GREEK PROSE USAGE But: () Gi) 1 mGca méMs OF 4 cAy 7éds, the whole city. (i) Contrasts the whole with part; (ii) contrasts the state with the individuals : . of mdvres, in all. of advres atpariaira: Sioxi\cot, 2000 soldiera in all. naoa néds, every city. néoa 4 éMs or SA 7 mds, all the city. (9) jysovs, Hyioea, jytov, ‘half’. (i) a8 attributive adjective : 4 jutoca adds, half the city. (ii) With the noun in the genitive : 7 huloaa ris 7odews, half the city. 8 Fucous rob orparot, half the army. (iii) In the neuter with the noun in the genitive : 13 fusou ris nédews, half the city. Norr.—The second construction is always used when it means ‘half the number’ : enqube ras jpicelas trav vedv, he sent half the ships. (h) Note the following adverbial adjectives : oxoraios, in the dark. dpaxros, without success. ¢onépios, in the evening. €B8opatos, on the seventh day. dxwv, unintentionally. Gopevos, dxiiv, 48dpevos, gladly. mp&ros abrovs elev, I was the firat to see them. mpubrous avrois el8ov, they were the firat I saw. See also Participles. (3) The adjective with the article, singular or plural, denotes a class : of dyabol, the good (good men). In the singular the masculine adjective without the article ia rarely used ; so dvjp dyads ‘a good man’.GREEK PROSE USAGE 76 (4) A noun may be understood, e.g. defid, ‘the right hand’, riv raxlorny, ‘in the quickest way’. See also The Article (5): +} povowe (réxvn), the art of music. Tiy mpdryy, at first. (5) Neuter adjectives are used for adverbs, e.g. moAAd, ‘frequently’, yéya, ‘loudly’, 75¥, ‘sweetly’. (6) The Descriptive Adjective : My aged mother, # éu:) uxfrnp, ypats odca. The gallant commander, 6 otparnyss dv8peios dv or dvrpp dvBpeios. The friendly king, 6 Baweis gidos dv. Nore.—This adjective is different from the defining or distinguishing adjective. (7) With abstract nouns like dogdAea, mpobupia, dGupia, use moAAy, Not peyddn, for ‘great’. (8) For agreement of the adjective see Subject and Predicate. (9) os, dre with superlatives : as dpverot, a8 good as possible,THE ADVERB (1) ADVERBIAL adjectives, such as cxoraios, ‘in the dark’. See p. 74 (h). . (2) Adverbs for attributive adjectives, e.g. of viv, ‘the men of to-day’. See p. 71 (6). (3) (i) bs with positive adverbs: ws dAyOds, ‘truly’, ds érépws, ‘otherwise’, cavrws, ‘in like manner’, dav- paords (Savpaciws, imeppuds) cis ddnOds, ‘in a wonder- fully true way’. (ii) obs (6re) with superlative adverbs: cs udAora, ‘as much as possible’, ws ex mAedorou, ‘at as great a distance (or time) as possible’. (4) éxw with an adverb means ‘I am’: xadds exw ‘Tam well’. Also ds elye rdyous éxagros, ‘as quickly as each could’. : (5) The adjective is used for English adverb: éxav, ‘willingly’. See p. 74 (A). (6) Note adverbs like ¢xarépwOev, ‘on both sides’, used as prepositions with genitive (see The Uses of the Prepositions). (7) The enclitic ws, ‘somehow or other’, is fre- quently added to adjectives and adverbs: 8i mws, ‘in some such way as this’, ow ws, ‘just like this, simply’. Also ; oe me tor | may take a genitive of the thing. adotpodpa: may take a genitive of the person, (ii) So also : kaxd Méyew+ accusative, to speak ill of. Kaka Trotvety + accusative, to do ill to. Otherwise ed (Kaxdis) Aéyeww, moreiv + accusative. mpdrrw is not used for vo in this way. «3 mpdrrew means ‘to be well off’. The passive of «5 mo:ety is «3 mdoxew. The passive of eS Adyew is ed dxovew. (iii) One of the two accusatives may be retained in the passive : ov8ey dMo S:Sdoxeras dvOpwros, a man is taught nothing else. (iv) Verbs of making, thinking, naming, choosing, appointing, take a direct object and an object-comple- ment: - orparnydv abrdv dnéSegav, they appointed him general. In the passive they take a complement in the nomina- tive: odros ozparnyds xaréory, this man was appointed general. Other Uses of the Accusative (1) The Cognate Accusative (of kindred meaning), used with transitive or intransitive verbs : vixay “Ic8uta, to win at the Isthmian games. ypagiy Sidxew (+ accusative), to prosecute. Also with adjectives, eg. xaxol mdcayv xaxlav, ‘bad with all badness’, and in the passive, e.g. rd. memoAcrev- péva, ‘public acts’, ra jpaprnucva, ‘errors’. (2) The Internal Accusative : 7a Bixasa PonPjca, to render just aid.GREEK PROSE USAGE 96 xpfobal wi re. To use something (dative) for something (accusative). (Usually xppobai run emi + accusative.) TOG vpas 7Siknae. He did you many wrongs. (3) Many expressions in the accusative are used with adverbial force, e.g. : atrd raéra, for this very reason, roGrov rév rpénov, in this way (also rodrw ro rpémw). mdvra tpénov, mécav iSéav, in every way. tédos, finally. ra dda, in other respects. éuny xdpw, for my sake, 70 kar’ éué, for my part. (4) Eatent of Time and Space——(a) Time how long : ayépas aévre, for five days. Time how long ago, with the ordinal, by inclusive reckon- ing: €Bidunv tucpay, six days since. tpirov éros TouTi, two years ago. (6) Distance how far : oraSlous moMods dnéyew, to be many stades distant. Norr.—Eight stades equal one mile. (5) Respect or Specification.—(a) With a verb: kdyvw (dvd) ry Kepadyv, I have a headache. (6) With a noun: “EAqves 74 yévos, Greeks by race. (c) With an adjective : dyafss zéxvqv, good at a craft, (6) The accusative is used after the words v7, pd in oaths : vy tov Ala, Yes, by Zeus. (08) wa rev Ata, No, by Zeus. but : val, wa tov Ala, Yes, by Zeus.96 GREEK PROSE USAGE THE GENITIVE CASE (1) Attributive, after a noun, generally means ‘of’. (a) Possessive : % rod warpds otkia, ‘the father’s house’. (b) Subjective: + 708 Sijpou edvo.a, ‘the goodwill of the people’. (c) Objective: 7d Iavcaviov pigos, ‘hatred of (against) Pausanias’. (d) Material or Definition: xpyvn 73€os Uaros, ‘a well of fresh water’. (e) Measure or Age : d8ds rpudiv rep, ‘a three days’ journey’; dvijp érév rpidxovra, ‘a man of thirty’; immov Spduos jpyepas, ‘a day’s running of a horse’, (f) Cause or Origin: ypag7) doeBelas, ‘an indict- ment for impiety’. (g) Partitive : moAXot rv modirdv, ‘many of the citizens’, Nores.—(i) With numbers and words like povos, dAtyou, the prepositions did, é« with the genitive are sometimes used. (ii) 6 qysous, ‘half’, 5 Aourds ,‘the rest’, 6 wAciotos, ‘the most’, rod xpdvov, ‘of the time’. The adjectives take the gender and number of xpévos. (iii) After an adverb of place or time or amount : mob tis yas; Where on the earth ? els roGro bBpews. To this point of insolence, of mpoeAyAub" daekycéas. To what a pitch of arrogance he has come. ofrw méppw mpochWBaai pudanis. So far have they gone in caution. Sls tijs Hudpas. Twice a day. énl Odpoadov ris GeaoaNas. To Pharsalus, in Thessaly.GREEK PROSE USAGE 97 (iv) With yw (and other verbs) and adverbs like 7s, ws, ed, KAAGS, KaKds, kavds : as elye rdxous, 8 fast as he could. nds txus 86s; How are you in opinion ? The noun in the genitive is always without the article. The name ‘Genitive of the sphere in which’ is used. (v) The genitive means ‘one of’ (also with els) : tév rpidxovra Fv, he was one of the Thirty. (vi) The genitive expresses an indefinite portion : mive. 706 oivov, he drinks aome wine. Tis ys éreuov, they ravaged some of the land. (vii) Verbs of sharing take a partitive genitive, e.g. : Hetéxw, péreort pot, I have @ share in. ueradiSwys, I give o share in (+ dative of recipient). perarovotuat, I claim o share in. Also : éAaBov rév "Updvrav ris Cadvqs. They seized Orontes by the girdle. (viii) With the partitive genitive of Ist or 2nd person, the verb is generally 3rd, e.g. : ‘uciv of mpeoBvrepal law adx dmeipos. The elders of us are not without experience, (2) Genitive with Verbs.—(a) Verbs of seizing, touch ing, hitting, missing, beginning and the like. xai pou Acfépuevos 106 izariou, seizing me by the cloak. Nor#.—dpyopat ex, dé + genitive =‘I begin with’. (6) Verbs of tasting, smelling, hearing, perceiving, remembering, forgetting, desiring, caring for, sparing, neglecting, wondering at, despising (see also Genitive of Cause) : toaobrov 706 xivBdvou xaregpdvace, He despised danger so much.98 GREEK PROSE USAGE Nores.—(i) Verbs of hearing, perceiving and the like may take an accusative of the thing heard and a genitive of the person heard, or heard from. dxovw mapa (xpés, éx) is also used for ‘I hear from’. (ii) éwforapar, ‘I understand’, takes the accusative. ovvinut, ‘I understand’, usually takes the accusative of the thing. (iii) pA por, I care for+ genitive, perapérer pos, I repent of + genitive. mpoujrer pot, I have a concern in+ genitive. (iv) éuynuat, ‘I remember’, takes accusative or Genitive. dvapupryoxw, ‘Iremind’, takes accusative and genitive or two accusatives. (c) Verbs of ruling and leading and the like, e.g. dpyw, Kparéw. Nore.—jyodua: + genitive =‘I rule’; — yodpar + dative =‘I show the way’. (d) Verbs of being full and lacking. Norss.—(i) Sef (=‘there is need’) takes the dative of the person and the genitive of the thing : Bei pou=T need = 8éopas. So: momo Set, far from it. and : moMoi déw drodoyeiabar, I am far from defending myself. Do not confuse this use with Se?+accusative and infinitive =‘I must’. (ii) Sdopae ( =I ask’) takes the genitive of the person. (iii) Verbs of filling take the accusative and genitive. (e) Verbs of separation, e.g. dwéxw, mavopar, ddatpod- pat. Nore.—Verbs of depriving may take two accusatives. See Uses of the Accusative Case. dndyew (dnd) Tis médews, to be distant from the city.GREEK PROSE USAGE 99 (f) Verbs of comparison, e.g. Siaddépw, meprytyvopar, vorepilw : Uorepilew rav Kaipwy, to be too late for the opportunity. yuvaixdy otdey diagpdpoucr, they are no better than women. Nortrs,— (i) mpodxw (vmepeyw) rivds tt, I surpass someone in something. (ii) drepBadAw, ‘exceed, pass over, cross’, takes accu- sative. (g) Verbs of accusing, acquitting, convicting, con- demning, prosecuting, take the accusative of the person and the genitive of the crime or charge. Such verbs are: alridoyat, ‘accuse’, ypddoyar, ‘in- dict’, Sidxw, ‘prosecute’, g¢evyw, ‘am prosecuted’, aXlcxopat, ‘am convicted’, ddrAckdvw, ‘lose a suit’ : mapavépew ypddeabal ria. To indict someone for illegal proposition. ety (bpdoxdve) Komi. I am prosecuted (condemned) for theft. A cognate accusative, ypadrv, dixny, is also used : odBeular eypdipard we ypagiy. He commenced no suit against me. Cavdrov Bikqv dphroxdven. I am condemned to death. Note.—éyxadéw, ‘accuse’, takes the dative of the person and accusative of the charge : kat robe’ Eorw 8 por eyxadeis. And this is what you accuse me of, (h) If the above verbs are compounds of xard, they take the accusative of the charge and the genitive of the person. Such verbs are: xarnyopew, ‘accuse’, karayt- yrdonw, ‘charge’, cataxpivw, ‘condemn’, xarayndito- pat, ‘vote against’; Karnyoptiy dBixiay zwds, to accuse someone of injustice.100 GREEK PROSE USAGE rl paMov duos od rabra xarnyopeis } eyed 000; Why do you accuse me of this rather than I you? aBixia nodW} xarqyopetras adrod. Great injustice is charged against him. 74 pov Karnyopnyéva, The accusations made against me. Norz.—Sometimes these verbs are used personally in the passive : xarayruabets BeMav, being convicted of cowardice. (1) With verbs of emotion, a genitive of cause is used. Such verbs are : Bavpdlw, eddarpovilw, (nrdw, orvyew, POovéw, oikripw, dpyifopar: rovrous ris rékuns Oaupdles. I wonder at these men for their boldness. Nore.—Verbs like davydlw also take a genitive of the person wondered at, as in (2) (6) : tév xaTnydpwv Bavpdtw, I wonder at my accusers. Also an accusative of the thing wondered at : pnbels rv UrepBoary you Bavydon, Let no one wonder at my exaggeration. (j) Many verbs compounded with mpd, iép, did, ex, éni take the genitive ; the preposition may be repeated. (8) The Genitive of Exclamation : , ris roxqs, what a misfortune | (4) The Genitive of Price or Value : écov &8doxe; For how much does he teach ? NorEs.— @ rypdy tivl tivos, To fix a penalty (genitive) for someone (said of the jury). nipGobal twos. To propose 4 penalty (said of the parties to the suit). (ii) mepl modo6 (éNyou, obBevds) morefoBat, to value highly, eto.GREEK PROSE USAGE 101 (iii) The genitive is used for what is paid for : ais owovoias dpyipiov eapdrrero. He exacted money for his teaching. (6) Genitive of Time—Time within which is put in the genitive : words, by night. ovxért Tod Aotwod, no longer in the future. Also of Place : téat 108 mpdow, to go forward. (6) The Elliptic Genitive with év or ets : eis 5:8acxd)ov, to the schoolmaster's. Or with efi (sum) : gore dpa Sixacou dv8pés PAdnrew Kai dyrwosv; Ta it the part of a juat man to injure anyone? ris nédeus eva. To belong to the city. Also : tpay abray yeréoba, to be your own masters. (7) The Genitive of Description—compare (1) (¢).—A noun with an adjective in the genitive with the verb ‘to be’: rabra Sandvqs peydAns éo7i, this is a matter of great expense. (8) The genitive follows adjectives with meanings similar to those of verbs taking the genitive, e.g. : péroyos, sharing in. pears, full of. {unepos, experienced in. xevds, empty of. tmxoos, obedient to. Aidgopos, distinct from, Nores.—(i) Adjectives like dais, dros take the genitive. (ii) d£:os + genitive= ‘worthy of’; déios + dative = ‘worth while to’. (iii) Bos and adjectives denoting possession take the genitive, xovds takes genitive or dative,102 GREEK PROSE USAGE (iv) devOuvos, ‘responsible for’, doreAys, ‘subject to (liable to pay)’, take the genitive. (v) For adverbs of place with the genitive see The Uses of the Prepositions. (9) Genttive of Comparison. See Comparative Clauses. (10) Genitive Absolute. See Participles. (11) Genitive of Purpose. See Infinitive with Article. THE DATIVE CASE (1) (a) The indirect object, with a transitive verb governing a direct object, is the same as the English ‘to’ or ‘for’; it is found with verbs of giving, promising, telling, showing and the like. (6) Many verbs compounded with dvri, ev, emi, epi, mpos, atv, td take the dative, or the accusative and dative, €.9. : repirBévar rt orépavov, to put @ crown on someone. Sometimes the preposition is repeated, e.g. : éppévw rots dpxois, I abide by the oaths. eppéve ev rij rdéec, I stand fast in the ranks. The personal indirect object may become the subject in the passive, with a retained accusative, e.g. : of émirerpappevor viv dura. ‘Those entrusted with the guard. (2) Many verbs govern the dative only. NotEs.—(i) yeugpopar + dative =‘I blame’: Béppopat wi 71=1 blame something on somebody. So also dvedilw, émiriydu. (ii) diardyouat, ‘I converse’, and pdyxopar, ‘I fight’, take the dative or mpds + accusative. (iii) éopar, ‘I follow’, takes the dative or perd + geni- tive.GREEK PROSE USAGE 103 (iv) moredw with accusative and dative means ‘I entrust something to someone, I trust someone with something’. (v) Dative verbs are sometimes used personally in the passive, e.g. : modepodyrat, they are warred on. emPovrevoueba, we are plotted against. morevonat, I am trusted. (vi) Impersonals like 8e¢, péreart, péAet, peraperer, mpoorxet take a dative of the person and a genitive of the thing. See also Genitive Case. éfeort, ‘it is possible’, takes the dative. (vii) tyswpéw revi =I avenge someone’ ; tipwpodpai zwva =‘I punish someone’, (viii) és xeipas, és Adyous tévar ¥ dative, to fight, confer with. Bid GiAlas idvar+ dative, to be friendly to. (ix) Different verbs of the same meaning may govern accusative and dative, e.g. : Bo7n0dw, I help + dative, addpedew, I help + accusative. (x) rt xpioerat att@; What will he use him for? (3) The dative is used with adjectives and adverbs having similar meaning to verbs with the dative, e.g. : dxodovOus, in accordance with. eproddy (adverb), in the way of. Notes.—(i) ¢vavrios, ‘opposite’, takes dative or genitive. (ii) Such adjectives, used as nouns, may take the genitive, e.g. : of éxeivou Soro, his bitterest enemies,104 GREEK PROSE USAGE (iii) With épotos, ‘similar to’, toos, ‘equal to’, two subjects are coupled by «ai (or by the relative) : Spolay yodpqy exw Kal ov, E have a similar opinion to you. But the second subject is often in the dative : Suolay probpny Eyer oot. So also: 7a atra dpova cor (=a at). (iv) Adverbs of place and time, like dua, ‘together with’, duo0d, ‘with’, épe€is, ‘next’, take the dative, eg. : dua rH judpg, at daybreak, (4) The Dative of Reference or Relation, denoting a person to whose case a statement is limited : i duot Kai oot; What have I to do with you? 4 biaBdvr rdv moropdy mpds domépav dBés. The road to the west, when you have crossed the river. chs ouveAdvre etnelv. To speak briefly. Bovropevn (fBopnéry) eort rh mAriOer. The multitude is inclined. tudpa fy méunry emmdovow *ABnvators. The Athenians had been five days sailing up. (5) The Dative of the Possessor, with efud and the like : elaiv duoi tdvor, I have friends. (6) The Dative of Cause (the ‘efficient cause’) : dyvolg, through ignorance. véaw, of disease, The ‘Moving Cause’ (=‘on account of’) is expressed by Sid + accusative. Note.— yeddy bg? fBovjs, to laugh for joy. (7) The Dative of Manner, e.g. navrt rpémm, ‘in every way’. It is confined to some particular nouns andGREEK PROSE USAGE . 105 adverbial expressions, such as; aty#, ‘in- silence’, Aéyw, ‘in word’, épyw, ‘in deed’, i8/g, ‘in private’, Sypootg, ‘in public’, xow7, ‘in common’, Bia, ‘by force’. With other words, use the adverb or perd + genitive or guy + dative. Similarly the Dative of Respect, e.g. r@ dvr, ‘in reality’, duces, ‘by nature’ (r7qv dvaw, ‘in natural gifts’). (8) The Dative of Instrument or Means (by or with a thing), e.g. : trois éf@aAuois, with our eyes. Sud + genitive denotes ‘by means of’. Nors.— Uiw dao deias, to live by plunder, (9) The Dative of Accompaniment, used chiefly of military and naval forces, e.g. :

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