152 Becoming an effective teacher CONTEXT Student 1: Twonder, why do ships float” Student 2: I dorit know really... I guess something must be holding chem up” Student l: If something is holding them up, why doesitit hold something like e nail?” Student 2: ‘Maybe it to do with the shape. Maybe you have to flaxeen it out so more of it can get pushed up’ Scadent1:‘Tknow what you mean by push. When have a swim and dive under the water I relly feel that push back towards the surface? Student 2:‘Do you think the water is doing the pushing? Are we lighter than the water? Student I: How much do you weigh? What happens when you sit ina bath ~ the water rises, we push some of i out of the way? This is a typical classroom conversation that might occur as students conduct an investigation, in this case to do with floating and sinking. In cerms of learning, what is going on here? How are these students actually learning? What is the process and how can teachers assist it? What have they learned? Te seems that for she two students involved in the conversation above, the other student is performing a very useful function. It appears thet the two students are putting together some ideas about sinking and floating, "How can we explain what is occurring in this scenario in terms of learning theory? If it can be explained and if it seems like good learning results from situations like this, chen how can we conduct lessons so that this good learning occurs as often as possible? To answer these questions we need to become familiar with what are called constructivist ideas CONSTRUCTIVISM If you were to ask practising teachers today what approach to learning they use in their classroom then almost all would say something like use a constructivist approach .. Constructivism is currently che dominant approach to learning in Australia end is in use in various forms in most schools today. In the Western Australian Curriex- Jum Framework (WA Curriculum Council 2005), under the teaching and learning section, itis stated:Constructivist approaches 153 learners need to be able to connect new experiences to what they already know and can do, while at the same time reconstructing what they know and can do to take account of the challenge provided by their new experience. While not explicitly using che term ‘constructivist’ this statement neatly captures, the essence of constructivist learning. Constructivism is generally about each stu- dent appropriating and constructing his or her own knowledge. At the heart of con- structivist approaches is the key idea that whatever instructional events happen in the classroom, students will perceive them in their own unique way: Then, with the assistance oftheir own ways of looking at the world and their own unique long-rerm ‘memories, they will construct their personal version of the instructional events. This, construction can occur as a solitary activity but in most classrooms it often occurs in conjunction with others, REE rrfacee Het ‘Write what you understand to be meant by'a constructivist approach to teaching’ Generally, what role do you think a teacher fulfils in constructivist classrooms —how do they act, what do they do? Links co a ¢¢ ‘There are obvious links from a constructivist view of learning to a cognitive view and it is true that our understandings of how people construct ideas relies to a large extent on cognitive theory Shors- and long-term memory are essential elements in the construct- ing process. Working memory is the conceptual space where the construction takes place: the incoming sensory perceptions evoke recall of long-term memories and the ‘nwo interact in working memory to produce the individual constructions. In this simple explanation we can see howa constructivist view of learning can pro- mote the position that people construct their own versions of external events Accord- ing to this view we realise that that ezch persoris mind is not a blankslate (tabula rasa) "upon which the teachers wise words are written, verbatim. We realise that we cannot transfer knowledge intact in its original from one person to another. Teachers cannot act as transmitters of information that students then receive in its original form, Students have rmuch life experience from outside the classtoom and so they come to lessons with a ich set of ideas, concepts and memories that they can bring to bear upon new information that they encounter in lessons. The interaction of the154 Becoming an effective teacher | Contemplations ie with a lot of ideas about teaching and how it should be conducted? If you can, describe some of your pre-existing ideas. Have any of them been changed, challenged, confronted or modified you? Did you have a ‘blank slate’ about teaching before you started this course or did you come. t students’ past ideas with the incoming new information results in the consteuction | of their own new knowledge, which then in turn can become part of their long. term memory, Historically, constructivism can probably be connected to the writings of Plato but ‘more recently to others like Kant, Giambattista Vico, Froebel, and in this century to Dewey (Watts, Jofili & Bezerra 1997), Case 7.1 SOME VIEWS OF | CONSTRUCTIVISM Historical Kant: Knowledge is neither solely dependent on environment or innate qualities, but on an immeraction between the two, Our innate mental structures could only be of use hough the interpretation and organisation of experiences. Plato: Knowledge is becoming aware of the absolute, universal ideas or forms, existing independent of any subject. Dewey: Knowing consists of operations that give experienced objects a From a social perspective ‘Cognitive tools: The learning of cognitive skills and strategies. i Idea-based social con: ructvism: Focus is on important concepts in the various learning areas.Constructivist approaches 155 Pragmatic or emergent constructivism: Learning approaches in class should emerge in response to the class, Understandings arise from both the view of the individual learner and the collective view of the entire class. ‘Transactional oF situated cognitive perspectives: Focuses on the relationship between the people and theit environment, Humans influence the environment and the environment influences hurnans If the social environment changes so does our thinking, Response 1 Which view of all hose above best suits you and your view of teaching? 2. Doyou think some views above are better suited to some learning areas more than others? There appear to be at least two main constructivist camps: individual (some- times called psychological) constructivism and sociel constructivism. There are also other divisions and other types, for example radical constructivism. This particular brand of constructivism concems itself mostly with knowledge directly experienced thiough the senses and Emst von Glasersfeld is most commonly associated with this view He would contend that external reality might not exist and that all thats real are our constructed perceptions. This view of constructivism presents enormous challenges for use in classrooms! Ernst von Glasersfeld said: it will be obvious that radical constructivism itself rust not be interpreted as a picture or description of any absolute realicy but as a possible model of knowing and the acquisition of knowledge in cognitive organisms that are capable of constructing for themselves, on the basis of their own experience, a more or less reliable world. From ‘An introduction to radical constructivism’ Available at tp://srrinsm.umass. edu/vonGlasersfeld/onlinePapers/html/082. html Jean Piaget is most often associated with psychological constructivism. This version of constructivism is mostly about individual learners and how they con- struct their learning. Contrasting with this, social constructivism embraces the role of culture nd language in meaning-makting and in the validation of knowledge. Lev Vygotsky could be termed a social constructivist. Perhaps the main distinction156 Becoming an effective teacher between these two lange groupings would be the foci of study. In psychological con. structivism the focus is more on cognition and the individual; in social constructv. ism, the focus is more on language and the group. No matter what label we place on any particular flavour of constructivism, the idea that people actively construct knowledge and that social interaction can assist the process is common to all views PIAGET Piagets constructivist view took an individual perspective. He was mostly concerned ‘with the effect of a child’s physical and social environment on his/her internal cogni- tive processes. He though that the leaming that occurred depended upon the sti- dents maturation and experience and chat the key processes that took place were Assimilation, Accomodation, Disequilibration and Equilibration: @ Assimilation ~ new learning is assimilaced into existing ideas @ Accommodation ~ new learning car't be assimilated into existing ideas, so ideas change to accommodate the new learning 8 Disequilibration - confusion, dissonance that occurs when new learning can't be accommodated or assimilated and this is followed by Equilibration, which is a bigger restructure of ideas so that accommodation or assimilation can occur. The functions of assimilation and accommodation are to resolve internal dis crepancies in the way the world is viewed andl co develop understandings, while the function of equilibration seems to be to balance accommodation and assimilation. Contemplations Can you give a personal example of when you had to accommodate a new idea? Was shis an easy cask? Similarly, can you recall a time when you experienced disequilibration? What did that feel like? Piaget also proposed that humans develop and grow chrough a series of discrete and identifiable stages: sensorimotor; preoperational; concrete operational; and formal operational. Each of these stages has its own discrete characteristics and, according t0 Piaget, each is passed through in tur as people grow and mature.Constructivist approaches 157 Jean Piaget Jean Piaget’ life isan interesting case of genius in action, Jean Piaget was born in Neuchatel (Switzerland) on 9 August 1896, He died in Geneva on 16 September 1980. He was the oldest child of Arthur Piaget, professor ‘of medieval literature at Neuchatel University, and of Rebecca Jackson. At age I, while he was @ pupil at Neuchatel Latin high school, he wrote a shore notice on an albino sparrow. This shore paper is generally considered as the start ofa briliant scientific career made up of over 60 books and several hundred articles. Fram het Iwwvpogeeorlbcgraphybiogie Most students in early years of school are regarded as having already passed through the preoperational stage by about age 7 and are in the concrete operational stage, This stage is characterised by an ability to mentally represent objects, engage in play using symbols, and to be able to focus on just one aspect of a situation at a time, Students are generally quite egocentric in this stage. At around 12 years of age students begin to progress into the formal operational stage where they come to understand the principle of conservation. This means, for example, that they understand hat even though plasticine may be squashed into many different shapes, each shape has exactly the same mass. Ac this stage they also appreciate the reversibility of operations and their thinking is generally regarded as organised and rational. The formal operational stage is characterised by the ability to thinke abstractly, to combine and classify concepts in a sophisticated manner, and by the existence and ability to use higher order reasoning, Casz 7.2 How pip PIAGET DEVELOP HIS IDEAS? Fiaget reached his conclusions after a long period observing and experimenting with childien of differing ages. In terms of mathematical development Piaget conducted vatious ‘experiments dealing with concepts like the conservation of quantities and one-o-one correspondence. He developed tests to see if children had real comprehension of these ‘concepts rather than just knowing how to get an answer to a problem. Often he tested the158 Becoming an effective teacher child’ ability to understand spatial relationships, as these are commonly needed for a true understanding of mathematical operations. The concept of conservation of quantities is also a fundamental idea involved in mathematical operations To test for conservation of continuous quantities, che same amount of liquid is poured into two identical containers, The child agrees chat the same amount of liguid is in each container. The liquid in one container is then poured into a different shaped container, for example, a long skinny container and the child is asked which container has more liquid Piaget placed the childten into three stages based on their responses. Ieis only when the child is about 6 years old that they can see that an increase in height oes not mean more liquid, Children younger than this generally chink there is more liquid in the taller container ~ that is, che volume of liquid is not conserved in different containers. Response 4. This is just one of the many experiments Piaget conducted. What is the connection between this experiment, conservation of quantity and mathematics? 2. Could you suggest an alternative explanation for the above result (think of explanations the child might offer)? One pertinent criticism of Piaget’ stage theory is that not everybody agrees that students pass through al stages or through all stages in order. Other criticisms centre con what is termed the task-dependent nature of his results. In other words his ideas were verified by experiments that got certain results that were strongly related to the tasks set for the student. These critics say that if other, broader tasks had been ser then different results may have been obtained. Nonetheless most people agree that at a broad level Piaget's stages offer good guidance as to how we should teach students at certain stages. Piaget’ stages result in recommenda: ms for the specific stages of cognitive development. Children in the sensorimotor stage would respond well in a rich and stimulating environment with ample objects to play with. Children in the concrese operational stage being taught should encounter problems of classification, ordering, location, conservation, all using concrete objects that can be manipulated VYGOTSKY An approach different to that of Piaget’ psychological constructivism is provided by Vygorskys social constructivist approach. Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist,Constructivist approaches 159 viewed a student’ understanding as being developed through interaction with other individuals, particularly if chose individuals have deeper understandings of the subject. He viewed the learner as being acculturated into a wider community through schooling, assisted by the key processes of social interaction and the use of language. He viewed knowledge as evolving through cognitive conflict and social negotiation. “Lev Vygotsley, like Piaget, was bor in 1896 but died at the young age of 38 from tuberculosis. He studied a number of different subjects while at university and did not begin with Psychology until he was about 28. He also ran a medical practice in his native Belarus. Probably his best known work is Thought and Language, which described how language and logical thinking developed in children, and which was published before Piaget's work on the same subject. Interestingly, he was strongly influenced by the scientific approach of Pavloy,a behaviourist who investigated reflex learning, but whose ideas about learning were at odds to those of Vygotsky. al [cay t Case 7.3 TOOLs AND VYGOTSKY Vygotsky said, ‘The inclusion of a tool in the process of behavior (a) introduces several new ctions connected with the use of the given tool and with its control; (b) abolishes and rakes unnecessary several natural processes, whose work is accomplished by the tool; and alters the course and individual features (the intensity, duration, sequence, etc) of all the ‘mental processes that enter into the composition of the instrumental act, replacing some functions with others (i, it re-creates and reorganizes the whole structure of behavior just 4 a technical rool re-creates the whole structure of labor operations)’ (1982, pp. 13940). This view cells us that according to Vygotsky the use of tools does not just facilitate thinking but fundamentally alters and shapes it, He also cells us that the way we think depends on our culture and is specific to that culture. Which brings us to computers. Response LA very common too! in schools today is a computer What new functions does the computer bring to schooling? What natural processes does use of the computer abolish? 2 Can you think of any processes that are receated and reorganised through use of the computer?160 Becoming an effective teacher One of the subtle differences between Piaget and Vygorsky’s views of learning is that while Piaget was of the view that the individual had to develop before they could learn certain things (stage theory), Vygotsky believed that learning could impact upon, and assist, development. Cognitive development was thought by Vygotsky to cccur within a zone of proximal development. This zone is the difference between, what the learner can do or come to understand by themselves and what they could do or understand with the assistance of more informed person, The language-based process by which learners can reach this more advanced understandings called scaf- folding Scaffolding is now recognised as an extremely important process in learning and is discussed in depth later in this chapeex Contemplations What do you think? Do we have to develop before we can do certain tasks? Are there ccortain tasks that can assist us to grow mentally? ‘What is your view of how we learn now? Compare your answer to the answer you gave | co the first ‘Contemplations’ in this chapeer: hoy CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACHES AND LEARNING | So what does « constructivist view of learning mean for teaching? If teachers adopta constructivist view then they have a range of well-described strategies and approaches upon which to draw Some of these are also described below and in Chapter Eight bbuc in general rerms teachers operating according to constructivist principles would create an environment where students had ample opportunity for the social nego tiation of their understandings. Social negotiation through peer interaction can be provided by group work. Under this view of learning, students would be given ample opportunity to clat- ify their emerging knowledge either through interaction with the teacher or by access | to authoritative sources accessed through books, WWW or similar means. When clarifying their emerging knowledge the seudent needs the ability to discern difler ences between their views and that of another, an ability that Piaget would remind usis age-dependent | ' According to this view of learning, new content needs to be presented in different i ‘ways and the teacher should provide access to multiple modes of representation and also encourage reflection about new learning.Constructivist approaches 161 In general, teachers adopting a constructivist approach would: mt determine students’ existing ideas, concepts and understandings i match and challenge those ideas and understandings. Teachers would both support and challenge their students thinking mallow students to play and experiment with ideas, wo cxeate to reflect and work out their own understandings 1 uillise collaborative learning 1 support students to develop ownership of their ideas use problem-based or case-based learning utlising problems posed by the student ‘or using problems that can be owned by the student use real, authentic tasks encourage metacognition by providing ample opportunity for reflection on both the content encountered and the learning process by students adapt learning tasks or problems to the ages or developmental level of the student ‘design activities that allow for discussion . . scaffold their students learning either themselves or through peer interaction march the task to the students so that ities within their‘zone! No one ever said that teaching is an easy profession and looking at che above list vill make you realise chat one of the many challenges ofthe job is to be able to imple- ment some or all of the above ideas atthe right place and at the right time. Many of the items in the above list can be enacted in settings thac utilise collabora- tive or cooperative leaming. Collaborative and cooperative learning approaches in classrooms are about students working together to achieve a common goal and both rely upon the establishment of groups and getting them to work together. Collaborative and cooperative approaches are reasonably similar. Perhaps one dif- ference is that collaborative approaches rely a litle less on group contact in that the leamer has more autonomy and just works with the group when necessary, whereas cooperative strategies tend to be group-based all the time. The teacher deals mostly with the group rather than an individual in cooperative approaches. Whatever label, is eventually used or wherever the teacher's approach evencually flls is not all that important. What is important is that teachers understand that both these approaches depend upon establishing groups and getting them to work well in the classroom. Gre: Most teachers at some time or other will use group work. Some teachers will use group work extensively: Why do they do this? From a conscructvist learning theory point of view, group work appears to offer considerable learning advantages.162 Becoming an effective teacher From a Wygotskian viewpoint, groups can offer opportunities for discussion and language use and this can assist learning, If groups are well structured then, theoretically, more knowledgeable peers can scaffold less knowledgeable students learning, From a Piagetian view, having others in the group with a divergent view can create cognitive dissonance leading to assimilation and accommodation. We just hope thac the new idea that might result from these processes is more correct than the pre- existing idea! ‘Activities in the group setting that require students to articulate and test theiz knowledge against each other's ideas by explaining an idea to a group can result in good learning The student doing the explaining often benefits most as they have to have the knowledge integrated and organised before chey can articulate and present it to others. In the group situation time should be allowed for students to organise their presentation as itis inthis planning time that most ofthe learning occurs Many advantages of group worl are promulgated by group work advocates, Devotees of group work suggest that it can: provide che teacher with a variation in instructional strategies 1m give students an increased sense of belonging, if well set up 1m give some independence ta students as they go about their set task provide familiarity and practice in skills in working with peers and in leadership skills w provide practice in analysing task requirements and evaluating the work of others provide practice and familiarity in negotiation and compromise Contemplations Have you experienced group werk in your course so far? If so, go through the above list and decide if these advantages were realised when you were involved in group work. However the evidence as o the effect of group work (and collaborative approaches in _general) on student achievements not clear-cut as to its advantages. Some of the issues t0 bbe considered and that can detract from the potential advantages have been well described in Krause Bochner and Duchesne (2003, p 188) and include facors like the interpersonel skills of students zhe ability of students to complete casks within a group, rivalry berween gtoup members and groups, group size and the teacher's management skills.Constructivist approaches 163 If group work is just about students working on a common work sheet around a table then this would hardly be an improvement over other methods A poor lesson using group work is probably worse than a poor lesson using teacher-led or other practices. Poor group work lessons can be avoided by knowing the factors that coniribute to good ‘outcomes from groups. Effective group work Johnson, Johnson and Smith (1998) have established some basic elements of a well- structured cooperative lesson. Robert Stabl (1994) has done likewise and combining these 1wo separate lists has resulted in the following factors that are required to be present for effective group work. Heter GEREOUS sous Groups should be in threes, fours or fives (out keep in mind that if group is formed specifically for scaffolding purposes then this occurs best in dyads). Any larger than this means there is a chance the group could split into subgroups and a group comprising just a pair of students is not likely to experience the benefits of group work. If students choose their own groups based on friends or interests then there is a chance that views in che group may not be as diverse as they could be and that all the talent could end up in one group, Groups should be diverse in terms of ability and gender and heterogeneous groups tend to be more interactive, more tolerant of different views, more considerate of each other and to seek more clarification and support from the group. Group members of heterogeneous groups also learn more if all the other necessary elements are present. If groups are well structured then this can increase the chances of each student in the group feeling they have as good a chance as anyone else of achieving the desired outcome. Sometimes more able students can feel that they are penalised academically by being placed with less academically able peers. Good group skills and interactions can negate this perception, Positive inte Group members should perceive that they are all needed as part of the group in order for it to successfully complete the task. Time spent by the teacher with the group helping establish common goals can foster this perception, as can assigning clear roles to each group member. ¢ sat of specific stuclent learning outcor ‘Teachers have to be able to clearly describe what they require on the part of students 4s an outcome from their group work, Even though students are working in groups, the outcome or abjective should be able to be interpreted by each student so that164 Becoming an effective teacher they know what they need to accomplish as an individual in the group. The students must own the objectives and students must understand and accept the goals set and understand that everyone in the group must achieve these goals. If students set their ‘own objectives for the group then everyone in the group must agree upon them, Groups that do very well need co be recognised and all groups that succeed at their cask need to have that achievement recognised. Group members need to encourage each other’ efforts. They should explain to each other, discuss, help, share and teach each other. Other social skills necessary for the group to function effectively include skills in ecust building, in leadership, in conflict management, in the giving and receiving of constructive criticism and the ability to compromise and negotiate. This is a demanding set of requirements on the part of each group member. In the classroom it may take considerable time to develop this and some students may be far too young to develop these high level skills. The teacher needs to assist the group to function. Teachers need to know when to intervene and when to stay away, and this particular facet of pedagogical tact may take time to develop in beginning teachers. Breaking the task dow into maybe three or fouressential sub-tasks can assist the group to function, Students need to be provided with a clear and complete set of instructions, and these instructions need to be a clear and precise set of directions of what to do, what is needed and what must be produced to satisfy the objective set for the group Students need to have access to the information they require and must have the skills as part of the group to be able to actess this information. Groups can come to a halt very quickly if they do not have the required learning resources and lack the learning skills, Srudents need opportunity and time to complete internal processing of the information they are encountering, They need time to complete their own cognitive tasks related to turning information into meaning They also need adequate time t0 complete the task set and teachers need to realise that group work can take much longer than traditional methods and that che learning outcomes can be fat richer ‘When the task is complete students should have time o reflect upon the process and the extent to which they have achieved the goal. They may reflect on issues like howConstructivist approaches 165 ‘well they understood the task, how well the group functioned and things that they could do next time to improve. As i ‘Teachers may be tempted to assess each group member's contribution and make the results known to the group and to the individual bucieis doubtful as 10 whether this assists either learning or group processes. However in classrooms where individual assessment is carried out, it is almost always done in order to obtain some kind of assessment matk or grade but if students work as a group then they should be assessed as a group Each member should receive the same grade. Ifthe group feels that some members did not do their share then this needs to be addressed as part of how the group functions and steps put in place to assist members to make a more positive contribueion on the next task, Ia teacher feels that they need to assess students individually then perhaps the students should not be working in groups. However if the teacher wishes to assess individuals in groups then there are various schemes that can be used, such as assessing each individuals separate contribution and giving the group the average of each individuals score; allocating matks to the group and the group deciding on how the ‘marks should be allocated within the group; adjusting the group mark for the individual based on peer assessment oftheir contribution and using peer evaluation solely Case 7.4 PLANNING ASSESSMENT FOR GROUPS ‘The Centre for the Study of Higher Education at the University of Melbourne has published some excellent advice for assessing group work available at http://www.cshe.unimelb, edu.aw/assessinglearning/03/group.html. From that site chey suggest that: Getsing the assesoment right ritial. Decisions about how to structure theassessment of group work need robe focused around four factors: 1. whether what is to be assessed isthe product ofthe group work, the process of he sroup work, or both (end ifthe late, what proportion of each) 2. what criteria will be used to assess the aspects) of group work of interest (and who will determine these criteria — lecturer, students or both) —>