BOARDS jIIT-JEE/PETs| NEET/AIPMT FOUNDATION COURSE CHEMISTRY *@Chemical Reactions and Equationsinformation not conveyed by Chemical Equation « A cchemical equation does not tells us about the feasibility of a chemical reaction. It means that from the equation, we cannot make out whether a particular reaction will actually take place or not. For example : Cu+H,SO, —> CuSO, +H; This reaction seems to be quite feasible and is expected to take place but actually it does not occur. Wecannot get any clue or idea about the rate (speed) of the reaction from the chemical equation ie it does not tell us that a particular reaction will be slow, moderate or fast. Thermochemical Equations A balanced chemical equation which gives information about the heat change (evolved or absorbed, AH) during the reaction is called the thermochemical equation. A thermochemical equation can be written as follows (@) by writing the heat evolved or absorbed as a term in the equation, Cp) + Org) —> CO) + 393.5 KF GHsOHy + 3029) —> 2CO.9) + 3H20 9 + 1367 kJ mol (6) by using 4H notation, ie,, writing AH =-ve for exothermic and 4H = +ve for endothermic. Cyy + Ong) —> COrig AH = -393.5 KJ GH.OH ( + 302) —> 2COx) + 3H2O | AH = -1367 KJ mol! «Latest IUPAC Symbols for Enthalpy Changes ‘According to the latest (1981) IUPAC recommendations, the symbols used for enthalpy changes for different types of reactions or physical changes are represented by putting the symbol of the type of reaction as subscript along with A just before the symbol H. For example: Enthalpy of reaction is represented by 4,H_ Enthalpy of combustion is represented by AH Enthalpy of formation is represented by 4H Enthalpy of vaporisation is represented by Anept! * Conventions for Writing the Thermochemical Equations — For exothermic reaction, AH is -ve and for endothermic reaction, AH is +ve. ~ While writing the thermochemical equation for a reaction, the physical states of the reactions and the products must be mentioned. 1 (LASS 40 FOUNDATION COURSE | CHEMISTRY —_—<_——————— Chemical Reactions and Equations | 14Electropositive character decreases Wer irra shi Most reactive x Metals more reactive than hydrogen Metals less reactive than hydrogen { Less reactive Decreasing, chemical reactivity |Reactions and Electron Transfer Between Atoms Oxidation and reduction reactions according to modern concept are described in terms of loss and _ Bain of electrons. This is also called electronic concept of oxidation and reduction. According to accepting species is called oxidising agent. electronic concept is illustrated by the following examples : loss of two e" (oxidation) st Zn) + 2g Zag) + Haye) ‘gain of woe (reduction) Joss of two Zig + CUM eg Za gg) + CU rip ee ~ gain of two € (eduction)Dez +osea Mggten+ Deg 82 -spumodunos mou OM} WLIO 0} SUO! Jo aSueYxa Aq EAL spunoduos om : uaurane[dstp ajqnoq, Ong+ ees MFogny+ 8 3a yestuiay> ay guauaredsip afuig “possedst quod oupajauaya aed aye) wy SuOHDVS UORISodwIO>>C] :wor}soduso3ap [e499 “uri jo won drosqe Aqaneid soyei yy suogsear uoRtsodwsop9q :uon|soduroxapoyouet -qeay ouondrosqe Aq aneid aye) wry suoyIees uoHFsoduuoDaq :woptsodurozap jeu gna — Oy Ors? punodwo>+ punoduso> ge — Poser O'S punodwio> + wowata ®eQ5— 8H +9589 quawiaya + yuaUI9|a dWIW 1d3NODSTIS ee for COMPETITIVE EXAM Ignition Temperature © The minimum temperature to which a substance hy as the ignition temperature of the substance. . ieiacsenscetatae Rt from substance to substance. es Se a have different ignition temperature. For example, wood shavings calg : pe ie than that of a larger piece of wood. Soa matchstick can light wood s ‘ibe but a large piece of wood. This is because heat produced by the burning matchstict to reach the ignition temperature of wood shaving, but insufficient to reach the ig of a block of wood. © When water is poured over a burning substance, water absorbs heat from the sut makes the temperature of the substance to go below its ignition temperature. S. of the substance stops. © When a water-filled paper cup is placed over a flame, the water gets heated but not burn. This is due to the fact that the water takes away the heat from the cup. So, ¢h is not allowed to attain its ignition temperature. * A burning solid does not produce flame unless vapour is produced. Only those sol fuels which produce vapour on heating, burn with a flame. For example, kerosene is fuel. It vaporizes on heating. So, it burns with a flame. When the supply of oxygen is sufficient, the fuel burns completely, producing « A blue flame does not produce much light, hence it is a nonluminous flame © When the supply of oxygen is inadequate, the fuel burns incompletely, produc flame. as to be heated before it can Types of Chemical Reactions (Based on Speed) * Ina chemical reaction, the bonds present in the reactants are broken and similarly new are formed to give the products. The speed of bond formation and bond breaking reactions is different. Reactions are classified into three types based on their speed (a) Fast reactions : Those reactions in which the reactants readily change into products wit few seconds. For example : Neutralisation of sodium hydroxide by hydrochloric acid NaOH,..) + HCl) > NaClay + H,Op, Sodium hydroxide Hydrochloric acid Mostly ionic reactions are fast reactions. (b) Moderate reactions : Those chemical reactions which take a few minute or hours tocom?’ (Neither very slow nor very fast) Sodium chloride Water N0= Sno, +40, C,H.0,, + HO —> C.H,0, +C.H,0, ‘Sucrose kag ‘ Glucose Fructose (6) Slow reactions : Those reactions which take very long time reactions. Example : Rusting of iron, to complete are calle formation of coal, weathering of rocks, etc id IO: Camieal Aencsiens. snd Kequations —e—eeereecest etree epee CLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE | CH JIt is difficult to measure the rate of very fast and very slow reactions and so moderate rd of measuring the rates of different reactions. reactions are useful in 1 Rate of a Chemical Reaction © Chemical reactions proceed with different rates. Some reactions take place instantaneously- Example : (i) When sodium piece is placed in water the instantaneous reaction takes place as a result of soda is formed and hydrogen gas is liberated 2Na + 2H,O -> 2NaOH + H, (ii) Detonation of an explosive takes place instantaneously. (ii) Acid-base reactions, precipitation of AgCl (on mixing solution of AgNOs and HCl) also the reaction caui g0 to completion in a fraction of second. # Some reactions are slow. For example, reaction between potassium permaganate and oxalic acid or hydrogen peroxide solution proceed with slow rate. There are several reactions which are very slow and take very long time for completion. Examples (i) Rusting for iron takes place in days or months. 2Fe + 3/2 O, + xH,O — Fe,OyxH;O (ii) Weathering of rocks and the reactions in earth’s crust continue for several years. The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of the rate of a chemical reactions is known as chemical kinetics. Rate of reaction can be defined as the rate of change of concentration of a particular reactant or product in unit time. Rate of decrease of concentration of a reactant or the rate of increase of concentration of a product in unit time Change in concentration of reactant or product ‘Time taken’ . tions Rate of reaction = Reversible & Irreversible R ‘e Reversible Reaction ‘The chemical reaction which can proceed both in the forward and reverse directions are called reversible reactions. It is indicated by a double half headed arrow (=). The reactants never get exhausted in these reactions. Change in temperature, pressure or concentration changes the direction of reaction. ~ Such reactions should be carried out in a closed container. = Such reactions never go to completion. eg: Hag + ly = 2H) Nay * 3Hay = 2NHa) 3Pey + 4H,Oy) = FesQy + 4H Red hot iron Steam ¢ Irreversible Reaction ‘The reactions in which complete conversion of the reactants into products occur are called irreversible reactions. = They are indicated by a single headed arrow (~). = Change in concentration, temperature and pressure doesn’t change the direction of reaction. = They can proceed only in the forward direction. 68+ 2KC1Oy, HE 2KCh,y + 302) Potassium Potassium chlorate chloride [CLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE | CHEMISTRY =m Chemical Reactions and Equations| 31e units of real orimaginary charg o hebasis of therule that electron Oxidation number is also Oxidation Number (O.N.) atom is Ovidation number (O.N.) of ae et atom in a molecule or 1on whiel si red to more electror is entirely transfer state, 1 (0.N.) Rules for Assigning Oxidation Lae seidation number of atm in termin' e more ele “ Following rules may be used ee electrons are ted towards the more electro, sha 1, In amolecule or ion the aa nt in i 2. The oxidation number of a eae 0,05 Cl Pu Se Na Mg, Alis zero. raven number ofeach atom iH OF OY stam is equal tothe cha state or uncombined state is aly, ining only 0M r 3. The oxidation number of fon Cai oa jgt, and +3respectively. The ox ‘Thus oxidation number of Na’ a waa yee oe present in the molecule/ion (such an 4. If two or more atoms © tis the average of the O.N. of all suct, CRO,?», the ON. ofthe atom of tha t element i see ‘umber of alkalimetals alkaline earth metals and aluminium in their ¢ 5, Theoxidation ' Iways +1, +2 and #3 respectively: ; : : E 6. uv number of oxygen nts compounds is -2 1 Seaene a ides anq fluorides. In peroxide (0;*), oxygen has oxidation n eee ces (0; has oxidation number ~1/2 ; and in OF: an 7. see Hinits compounds is +1. But in metal hydrides such as Litt, 5 ¢ oxidation number of H is 8, Oxidation number of fluorine in its compounds is always -1. The other halogens m ve values, For example, ON, of Clin HOCI, HCIO, and HCIO, is +1, +5 and +7 re 9. Inneutral molecules, the algebraicsum of the O.N. ofall the atoms is zero. For example... the O.N. of all the atoms in KCr0;, KMnO, and H,S0, is zero. 10. Metals generally always have positive O.N. whereas non-metals may have +ve as well a. oxidation numbers. (i) The highest positive ON, for p-block elements is equal to group number minus 10 (ii) The highest negative O.N. for p-block elements is equal to the number of valence elects minus 8 eg, for halogen highest negative ON. is equal to 7-8 =-1. Examples 1,_H,S: The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1. Let the oxidation number of sulphur be « 2(+1) +x=0,S0 x=-2. Oxidation number of $ in H,S is ~2. donee numberof hydrogen is +1 and that of oxygen is -2. Let the oxidation mun % ne (+1) +x 43(-2)"0 oF 24+x-6=0 > xe4d Oxidation number of $ in H,S0, is 4, a, S0{": The oxidation number of oxygen is -2 and let the oxidation number of S be * d Os, oxygen has oxidation numbe; 3. 32 | Chemical Reactions and fquations e Ts CLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE! ones ilOxidation and Reduction in Terms of Oxidation Number e@eee Oxidation and reduction in terms of O.N. are defined as given below : Oxidation : A reaction in which oxidation number of the element increases. Reduction : A reaction in which oxidation number of the element decreases. Oxidising agent (Oxidant) : A substance in which the oxidation number of atom decreases. Reducing agent (Reductant) : A substance in which the oxidation number of atom increasesDisproportionation Reactions They include a special type of redox reaction in which the same species is oxidised as wel reduced simultaneously. They are also called self oxidation-reduction reactions. They ca} defined as : : The reaction in which same substance is oxidised as well as reduced in same reaction and: two states are observed in separate products. For such redox reaction, the reacting species must contain an element which has at leas different oxidation states. The reacting species is present in the intermediate oxidation state the products are present in lower and higher oxidation states. For example, decompositi hydrogen peroxide. wt > “a, 2 0 In HO, oxida reve weet? 9, oxidation state of O is -1, Godilation ciate; Ss from -1 to-2 (H,0). = tion state increases from —1 to 0 (O;), and deTypes of Redox Reactions « Combination Reactions These are the reactions in which two atoms or molecules combine together t molecule. 2 oe reactions at least one of the reactant must be in the elemen “an 8 Hs +ch > 2HC1 2h, +0: + 21,6 an N,+3H, + 2NFL « Decomposition Reactions ‘These are the reactions in which a molecule breaks down to form two or more atoms or molecules These are simply reverse of combination reactions. For these reactions to be redox reactions one of the products must be in the elemental form. “a2 0 8 2H,d—+ 2H,+0, n195 -2 4LiNO, —*»2Li,0 +4NO, +0, © Displacement Reactions ‘These are the reactions in which an atom or an ion in a compound is replaced by another atom or ion, These reactions are represented as : AB + C+ AC + B If a metal atom/ion is displaced in the reaction, it is called metal displacement reaction. <.¢. 4 o GPA TiCl,+2Mg — Ti+2MgCl, 2 0 ° 2 CuSO,+Zn > Cu + ZnSO, If anon-metal atom/ion is displaced in the reaction, the reaction is called non-metal displacement reaction. For ¢.8., oa a ° Zn+H,SO, + ZnSO,+H, oon 3 ° 2A1+3H,0 > Al, O,+3Hz ps 2 Mg +2HCl > MgCl, +H, Spectator fons The chemical species which are present in the solution but do not participate in chemical reactionsAcids, Bases and SaltsAcids Liebig defined acids as “a compound which contains one or more hydrogen atoms replaceable partially or completely by a metal or a positive radical to produce a salt.” Acids are substances which have sour taste and tum blue litmus solution to red. Some colour changes shown by various indicators with acids are : change the colour of blue litmus solution to red. give red colour with methyl orange. give colourless solution with phenolphthalein. no reaction with red litmus solution.Example : HyPO, (orthophosphoric acid). ‘These acids dissociate as: HyA @= 3H* + AS. ie, HsPOy ete. HPO, and HPO, must also be tribasic but actually they are dibasic and monobasic acids respectively, HjPO, = == 2H" + HPO,* Phosphorous acid HPO, w= HY + HPO? Metaphosphorous acid © General Characteristics of Acids - Sour taste : As already discussed, almost all acidic substances have a sour taste. = Action on litmus paper : Acids turn blue litmus solution red. = Action on methyl orange : Methyl orange turns red when 1-2 drops of its solution are added to the solution of an acidic substance. = Corrosive nature ; Most of the acids are corrosive in nature. They produce a burning sensation on the skin and holes in the clothes on which they fall. ‘They also attack metal structure and stone work. Hence, they are never stored in metal containers. They are always stored in containers made of glass or ceramics as they are not attacked by the acids.Sulphi ites) with e tes) Volution, a dioxide HO, + SO, .) sulphur dioxide EO, + 50,,,) sulphur dionide H,0)+ S0,,, ‘sulphur dioxide + H,0,) + to of all acids cond ey example, if ad through their solu wsConduction of electricity through a solution of a substance can take place only if ions are present in the solution. This shows that the acids when dissolved in water produce hydrogen ions (H*) These H* ions do not exist as such in the solution. They combine with water molecules and exist as hydronium ions, H,O° (H,O + H* —> H,0’). As each H’ ion can combine with a number ‘of water molecules, in the solution, we represent it as H’,.). The dissociation of a few acids in the aqueous solution to give H’,,) ions alongwith the corresponding negative ion is represented below : HChay —> Hie) + Chg Hydrochloric acid Chloride ions HNO say) —> H°aq) + NOS (eq Nitric acid Nitrate ions HySO aq) —> 2H%aq) + SO Sulphuric acid Salphate ions CH3COOH (aq) —> CH3COO%(e,) + Hay) Acetic acd Acetate ions ihe CORNER ‘To show that solution of acid can conduct electricity Requirements : Dil. HCl, battery, ammeter, connecting wires, switch, two graphite rods, Procedure : = Take dil. HCI in container as shown in diagram. = Put two graphite rods in dil. HCI and complete the circuit as shown in diagram. = Switch on the current. Observe the reading of ammeter. ‘Observation : The pointer of ammeter moves showing that current is passing through the solution. Conclusion : Acids conduct electricity in ‘aqueous solution. Wee Arrhenius Concept of Acids In 1984, Svante Arrhenius, a Swedish chemist proposed a theory to define acids and bases known ‘as Arrhenius concept of acids. According to Arrhenius theory, Acids are substances which dissociate in aqueous solution to give hydrogen ions (or hydronium ions) Forexample, HCl, HNO, CHjCOOH and H,SO, are all acids as they dissociate in aqueous medium to give hydrogen ions. Hig) + HO) —> HO") + Teen Hydrochloric acd Hydronium ion HNO (a9) + Hz) —> H30%(q) + NO) Nitric acid Hydronium fon CH,COOH yy) + HzQ yy) —? Hs0fqy + CH3COO 9) ‘Aceticacid Hydronium ion ‘GLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE | CHEMISTRY —_—_—<_—_—_————— Acids, Bases and Salts | 8Sire substa N have bitter taste, soapy touch and turn red litmus solution to ~ Some colour changes shown by various indicators with bases are : = change red colour of red litmus solution to blue. — give yellow colour with methyl orange. = give pink colour with phenolphthalein. = no reaction with blue litmus solution. e Strong Bases The bases which completely ionise in aqueous solution to give hydroxide ions (OH>) are strong bases. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH), etc. are called strong bases as completely dissociate in aqueous solution to produce large number of OH” ions on ionisat Bases (like NaOH, KOH) that are soluble in water are called alkalies. As they produce large number of ions on ionisation, they are also strong electrolytes . e Weak Bases The bases which ionise to small extent in aqueous solution to give hydroxide ions (OH) called weak bases. 88 | Acids, Bases and $2[t5 ——e CLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE | CHIe .-. ee ‘Ammonium hydroxide (NH,OH), calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH),] are called weak bases as they ‘only partially (less than 100%) ionise in water. For example, pe Mee COM), Mtn Ca, ec oeas Weak bases are also weak electrolytes as they ionise only to limited extent in water. + Acidity or Hydroxicity of Base It is equal to the number of hydroxide ions (OH*) furnished by a base molecule in its aqueous solution after complete dissociation. = Mono-acidic bases : They dissociate as : BOH == B*+ OH ie., NaOH, KOH, NH,OH, etc. = Di-acidic bases : They dissociate as : B(OH), == B* + 20H- iz., Ca(OH), Mg(OH),, ete. - Tri-acidic bases : They dissociate as : B(OH); == B% + 30H- iz, AMOH), ete. (oa) + 20H ogy Chemical Properties of Bases + Reaction of Bases with Metals ‘Some metals react with bases to liberate hydrogen gas. For example, zinc reacts with sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas is evolved. The reaction is : 2NaOH + Zn —> Na,ZnO, + H, Sottum hydeonde Zine Sedism since Hydrogen gas « Reaction with Acids ‘Bases react with acids to undergo neutralization reaction forming salt and water. For example, iroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to form sodium chloride (salt) and water. sodium hyd: NaOH yy) + HV gy) —% _NaChayy + HQ Sodium ydronde —Hydrochlorcacd Sodium eoide ‘am) ac) ‘Gal 2NaOH + H,50¢ (4) —? Na$0 oq) + 220 Sodium hydoxide Sulphurcacd Sodium sulphate Ca(OH) jy) + HCI (a) > CaClyay, + 2H20 Sodium hydroxide ‘Hydrochloricacid | Calcium chloride «Reaction of Bases with Non-metal Oxides Bases when react with non-metallic oxides such as carbon dioxide then they produce metal salt and water. In the reaction, non-metal oxide reacts with base to form salt which indicates their acidic nature. For example, sodium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide to form sodium carbonate and water as : 2NaOHy + Cg) 7 NAzCOyu) + H20 Sodium hydeovide Carbon dioxide Sodium carbonate CalOH), + CO) —> CaCO yoy + HO Calcium hydroxide Carbon dioxide Calcium eabonate OS En a aac ialArrhenius Concept for Bases fs According to Arthenius concept, “bases are the substances Which dissociate in to generate hydroxide (OH) ions”. For example, substances such as NaOH, KOH, Mg(OH)2, Ca(OH)», like NaOH, KOH, ete. which produce single OH” ion on ionisation a1 bases, Bases like Mg(OH),, Ca(OH), which produce two OH" ions on ionisat bases. 2 KOH, | 225 KY FOR Potassium hydroxide .queous sol NH,OH, etc. are bases. Bases . re called monoacidic tion are called diacidic H,0 + a Mg(OH)_) —2—>. MB*"(aq) + 207 (og) Magnesium hydroxide H,0 2 CalOH) yg) —2—> Ca? oq) + 20H (oq) Calcium hydroxide H,O SG Nig) + OFF, NH,OH,,, oe Ammonium hydrideApplications of Arrhenius Concept — It explains the acidic nature of aqueous solution of non-metallic oxides. (i.e., CO, SO, SOx NO; NO, PO, etc.) CO,+H,O == H,CO, == 2H* +CO;* SO; +H,O == H,SO, == 2H* + SO, — ltexplains the basic nature of aqueous solutions of several substances like metal hydroxides, CaO, Na,O, NH, NH, etc. CaO + H,O == Ca(OH), == Ca* + 20H- NH; + H,0 == NH,OH == NH,‘ + OH- — Water is amphoteric in nature as it furnishes both H* and OH" in aqueous solution. H,O == H*+OH- — Neutralisation reaction : Basically it is a reaction between H* and OH~ to form H,0. Hen + OH (eq), == 1,00) — Strength of acid/base : It depends upon the tendency of acid or base to furnish H* or OH™ in solution.Salts in the acid by a A salt is a compound formed from an acid by the replacement of the hydrogen ™ ces metal. Salts are formed when acids react with bases. Salts can be defined ee that are formed as a result of neutralization of acid by base. They cam be divided © Normal Salts Be acest e They do not generally contain any replaceable hydrogen atom. They are formed when all rep’ hydrogens of an acid are replaced by metal. e.g. NaCl, KCl etc. they are formed when a strong acid is completely neutralized by a strong base. These salts do not react with water on dissolving. In aqueous solution their pH is 7.0. e.g. When HCl is neutralized with NaOH, normal salt NaCl is produced. HCl + NaOH —> NaCl + H,0 All chlorides, bromides, iodides, sulphates, nitrates of alkali and alkaline earth metals are normal salts. 92 | Acids, Bases and Salts mens CLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE | CHEMISTRYNeutral Salts ‘These salts are formed by the reaction of a weak acid with weak base. eg. When CH;COOH is neutralized with NH,OH, neutral salt CH;COONH, is produced. CH,COOH + NH,OH —> CH,COONH, + Hy Acidic Salts These salts contain replaceable hydrogen which is released in aqueous solvent. They are formed when a polybasic acid is partially neutralized by a weak base. e.g. NaHCO, NaHSO;. They are acidic because they retain one or more hydrogen of parent acid. ¢g- When weak base NH,OH reacts with strong acid HCI, acidic salt NH,C1 is formed. NH,OH + HCl —> NH,Ci+H,0 ‘In aqueous solution their pH is less then 7.0. These salts further react with bases to form neutral salts. ¢.g- NH, (NH,),CO,. Note: — Ammonium halides (NH,Cl, NH,Br, NH,1), NH,NOs, (NH,);SO, are acidic salts. — Metal sulphates except of alkali & alkaline earth metals, all metal sulphates are acidic salts. ~ Except nitrates of alkali & alkaline earth metals, almost all metal nitrates are acidic salts. Basic Salts These salts are formed by partial neutralization of a polyacidic base with weak acid. They contain replaceable OH" group that ionizes in aqueous medium, They are basic because they retain one or more hydroxyl group of parent base. In aqueous solution their pH is more then 7.0. These salts further react with acids to form neutral salts. — Except hydroxides of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals other hydroxides are weak hydroxides. — Most metal acetates, carbonates, oxalates, cyanides and fluorides are basic salts. Family of Salts ‘Various salts having common metal ion can be grouped in a single family. Few families of salts are: — The salts of ‘hydrochloric acid’ are called ‘chlorides’ — The salts of ‘sulphuric acid’ are called ‘sulphates’. = The salts of ‘nitric acid’ are called ‘nitrates’ — The salts of ‘carbonic acid’ are called ‘carbonates’. — The salts of ‘acetic acid’ are called ‘acetates’ Acids, Bases and Saits\ 93re than one cation or anion other than H* or H~ ions are called mixed salts. e.g. CO;, Na(NH,)HPO,. They are generally produced by simultaneous neutralization of acid by more than one base or single base by more than one acid. When saturated solutions of twosalts containing different cations are crystallized in a single solution, crystals obtained are of a double salt. e.g. when K,SO, & Al,(SO,); are crystallized by mixing their equimolar solutions a double salt K,S0,.Al(SO,)3.24H,0 is formed. These salts give positive tests for all constituent ions. e What Do Acids and Bases have in Common ? Water itself shows acidic and basic nature to some extent as : H,O = H* + OH But water is overall neutral because H* and OH" ions present are equal in number. | When acidic substances are dissolved in water, they increase the concentration of Ht Bes in thd solution which makes it overall acidic. However OH ions are present in the solution but in less | 94 | Acids, Bases and $2[¢5 ——— CLASS YO FOUNDATION COURSE | CHEMISTRYconcentration as compared to Ht ions, ‘When basic substances are dissolved in wate : they increase the concentration of OH” ions in the solution which makes it overall basic. However H’* ions are present in the solution but in less concentration as compared to OH" ions, pH Scale ¢ The hydrogen ion concentration [H*] in aqueous solution is represented in moles per litre. {H*] is very small, it is inconvenient to express the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution the basis of [H*] ion concentration, ¢ pH scale is an scale used to major the strength of Arrhenius acids and bases. It was design Sorensen in 1909. In pH, p stands for potenz meaning power in German and H stands for hydr¢ ions. As acidic or basic nature is due to active H* ions in aqueous medium, pH can also be d as a scale to represent the activity of H’ ions in aqueous solution. © Inchemical terms PH can be defined as logarithm of reciprocal of H,0* ions in aqueous solution. or = "= 10H Beery ORC AnT Tsao In pH scale less is the value of pH more is the acidic nature of the substance. In pH scale - all substances having pH value between 0 and 7 are called acids. ~ all substances having pH value equal to 7 are neutral —_ all substances having pH value between 7 and 14 are called bases. Weak acid ‘Weak base PO deet s2.4 546 Gel 8 9 10, 11-12-13 14 Strong acid /\ Strong base Increasing acidic character NE Increasing basic character * Logarithmic Values for Some Common Digits 0.3010 logio 3 = 0.48, logio 4 = 0.60 logio 5 = 0.69 Togip10"=x ie, logy 10° = 5 If concentration of H* ion is more than 1, pH value comes less than 0 and pH scale only include numeric values between 0 to 14 and pH value of a solution can not be negative. If negative value is calculated for pH than it must be stated that pH value of solution is less than 0, but use of negative sign is omitted. [@ catcatate pH value of ons de Ns eaiso, Lee CIT | ee Soln: (a) pH = logis. [H'] = 210° @ Determine the pH of the solution when 10° hydrogen ion concentration is pH = log = logo 35 = losiol0*- ogi?) 1.0 10 MHL, (ii) 1.0 « 10° M HNO, 3 | 2x10" 3 -030-2.70 Soln: (i) pH =-log (H*]. [H"]=1.0 «109M “(b) 2104 M H,SO,. Given, M=2* 104M ¢. PH= log (1.0 « 10°) [Ht] =2«2« 10424 « 104 (= 3) log 10-3. (-; log 10= 1) : ne (i) [H"] = 1.0 « 10° M. Hee gs | 8a pH =~ logfH*] = ~ log(1.0 x 10°) += logiol0* — logo = 4 - 0.60 = 3.4 Spike 5 ss Acids Bases and Salts\ $5 CLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE | CHEMISTRY® pu of a solution changes from 6 to5. What changes do you expect in hydrogen ion concentration ? Soln.: We know that pH =~ loglH"] If pH is 6, then +] will be 1.0 * 10% mol L”’ If pH is 5, then [H*] will be 10 * 10° mol L* Increase in concentration of H" ions 4 1.010 5 mol L” totes 1.0x 10% molL” Therefore, H* concentration is increased 10 times _ when pH changes from 6 to 5. What is the pH of a0.01 M NaOH solution? | Soln.: Since NaOH is completely dissociated, | thus gives 0.01 M OH- ions. Since OH™ ion ' concentration is known, we can calculate the H’ Tonic product of water, 14 [HOH] +110 or TH = fopry | Now, [OH] +001 M =1 «107M “ pry = PA = 0M pH =~ log(Ht] = logli0“] = 4-12)logi0 = 12 | Calculate the concentration of H* and OH” of a solution whose (a) pH = 0, (b) pH= 14. Soin. (a) pH = 0, [H'] = 1078 = 10° =1 NaOH AE Na" ag) * OW a . plOH] = [NaOH] = 10° M the pH of the solution, we To calculate be calculated by know [H’]. This can formula [H'] [OH] = Ke ot oof j= [OH"] How many grams of NaOH should be dissolved in one litre of the solution to prepare a solution with pH = 12 ? Soln.: pH = 12 means [H‘] = 10° M 14 49-4 2 ore” fH#*] 10° M ‘As NaOH ionizes completely as NaOH —W28" 5 Na* + OH™ 2. [NaOH] = [OH] = 107 M = 107 mol L = (10% mol L*) (40 g mol”) = 0.4 gL" (- Molar mass of NaOH = 23+ 16+1 = 40 g mol’) @ Calculate the pH of a solution obtained by dissolving (i) 0.02 mole of hydrochloric acid in 2 litres of the solution. (ii) 0.01 mole of sulphuric acid in 2 litres of the solution. Soln.: (i) Molar concentration of HC! solution __ 0.02 mol i 3 a IL = 0,01 mol L*! = 10> mol L = 1074 M? -14 paues 210” M. 10° “. pH =10?M acid As HCl is a strong acid, it completely jonizes as Her Mat, Ht + cr . [H*)= [HCl] = 10? M. Hence, pH = 2 (ii) Molar concentration of H,SO, solution 0.01 mol = = 0.005 mol L™ - 2 As H,SO, is a strong acid, it completely jonizes H,SO, Mp He 4507 molecule of H,SO, gives 2H” ion® :H,SO,] = 2 * 0.005 = 0.01 mol/L 0 mol L“. Hence, pH=2. CLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE | ©! nenis™« Dilution Concept If molarity of an acid is M, and volume is V;, when some water is added in this acid, then volume becomes V3 and molarity becomes M, So According to dilution concept, M,V; = M2V> | €D wren 900 mL H,0 is added in 2 M, 100 ml HCl, calculate pH value of this acidic solution. ‘i => 2 «100 = M; x 1000 ein ieee => M,=2*107=02M va = MoV2 *] = 0.2 V, = 100 mL, V, = 100 + 900 = 1000 mL, also My =2,M2=? SCD pH= logs; = log 2 = tog 5 = 0.69Some Important Acids, Bases and Salts Sodium Hydroxide, NaOH Chemical Formula NaOH Common name Caustic soda Action on litmus Tum red litmus blue Solubility Soluble in water (Highly alkaline) . © Pure Sodium Hydroxide Commercial sodium hydroxide, besides impurities such as NaySO,, NaCl etc. invariably contains some amount of sodium carbonate due to the absorption of atmospheric CO. However, it may be 98 | Acids, Bases and Salts CLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE | CHEMISTRYpurified by dissolving it in alcohol in which impurities including NajCO,, NaCl, Na,SO, are insoluble. The filtrate on evaporation given off alcohol leaving behind pure solid NaOH. + Physical Properties (i) Itis a deliquescent, white crystalline solid. (i) It is highly soluble in water and the solution is bitter in taste, corrosive and soapy to touch. (iii)It is sparingly soluble in alcohol. However, KOH is fairly soluble in alcohol. « Chemical Properties (i) Action of atmosphere : NaOH on exposure to atmosphere absorbs moisture and CO, to form Na,CO, 2NaOH +CO, —> Na,CO, + H,0 (Gi) Strong alkali nature : Sodium hydroxide is a strong alkali as it ionises completely in water furnishing OH" ions NaOH —> Na* + OH (@) It reacts with acids forming salts. Type 1 : NaOH reacts with strong acids give normal salts which are neutral salts. NaOH + HCl —> NaCl + H,0 2NaOH + H,SO, —> Na,SO, + 2H,0 NaOH + HNO, —> NaNO; + H,0 Type 2: NaOH reacts with weak acids give basic salt. NaOH + CH;COOH —> CH;COONa + H;O (b) It combines with acidic oxides to form salts which may be acidic, basic or neutral NaOH + Acidic oxide —> Salt + Water 2NaOH+CO,—> Na,CO, +H,0 Sodium carbonate 2NaOH+SO, —> Na,SO, +H,0 Sodium sulpite 2NaOH +2NO,——> NaNO, + NaNO, +H, Sodium nate Sodium nitite (6) Oxides of Amphoteric metals (aluminium, zinc, tin and lead) dissolve in sodium hydroxide forming corresponding salts. These metals are called amphoteric metals as they form amphoteric oxides. —> 2NaAlO, +H,0 aera 8 PAO Soduummeinsiuinate ZnO +2NaOH —> Na;,ZnO, +H,0 Sodiim zineate ‘$nO+2NaOH —> Na,SnO, +H,0 Sodium stant SnO, +2NaOH —> Na,Sn0, +H,0 secu taste —» Na,PbO, +H,0 PbO + 2NaOH he — + Na,PbO, +H,0 FeOatINSOH. Sedum plmbate : (iii) Action on amphoteric metals : Amphoteric metals (Be, Al, Ga, Zn, Sn and Pb) react with NaOH to liberate hydrogen gas. 2Al + 2NaOH + 2H,0 — 2NadlO; + 3H, Zn+2NaOH — Na,ZnO, + Hy 6 ——<—<—< << i tar and ttt ecggn + 2NaOH + HO — Na,Sn0s + 2H Pb + 2NaOH + H,0 —> NagPbO3 + 2H (iv) Action on ammonium salts : Ammonium salts on heating with sodium hydroxide ) release ammonia gas. a) NH,CI+ NaOH ——> NH; + NaCl + H,0 (NH),S0, +2NaOH —? NajSO,+ 2NHbt + 240 (v) Action of carbon monoxide : NaOH reacts with carbon monoxide under press.,, 150-200°C to form sodium formate. NaOH +CO—#2=20°< > HCOONa 5-10 atm. Sodium formate Note : carbon monoxide is neutral gas but it show acidic nature with NaOH. For this rea, its structure is responsible. toy (vi) Hydroxides of Amphoteric metals (Be, Al, Ga, Zn, Sn and Pb) are soluble in NaOH, dy, complex formation, but other hydroxides do not dissolve in NaOH. Note: L ‘Any mixture of hydroxides of amphoteric metals and other metals can be separated by Nagy, Example : Mixture of Fe(OH); and Al(OH); is separated by NaOH. 2. Some Hydroxide (Zn(OH),, Cu(OH),, C4(OH)3] are soluble in NH,OH. Example : Mix, of Al(OH), and Zn(OH), cannot be separated by NaOH, because both are soluble in NaOi, This mixture is separated by NH,OH. (vii) Caustic Property : Sodium hydroxide breaks down the proteins to a pasty mass. On accoyy of this property, it is commonly called as Caustic soda, NaOH (aq) iS also called as soda lye n {s used as a reagent in the laboratory. Sodium hydroxide is a strong alkal arg d widely in the chemical industry, ¢.g., soap manufacture, purification of bauxite, manufactur etc. However, when a base is required to neutralise acids, it is more economical to uy bonate, ammonia or lime. Chlorine gas which is a valuable by-product in NaQy ‘can be used for the production of chemicals such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), « Na,CO,10H,0 Washing soda Neutral ? Sparingly soluble in water (weakly basic) chemical of commercial use. It exists in various forms such as ‘or Na;CO; or soda ash. or Na,CO;H,0 or crystal carbonate. 2 ot Na,COs7H,0. 10H,0. O, was invented by Le-Blanc. However, this proce methods. The most important method for t# (NaCl) or brine solution, ammonia DxTion counsé | cH#™5" Stcs: lime stone. The process in brief, involves the formation of a sparingly soluble sodium bicarbonate by the reaction of sodium chloride and ammonium bicarbonate in aqueous solution, Sodium bicarbonate on heating decomposes into sodium carbonate. The reactions taking place in the process are: NH,+H,0+CO, ——> —NH,HCO, ‘Ammonis bicarbonate NaCl + NHyHCO, > NaHCO,+ +NH,Cl Sodium bicarbonate 2NaHCO, —4+Na,CO, + H,0+CO. ited and heated «Electrolytic Process In the Nelson cell used in the manufacture of sodium hydroxide, carbon dioxide under pressure is blown along with steam. The sodium hydroxide produced then reacts with carbon dioxide to form sodium carbonate. The solution is concentrated and crystallised. 2NaOH + CO, —> Na,CO, + H;0 « Physical Properties (i) Sodium carbonate is a white crystalline solid. The decahydrate form on standing in aireffloresces and crumbles to powder. (ii) On heating, the monohydrate changes into the anhydrous form which does not decompose on, further heating even to redness. (iii)tis soluble in water with the evolution of considerable amount of heat to show alkaline nature due to hydrolysis. NayCO, + 2H,0 —> 2NaOH + H,CO; © Chemical Properties (@ Action of acids : It is readily decomposed by acids with evolution of carbon dioxide. The reaction involves two steps. Na;CO, + HCl —> NaHCO, + NaCl NaHCO, + HCl —> NaCl + H,0 +O, (ii) Action of CO, :On passing CO, through the concentrated solution of sodium carbonate, sodium, bicarbonate gets precipitated. Na,CO; + H,0 + CO; —> 2NaHCO, (iii) Action of Silica : The mixture of sodium carbonate and silica on fusion gives sodium silicate, Na;CO; + SiO; —> Na,SiO, + CO,t Sodium silicate is called soluble glass or water glass as it is soluble in water. (iv) Action of slaked lime : Sodium hydroxide is formed when the solution of sodium carbonate containing sulphur on treatment with sulphur dioxide gives sodium thiosulphate (Na;S,0.). Na,CO, + SO, 42+ Na,SO; + CO;t Na,SO, +S ——> Na,S,O3 ° Uses Sodium carbonate is used : — in the manufacture of glass, sodium silicate, paper, borax, soap powders, caustic soda ete. ~ in laundry and in softening, of water as washing soda. ~ in textile and petroleum refining, = asa laboratory reagent. The mixture of Na,CO, and K;COs is used as a fusion mixture, It is S450 FOUNDATION COURSE | CHEMISTRY Aes, Bate at Sats | 108 e Militia t= a .] Useg i i litative anal i in quantitative analysis to standardise acid solutions. In qual Isis, it ig sce ‘of acidic radicals especially of insoluble salts. * for the preparation of various carbonates of metals. Re Na,COyNaHCO;2H,0 is sodium sesquicarbonate. It is neither deliquescent nor eEflores, and is used for wood washing. ey — A mixture of NaCOs + CaS is called black ash. ” Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate (NaHCO,) Chemical Formula NakiCO, ‘Common name Baking soda Action on litmus Tur red litmus to blue Solubility Sparingly soluble in water (weakly basic) Preparation _Itis obtained as the intermediate product in the Solvay or ammonia soda process. Normal carb, be changed to bicarbonate by passing carbon dioxide through its saturated solution, : Na,CO; + CO, +H;0 —> 2NaHCO, . ‘Sparingly soluble is a white crystalline solid, sparingly soluble in water. in nature due to hydrolysis. ‘NaHCO, + H,0 = NaOH + H,CO, ow colour with methyl orange butno colour with phenolphthal:: the acidity in the stomach. -of potassium hydrogen tartarate and sodium bicarbonst behind residue of imp” ON COURSE | cuesako of Common Salt Sodium chloride obtained from sea water or from lakes contains many impurities such as sulph ‘of sodium and magnesium alongwith chlorides of calcium and magnesium. The chlorides of and magnesium are Particularly undesirable on account of theit deliquescent nature. For its purification common salt is dissolved in minimum quantity of water to get a sat olution. Insoluble impurities are filtered off. Hydrogen chloride gasis passed through the saturated solution. Due to common ion effect, the ionic product of NaCl increases above the solubility product and therefore NaCl is then thrown out as pure crystals. The impurities being more soluble remain in the mother liquor. The crystals are filtered, washed and dried. ates turated NaCl) SS Nat Naa) * Chay HCl = Hi, + Cr Ms Nee) Thus, [Na‘] (CH > Ky, « Properties = Itis white crystalline solid (m.pt. 1073 K), soluble in water (solubility 36/100 g a dissolves in water with absorption of heat — Itis insoluble in alcohol. = The common salt is the starting material for the preparation of all other sodium compounds eg. NaOH, Na,CO,, NaFiCO,, ete. and extraction of sodium. it 239 K). It © Uses NaClis used as : — an essential constituent of food. — a preservative of food articles like fish, meat, etc = for making useful sodium compounds. = in ‘salting out’ of soap, and in making freezing mixture. Note : Pure NaCl is not hygroscopic. It shows hygroscopic nature due to impurities, Calcium Carbonate, CaCO, eimai Chemical Formula CaCO, Action on litmus Neutral Solubility Slightly soluble in water Ttexists in nature in huge quantities in various forms such as lime stone, marble, chalk, ete, * Preparation Itis obtained by passing carbon dioxide through lime water or by adding sodium carbonate solution to CaCl. Ca(OH); + CO, —> CaCO; + H,0 CaCl, + Na,CO; —> CaCO; + 2NaCl * Properties = It is a white powder, insoluble in water. It dissolves in water in presence of CO, due to formation of calcium bicarbonate. CaCO, + H,0 + CO, —> Ca(HCOs)2 * Uses > Precipitated chalk is used in toothpastes and face powders, in medicine for indigestion, in adhesives and in cosmetics. (045518 FOUNDATION COURSE | CHEMISTRY ———————-mmmmmmme Acids, Bases and Sats| 103, ees 5) A SC aR OS Ly LS‘Chalk is used in paints and distempers. Marble is used for building purposes, in the production of CO, in laboratory. Limestone is used in the manufacture of quick lime, slaked lime, cement, washing soq, » glass. — As flux in the smelting of iron and lead ores. Calcium Sulphate Chemical Formula CaSO;2H,0 ‘Common name Gypsum Action on litmus Neutral Solubility Slightly soluble in water Troccurs in nature as Anhydrite (CaSO,) and Gypsum (CaSO,2H,0). CaSO,-2H,0 is also kno as alabaster. © Preparation cna . y reacting any calcium salt either sulphuric acid or a soluble sulphate (i.¢., Na,0, eee Ga + HO, > CaS0y = 2H— a ree Calcium Sulphate Hemihydra' Chemical Formula 2€280, 1,0 oF CaS0y } HO ‘Common name Plaster of Paris Action on litmus Neutral Solubility Insoluble « Preparation It is obtained when gypsum is heated at 120°C. 2[CaSO,2H,0] —2ZS> — 2CaSO0,H,O — +3H,0 Gypsum Plasterof Pais (Calcium sulphate hemihydrate) © Properties = Plaster of Paris is a white powder. ~ Plaster of Paris has the property of setting to hard mass when a paste with water is allowed to stand aside for sometime. Slight expansion occurs during the setting as water is absorbed to reform CaSO,2H,0 (gypsum). The setting process is exothermic. 2CaSO,H,O S28 > CaSO, 2H,0 M88 5 CaSO, 2H,0 Plaster of Paris a ‘Gypsum Gypeum (Orthorhombic) (stonociie) ‘The setting of Plaster of Pars is catalysed by sodium chloride and is retarded by borax or alum ‘Addition of alum to Plaster of Paris gives hard setting. The mixture is known as Keene’s cement. When Plaster of Paris is heated at 200°C, it forms anhydrous calcium sulphate which is known as dead plaster. It has no setting property as it takes up water only very slowly. e Uses It is used : = In making blue paint. — In laundry for blueing purposes. = In making wallpaper and blue tinted paper. In calico printing. ‘ = In making ornamental casts and idols. — For making casts for supporting fractured bones (Plaster). Calcium Oxychloride ‘Chemical Formula Ca(OCl)x2H;0 ‘Common name Bleaching powder Solubility Soluble Bleaching powder is a mixed salt of calcium hypo-hloride [Ca(OCl),2H0] and basic calcium chloride [CaCl-Ca(OH), H,0) Actually it snot a true compound but simply itis represented by formula CaOCh. © Methods of Preparation Itis prepared by action of Cl, on dry slaked lime. Ca(OH), + Cl, —>CaOCl + H,0 ‘According of Cliffored, the formation of bleaching powder is explained as : 2Ca(OH); + 2Cl —> Ca(OCl)y + CaCl, + 2,0 CaCl, + Ca(OH), + HO —> CaCl;Ca(OH),H,0 3Ca(OH); + 2Ch —? Ca(OCDg + CaCl, Ca(OH), H,0 + 1,0 : a.© Physical Properties Ttis pale yellow powder having smell of NH,, It is sparingly soluble in water and gives 4 mill suspension when dissolved in water, Its aqueous solution gives positive test for Ca”, Cr ang 0G © Chemical Properties ~ Decomposition : On standing, it decomposes (auto oxidation) to calcium chloride and Calciuy, chlorate, : 6CaOCl, ——> 5CaCl, + Ca(ClOs). On standing chlorine percentage decreases regularly. Due to this germicidal nature is jay Decomposition of bleaching powder is catalysed by cobalt chloride. 2Ca0Cl, —S2+ 2Cach, +O, ~ Reaction with Dilute Acid : (a) With limited quantity of acid ; With limited quantity of dilute acids (HCI, H,SO, etc bleaching powder liberates oxygen. 2CaOCl,, + HSO, —> CaSO, + CaCl, + 2HOCI HOC] ——> HCl + [0] Evolution of oxygen is responsible for its bleaching action. (b) With excess of acid : With excess of acid, bleaching powder liberates chlorine which is called available chlorine. Due to available chloride, bleaching powder acts as disinfectant CaOCl, + H;S0, ——> CaSO, + H,O + Cl, CaOCl, + 2HCl ——> CaCl, + H,0 + Ch, Cl; is liberated with CO, also. CaOCl, + CO, ——> CaCO; + Cl, - Oxidising Nature : Bleaching powder is good oxidising agent because it gives nascent oxygen bey CaOCl, + Na;AsO; ——> NajAsO, + CaCl CaOCl, + 2FeSO, + H,SO, —> Fe,(SO,)3 + CaCl, + H,0 CaOCl, + KNO, ——> CaCl, + KNO; 3CaOCl, + 2NH; —> 3CaCl, + 3H,O + Nz - Ethyl alcohol, acetone etc, give chloroform when treated with bleaching powder. = Bleaching Action : As bleaching powder gives nascent oxygen, it shows bleaching property. Coloured matter + [O] ——> Colourless matter. Bleaching Process 1. The material to be bleached is first passed through solution of NaOH to remove gress) matter. _ 2, Now material is passed through aqueous solution of bleaching powder an: very dilute HCI solution. HCI reacts with bleaching powder to liberate nascent oxygen whi bleaches the material. 3, To remove excess of Cl, material is dipped in antichlor substances like hypo or sodium es d then through ich 2Na,S,03 + Ch —> 2NaCl + Na,5,0, NaHSO, + Cl, + H,O ——> NaHSO, + 2HCI — As bleaching agent in textile, paper and jute industry: TRY CLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE | cHEMIS- As disinfectant. - As oxidant. - In the preparation of several compounds. — For making wool unshrinkable. Water of Crystallisation Water of crystallisation is the fixed number of water molecules present in one formula unit of a salt. For example, five water molecules are present in one formula unit of copper sulphate. So, the chemical formula of hydrated copper sulphate is CuSO,.5H,0. Similarly, ten water molecules are present in one formula unit of washing soda. The chemical formula of hydrated sodium carbonate is Na,CO,.10H,O. Another important hydrated salt is gypsum which has two molecules of water of crystallisation. It has the formula CaSO,.2H,O.» © Except HF other halogen acids (HCI, HBr, HI) are | Do You strong acids. é E : Know sea of sulphur, H,SO, H,SO;, H,S,O; are strong e Acid of chromium (H,CrO,, H,Cr,O7) are strong acids. HNO, and HCIO, (perchloric acid) are strong acids. HCN, Phenol and all carboxylic acids are weak monoprotic acids. H,CO;, H,S and H;PO, are weak diprotic acids. HCIO, HNO , Cone. H,SO4 HCrO, are strong oxidising agents. HBr and Hl are strong reducing agents. HCl is the weakest reducing agent. |“uounposaprxoup Ay, ‘ummpTe9 au UT P9150 94 TM add anya e ZOD st se8 ou JT yen Sun Se MOU, Osfe YOHNIOS aproupAy wnpypes oyuy eS oyy ‘eqana yo Supmysejnuew| |enunuo> qm junds out suoyeaiasaid | | ‘UeSospAystsed aup j1 "24M 1501 poog : HOOD*HO] | eowHUHds paniay e Suysosut Ssquup| | Aq paisa 9q ura se8 TH saayem pue yes ant poresoe Suryewy : §03"H sseB*yureUO | 6) saprxospAy/saprxo srepmod umae Tew qT Pear SPP ysem-ahg : €O@H eater pues 5 “12 “pooyjouoNseatp ey mo onts iM Pu | yoy 0} sqerour UTED yer yo Buryrtd) | anjossipyym wyoutraarpeareyL |“ rw jaeor SpHV La t sas q “punos dod, e wm Summing Te WM pear SpPy ee ead Too puesiem es saprxo [eHNON, aonposd 0} soyeuoqie> soprxo 2uajoydury soprxo1pPY dVIW 1d33NOD[feie Uy paajossip ways (446) S01 apixorpAy SurequDD yey | Cay TTT RAY ) 3 1 i i : dVW 1d33NODCONCEPT MAP Salts 4 ‘Asaltis a compound formed from an acid by the ___ replacement of hydrogen by a metal NaCl : Preservative in pickles, in meatand fish. || NaHCO, : In medicines, infireextinguishers. Leia Sess ee |->|Na,CO, : In textile >) cuSO,5H,0 : As fungicide.TTT MU LEe for COMPETITIVE EXayy, Bronsted-Lowry Concept d further by Johannes Bronsted a i The Arrhenius concept of acids and bas M. Lowry (1923). According to Bronsted-Lowry ¢ concept, an acid is a substance bstance which can acce| according to Bronsted-Lowry concept, acid is a proton donor and base i : in the following reaction, HCI loses a proton and is an acid where os was extende which can donate proton (}» , h a base is a sul pt a proton (H"). In other words, acceptor, For example, accepts a proton and is a base. HCl) + NHya9) - NHioy) +c (aq) The main advantage of this concept is that it is not restricted to neutral molecules. In this co, acid-base reaction are regarded as proton transfer reactions. ‘There are certain substances s. le of donating as well as accepting the proton, ater behaves as an acic H,0, HCO, HSO;, ete which are capabl substances are called amphoteric substances. For example, w base as illustrated below Asa base: HCl.) + H;0) = HyO"(ay tH (on add base Asan acid: H,Q,) + NHyjay) = NHjiaq) * OM (on) acid base Similarly, bicarbonate ion (HCO,>) behaves as an acid and a base as : HCO}iqy) + NHayay) = Nico +COF (a) acid: base HCl og) + HCO5 aq) HaCOs ag + CH (og base acid, ‘All Arthenius acids are also Bronsted acids but Arrhenius bases are not Bronsted bases Conjugate Acid-Base Pair In pare of acid-base reaction, the reverse reaction is also an acid-base reaction. Every acid for a conjugate base by the loss of a proton while every base forms a conjugate acid by the gain of a proton (H"). rere eal HA + B cots BH. + AT oid beeen acid, ase, a Conjugate pair ee se For example, peer ree es. NH + cr ess pelea acid base; Conjugate pair CLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE | cnemis™ 112 | Acids, Bases and SaltsA conjugate pair of acid and base differ by a proton only. Acid ——» Base +H” = Astrong acid gives a weak conjugate base and vice versa = If two acids (with respect to water) are mixed together then the weaker acid will act as a base with respect to the stronger acid For example, HCIO,+ HS0, === H,80} + ClO, acid Base base ite io sat - Acid base reactions always proceed in the direction from the stronger to weaker acid-base combination. For example, H,SO, + NH, —“", NH} + HSO; stronger acid stronger base weaker acid weaker base Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases According to Lewis concept, an acid is a substance which can accept a pair of electrons, whereas a base is a substance which can donate a pair of electrons i., acids are electron acceptors and bases are electron donors. * Chemical Species which can act as Lewis Acid - Electron deficient neutral compounds i.e. molecules in which central atom has incomplete octet, ¢g., BF; FeCl, AICI, ete. ~All simple cations, e.g., H', Mg”, Ag’, Fe™, etc. - Molecules having a multiple bond between atoms of different electronegativities, ¢.g., SOs, CO, ete. = In coordinate complexes, metal atoms act as Lewis acid ¢.g,, in Ni(CO),, Ni acts as Lewis acid. ~ Molecules having a central atom with empty d-orbitals, eg., Sify SnCl. * Chemical Species which can act as Lewis Base ~ Electron rich neutral compounds i. molecules with at least one lone pair of electrons, ; Bs NH,, R-O-H, R-NH,, etc. ~All negatively charged ions, e.g. CN", OH, Cr, ete. Buffer Solutions Buffer solution is defined as a solution which resists the change in its pH value when small amount of acid or base is added to it or when the solution is diluted. Buffer solution has a definite PH value at specific temperature and it does not change on keeping for a long time. Buffers are classified into two categories: * Simple Buffers ‘These are the solutions of salt of weak acid and weak base. For example CH;COONH, (ammonium Acetate), NH,CN, ete.(i) Acidic buffers These are the solutions of a mixture of weak acid and salt of this weak acid With st, For example CH;COOH + CHyCOONAa. They have pH value lesser than 7 ;,, (ii) Basic buffers These are the solutions of mixture of a weak base and salt of this weak base w ith stp, For example NH,OH + NH,Cl. They have the pH value more than 7 i., pH > 7 Solution of ampholytes ¢,g. proteins and amino acids also serve as simple buffers A mixture of an acid salt and a normal salt of polybasic acid ¢.g., NagHPO, + Na, p, , included in simple buffers. ¢ pH of a Buffer Solution pH value of a buffer solution is given by Henderson-Hasselbalch equation {Salt} [Acid] where K, is dissociation constant of acid and pK, = - log K,, [Salt] and [Acid ar. , concentrations of salt and acid respectively. Salt] (ii) Basic buffer : POH = pK, + lo is ‘7 “pH (i) Acidic buffer : |pH = pK, + log ~——- where K, is dissociation constant of base and pK, = - log K;, [Salt] and [Base] are my, concentrations of salt and base respectively, By calculating the value of pOH, pH can be determ as pH of buffer varies with temperature because value of K,, changes with temperature e Buffer Capacity (Buffer Index) Buffer capacity is the number of moles of an acid or base added to change pH of one litr buffer solution by one unit. F Number of moles of acid or base added per litre of buffer dn Hence, Buffer capacity = Change in pH ~ a(pH Buffer capacity is maximum for those buffers which have equimolar concentration of weak: and its salt or weak base and its salt ie,, [Salt] = [Acid] or [Salt] = [Base] Hence, pH = pK, or pOH = pk, ¢ Blood as a Buffer Solution Blood acts as a buffer solution and maintains a pH level of about 7.4. Any change in pH of 5" can produce illness or even causes death. Oxyacids . Compound in which -OH group is attached to non-metal is known as oxyacids. In these 2“ ist ions are derived from -OH group. Oxyacids of Nitrogen e Nitrous Acid, HNO, The free acid is unknown. It is known only in solution.Properties : = Aqueous solution of nitrous acid is pale blue. This is due to the presence of nitrogen trioxide, N,Q). The colour fades on standing for sometime. ~ It is a weak acid and reacts with alkalies to form salts known as nitrites. HNO, + NaQH —> NaNO, + H,0 ~ The acid is unstable and even in cold solution, it undergoes auto-oxidation 3HNO, —> 2NO + HNO, + H,0 ~ Oxidising nature ; It acts as an oxidising agent due to ease with which it decomposes to give nascent oxygen. 2HNO, — H,0 +2NO +0 Reducing nature : Nitrous acid also acts as a reducing agent as it can be oxidised into nit Uses : In analytical chemistry, it is used both as an oxidising and reducing agent. Nitric Acid, HNO, Chemical propertie = Itisa very strong acid. It exhibits usual properties of acids. Itreacts with basic oxides, carbonates, bicarbonates and hydroxides forming, corresponding salts. CaO + 2HNO, —> Ca(NO;), + HO Na,CO, + 2HNO, —> 2NaNO, + H,0 + CO, NaOH + HNO —> NaNO, + H,0 : = Oxidising nature : Nitric acid acts as a strong oxidising agent as it decomposes to give nascent oxygen easily. = Oxidation of non-metal (Reaction with non-metal) : (i) Sulphur reacts with hot and cone, nitric acid to give H,SO, and nitrogen dioxide gas i.e., sulphur is oxidised to sulphuric acid. S+ 6HNO, —> H,SO, + 6NO, + 2H,0 concandhet (li) Carbon is oxidised to carbonic acid. C+ 4HNO, —> H,CO; + 4NO, + H,0 (ii) Phosphorus reacts with hot and cone. nitric acid to give HyPO, and NO, ie,, itis oxidised to orthophosphoric acid. 2P-+10HNO, —> 2H,PO, + 10NO, +2H,0 concandhot (iv) Iodine reacts with hot and conc. HNO; to give iodic acid i.e, it is oxidised to iodic acid. I, + 10HNO, —> 2HIO, + 10NO, + 41,0 tot and cone. . = Action on metals : ‘Mostly active metals react with acid to give hydrogen. Nitric acid can not be used in preparation ‘of hydrogen because it is strong oxidising agent. It react with hydrogen (at the moment of formation) to produce any oxide of nitrogen (NO, NO or NO,). | © Metals which are above hydrogen in electro-chemical series : 1, Magnesium and manganese are the metals that liberate hydrogen with 6 % dilute nitric acid. Mg + 2HNO, —*Mg(NO,)2 + Ha , ‘lute ‘Mn+ 2HNO, —* Mn(NOs)2 + Hy nitrates are formed and nitrie acid is reduced : ic acid. A —_——————— NN ALS, Bases ond Soles 115(a) Reaction of nitric acid with zinc : Case 1: Zinc react with 6% diluted HNO; to produce zine nitrate and ammonium, Zinc + nitric acid (6%) = zinc nitrate + ammonium nitrate + water 4Zn+10HNO, —> 4Zn(NO;), + NH,NO, + 3H,0 Nitra very dilute Case 2: Zinc reacts with dil. HNO; (20%) to form zinc nitrate and nitrous oxide (No Zinc + nitric acid (20%) = zinc nitrate + nitrous oxide + water ‘ 4Zn+10HNO, —> 4Zn(NO,), + N,O + 5H,O dilute Case 3: It reacts with conc. HNO; (70%) to form nitrogen dioxide. Zinc + nitric acid (70%) = zinc nitrate + nitrogen dioxide + water Zn+4HNO, —> Zn(NO3), #2NO, + 2H,0 cone (b) Reaction of nitric acid with iron : Case 1: Iron with very dilute nitric acid forms ammonium nitrate. Tron + nitric acid (6%) = ferrous nitrate + ammonium nitrate + water 4Fe + 10HNO, —> 4Fe(NO,), +NH,NO; +3H,O Ferrous nitrate Case 2: Iron with dilute nitric acid forms nitrous oxide. Iron + nitric acid (20%) = ferrous nitrate + nitrous oxides + water 4Fe +10HNO, —> 4Fe(NO,), + N,O + 5H,0 dilute Case 3 : Iron with conc. HNO, forms nitrogen dioxide (NO,). Iron + nitric acid (70%) = ferric nitrate + nitrogen dioxide + water Fe +6HNO, —>Fe(NO,),+3NO, +3H,O Fericritrate ‘conc. ron is rendered passive by highly concentrated nitric acid 80%, (©) Reaction of nitric acid with tin : Case 1: Tin forms ammonium nitrate with dilute nitric acid. Tin + nitric acid (20%) = Stannous nitrate + ammonium nitrate + water 4Sn + 10HNO, —> 4Sn(NO,), + NH,NO, +3H,O ite Stannousnitrate Case 2: Tin forms metastannic acid with conc. HNO; and evolves nitrogen dioxide. Tin + nitric acid (hot and conc.) = Metastannic acid + nitrogen dioxide + water Sn+4HNO,—+ H,Sn0, +4NO, +H,0 ‘botconc. ‘Metastamnic aod ox (d) Reaction of nitric acid with lead : Case 1 : It forms nitric oxide with dilute HNO). > Lead + nitric acid (20%) = lead nitrate + nitric oxide + water 3Pb+8HNO, —> 3Pb(NO;), + 2NO + 4H,O ‘Dilute ‘Case 2: It forms nitrogen dioxide with conc. HNO. : Lead + nitric acid (conc.) = lead nitrate + nitrogen dioxide + water Pb+4HNO, — PP(NO;), + 2NO, + 2H,0 Cone. 4 ase | cum” 16 | Achde, Raves sed Salts ‘CLASS 10 FOUNDATION COU!eee + Metals which are below hydrogen in the electrochemical series (a) Reaction of nitric acid with copper : Case 1: Copper with cold dil. HNO; forms nitric oxide (NO). Copper + nitric acid (20%) = copper nitrate + nitric oxide + water 3Cu + HNO; —> 3Cu(NO,), + 2NO + 4H,0 Case 2: Copper with hot conc. HNO; forms nitrogen dioxide (NO,) Copper + nitric acid (hot and conc.) = copper nitrate + nitrogen dioxide + water Cu+4HNO, — Cu(NO,), + 2NO, + 2H,0 Hotconc (b) Reaction of nitric acid with silver : Case 1: Silver behaves similarly as copper. Silver + nitric acid (20%) = silver nitrate + nitric oxide + water 3Ag+4HNO, —> 3AgNO, + NO + 2H,0 ‘ute Silver + nitric acid (conc. = silver nitrate + nitrogen dioxide + water Ag+2HNO, —> AgNO; +NO,+H,0 Cone (0) Reaction of nitric acid with mercury : Case 1: Mercury with dilute nitric acid forms mercurous nitrate and nitric oxide. Mercury + nitric acid (20%) = mercurous nitrate + nitric oxide + water 6Hg + 8HNO, —>3Hg,(NO,),+2NO + 4H,0 dilute Mercurus sate Case 2: Mercury with conc. HNO; forms mercuric nitrate and nitrogen dioxide. Mercury + nitric acid (conc.) = mercuric nitrate + nitrogen dioxide + water Hg +4HNO, —>Hg(NO,),+2NO, +2H,0 + Metals which become passive ‘The concentrated nitric acid renders metals like iron, cobalt, nickel, chromium etc. “The inertness exhibited by metals under conditions in which chemical activity is expected is known as passivity, For example, iron displaces copper from copper sulphate solution. This property of iron is lost if it is dipped in conc. HNOs. ‘+ Metals which do not react Noble metals like gold, platinum, iridium, rhodium, ete, are not acted upon nitric acid. However, these metals dissolve in aqua-regia (3 parts conc. HCI and one part conc. HNO.). Aqua-regia forms nascent chlorine which attacks metals. - Gold: [HINO +3HCI — ,,,.NOCL.,, + 24:0 *2Cll = 3 [Au + 3C] —> AuCh] «2 [AuCl, + HCl] —> HAuCl 2Au + 3HNO; + 11 HCl —> 2HAuCl, +3NOCI+6H,0 (Chloroauricacid 2 - Platinum : [HINO, + 3HC] —> NOCI + 2H,0 + 2Cl] x2 eo —<—<$<—< << — rr tot 7Pt+4Cl — PIC, PICl, + 2HCl —> H,PICl, Pt + 2HNO, + SHCI —> ce ANCHO Oxyacids of Sulphur A large number of oxyacids are known in the case of sulphur either in free state or salts orboth. Oxyacids with — Slinks are called thioacids. Acids having sulphur in | State belong to -ous series while those having sulphur in higher oxidation state bel For example: Sulphurous acid (H,SO;) O.N. of sulphur, +4. Sulphuric acid (H,S0,) ON. of sulphur, + 6, The following are main oxyacids of sulphur : a Sulphurous acid series : Oxidation number (i) Sulphurous acid, H,SO, +4 (ii) Thiosulphurous acid, H,S,0,, +1 (iii) Hyposulphurous acid, H,S,0, +3 (iv) er aes oc, H,S,05, +4 Oxidation number +6 +5,-1 ao in the fg lower oxidats, ONE to -ic serie Oxidation number +6 +6 itp this reason water should sulphuric acid shoulrere as Phosphorus is oxidised to orthophosphoric acid. 2P + 5H,SO, —> 2H,PO, + 5S0, + 2H,0 (b) Metals like copper, silver, mercury, etc. react with conc. H,SO, ‘SO, gas. Cu +2H,SO, —> CuSO, + SO, +2H,O 2Ag + 2H,SO, —> Ag,SO, + SO, + 2H,0 Hg + 2H,SO, —> HgSO, + SO, + 2H,0 — Dehydrating nature : H,SO, act as strong dehydrating agent. aH, Eire ac ena to produce metal salt and 1,50, CoFtiaOs ern? C H,SO, absorbs sulphur trioxide forming oleum or fuming sulphuric acid. H,SO, + SO, —> H,S,0, - Ibis used: = 1, In the refining of petroleum. 2. _ In storage batteries. 3. Asan important laboratory reagent. In organic chemistry it is used for synthesis of various ‘organic compounds and sulphonation reactions. It is also used as an oxidising and a dehydrating agent. Important Points All organic acids (except those having — SOsH, ie,, sulphonic acids) are weak acids. However halogen substituted acids are stronger one. CClCOOH is as stronger as HCl Mineral acids : (H;SO, HCl, HNO) are strong acids. In oxo-acids only those H-atoms are replaceable which are attached on O-atom, ic. oO i HO : -OH, ie, HsPO, is tribasic acid. OH ° i] HO—P—OH, i., H;PO; is dibasic acid. | H ‘Anacid salthas at least one replaceable H-atom, ie, NAHSO, NaHS, NaHCO, NaHCO, NaH;PO, NasHPO, NaH;PO3- NasHPO, is not an acid salt since it does not have replaceable H-atom. «¢ Basic character of oxides decreases along the period and increases down the group i, Basic character decreases along the period : Na,O > MgO > Al,0; > SiO, > P,0; > $02> COs Basic character increases down the group : {a) Li,O < Na,O < K,0 < Rb;0 < Cs,0 (6) OF, < C0 < Br,0< 1,0 © Oxides of metals are normally basic, oxides of non-metals are normally acidic. CO, N;O and NO are neutral. (L155 95 Yom AIEN COURSE |S ——— me Ac Bove and Sate | 189MMPhoterj, >) Zn0, Al,O, BeO, sno (All are metal oxiq... 2 As,0; (metalloid 5; = ide) Ns, NO, NzOy NsOy N2Os —— (Neutral) Allare metal oxides FO, SiOy, Ps0y, POs $02 ete (Allare non-metal oxides) As,O; (metalloiq ong - le) Noles sO acts as an acid if allowed to react with NaOH at high Pand T. CO +NaQH 22> HCOONa CO acts as Lewis base (ligand) in complex formation. © (a) Oxides of non-metals having same oxidation no. of non-metal in their respective oxo, known as acid anhydrides. acids (b) The greater the number of oxygen atoms and the more electronegative the atom Prese, molecule of oxo-acid, the stronger the acid. i., HCIO, > HCIO3. nti Notes : However this rule is not obeyed in oxo-acids of phosphorus. HO; > HPO, > HPO, Ky 63% 102 15 102 75 «103 @ Some Acidic Strength Order 1, Acidic strength mineral acid : HCIO, > HI > HBr > H,SO, > HCl > HNO; > H3PO, > H3AsO, 2. Acidic strength halogen acids : }= 10-4 q H¢* and OH- ions an*” 10 FOUNDATION course o™Also, log [H*] + log [OH"] =~ 14. or, - log [H’] + (- log [OH")) = 14 or pH +pOH = 14. - Atthe temperature of human body, about 37°C neutrality occurs at pH 6.8 and pH scale lies between 0 to 13.6. . _PH of some solutions ‘Substances | pH range Substances pH range Gastric juice 10-30 Milk 63-66 Soft drinks 2.0-4.0 Saliva (human) 65-75 Lemons 22-24 Blood (human) | 73-75 Vinegar 24-34 Milk of Magnesia | 10.5 Apples 29-33 Sea water 85 Urine (human) 48-84 Black Coffee | 5.0 | Rain water 6.0 Tomato 40 | Soda water Less than 7.0 Tears 74 | © pH Value of Acidic Mixture When V, ml acid (whose normality is N;) and V; ml of other strong acid are mixed together then, Resultant normality, Nz = pH value of resultant acidic solution pH = log 3} rk N N 50. mL 75 HCl and 50 mL. 10 H,SO, are mixed together.Metals and Non-metals Introduction We are always surrounded by metals in almost every aspect of life. 4, Iron, manganese, titanium, chromium are used in defence equipments as they are light and durable and therefore called strategic metals. Gold, silver, copper and platinum are well known for their ornamental value and are called coinage metals. Various metals like nickel, cobalt, platinum, palladium etc. are well known catalyst and are used in various synthetic processes. Uranium is a radioactive metal used as fuel in nuclear reactors. In general nearly 75% of all elements are metals. Bonding in Metals Metals in general are very hard and have high density as their atoms are very closely packed special type of bonds known as metallic bonds. Metallic bonding is the electrostatic attractive force between the delocalised electrons (conduction electrons) present in the metallic lattice and positively charged metal atom core. In metallic bonds metal lattice comprises of two different parts. (a) Electrons present in the valence shell are known as valence electrons. These can be easily removed from the atom and thus are free to move in the lattice (b) The core of the atom which is positively charged and is called Kernel, which is the combination of nucleus and all the shells except valence shell. In metallic lattice kernel can be assumed dipped or immersed in a sea of valence electrons without any direct bond between them Each kemel is surrounded by a number of valence electrons and vice versa. The kernels being heavy have comparatively negligible movements. The force of attraction between the positively charged kernels and the valence electrons leads to the formation of metallic bonds. * Physical Properties of Metals ‘The typical physical properties such as electrical conductivity thermal conductivity, malleabilty ductility and lustre etc. are a result of these metallic bonds. ‘\ASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE | CHEMISTRY ii. eS zo © 6.6 Delocalised or Valence ecCondicieneierore OF a @ o°6°°o positive charge ° . Kemesanying — (QO © © ©.0 Metals and Non-metals\ 155Chemical Properties of MetalsIn case of s-block metals, electrons are removed from Do You ns-subshell during ionisation and configuration of previous noble gas is achieved. Know Na > Nat +e (eas 9p?!) (12829) * In case of d-block elements, electrons are derived from ns and (n= 1)d subshells. In this case noble gas configuration is not achieved but stable half filled or completely filled configurations are achieved by metal. te > Fe" + 3e 22 ap" 36 430) (stastapt ad gyhay + Formation of Metal Oxides Almost all the metals react with oxygen (or air) to form metal oxides which are basic in nature Metal + Oxygen —> Metal oxide The vigour of reaction with oxygen depends on the chemical reactivity of metals. (a) Potassium and sodium react with oxygen at room temperature to form their respective oxides. ‘They react vigorously with oxygen and easily reason they are stored under kerosene oil to pi art burning when kept open in ait. For this ent reaction with oxygen present in air. 4Na+O,—+ 2Na,0 Sodium (b) Magnesium reacts with oxygen upon heating and burns brightly to form magnesium oxide. 2Mg,+ 0, —-+2Mg0 (6) Iron reacts with oxygen to give a mixture of FeO.Fe, ferroso-ferric oxide. 2Fe +20, FeOFe,0, or Fey Iron(l, 1) oxide erroso eric ‘onde (4) Copper metal reacts with oxygen on prolonged heating to form a solid black mass of copper (II) oxide or cupric oxide. 2Cu+0, + — 2Cu0 Copper) oxide corcupric onde (@) Silver and gold do not react with oxygen even at very high temperature and are called noble or inert metals. Metals like aluminium, iron and zinc etc, are less reactive towards oxygen than expected from their positions in the activity series. They are converted into their respective oxides by action of atmospheric oxygen which get coated on the metal surfaces and limit the reaction to surface only. Metal oxides are generally insoluble in water but oxides of group 1 & 2 elements dissolve in water to form alkalies (hydroxides) which react with water to form bases and are hence called basic O, (Iron I, III oxides) or FesO, called oxides, Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom bonded with other » atom to attract the shared electron pair towards itself in a covalent Do You "pond, Fluorine is the most electronegative element. Electropositivity is just reverse of electronegativity. It is the tendency of an atom Know bonded with other atom to donate the shared electron pair to other atom ina covalent bond as they donate electrons. Metals are generally electropositive. Caesium (Cs) is most electropositive element known ‘ASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE | CHEMISTRY ‘Metals and Non-metals | 159 i‘Aluminium oxide and zine oxide show amphoteric nature (acidic and basic both) and react with alkalies like sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide to form salt and water. AlO3@) + 2NAOHyq—> — 2NaAIOy,4) + HzO Sodium meta aluminate ZnOp) + 2NAOH ay) —> Na,ZnO,,,.) + H,Oy Sod. zincate (salt) « Reaction with Hydrogen (Formation of Hydrides) Highly reactive metals like sodium and potassium react with hydrogen on heating to form metal hydrides. These metal hydrides further react with water to form corresponding hydroxides with evolution of hydrogen gas and energy. 2Nayy + Hog) > 2NaH,,) 2NaH,)+ 2H,0y—> 2NaOH,,, + 2H) Sodium hydride Sodium hydroxide Cay) + Hyg) > CaHy,) CaH) + 2H;0)—> Ca(OH)24) + 2H) Calcium hydride Calcium hydroxide e Reaction with Water (Formation of Oxides and Hydroxides) Highly reactive metals like sodium and potassium placed higher in the series react violently with ‘water even in the cold with formation of hydrogen gas and energy is released. 2K) + 2H,O;)—> 2KOH ay) + Hyg) + heat energy 2Nay) + 2H;0;)—> 2NaOH,.,) + Hag) + heat energy Less reactive metals like calcium reacts with water less violently while magnesium reacts with water only on heating. Cay) + 2HOy = —> Ca(OH) fas) + Hg) Mgy + 2H;0q) > Mg(OH) 2429) + Hag) * Reaction with Acids (Formation of Metal Salts) Metals placed above hydrogen in the activity series react with dilute acids like hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid to displace hydrogen from acids forming respective metal salt with evolution of hydrogen gas. Metal + Dilute acid —> Metal salt + Hydrogen 2Nays) + 2HClain — > 2NaChag) + H2y) Mgq + H2SOqain —> MgSO sian) + Hyg) Cay) + ZHChgi —> CaChyag) + Haye), © Aqua-regia isa freshly prepared mixture of 1 part of cong Do You nitric acid and 3 parts of conc. hydrochloric acid. Aqua-regia : K is highly corrosive and fuming liquid. It can dissolve even | now gold and platinum metals which do not react with hydrochlorig } acid or nitric acid. ¢ Goldsmiths use aqua-regia for cleaning gold and platinum } ornaments (royal water). They keep the ornaments in aqua-regia for sometime and | then rub them with a brush and finally with water. | In aqua-regia both acids combine to evolve nascent chlorine [Cl] which reacts with both | gold and platinum. Nascent chlorine react with dull layer on the metal surface and dissolve it leaving a shiny surface. 3HCl+HNO,——>» NOCI +2H,O+ 2Cl] (Aqua-regia) Nitrosyl chloride Nascent chlorine Au + 3{(Cl] —~> AuCl, Gold Auric chloride Pt + 4{Cl] ——> Ptcl, Platinum Platinum chlorideTable : Activity series of metals Potassium Sodium Calcium Magnesium Aluminium Zinc Chromium Iron Cadmium Cobalt Nickel Tin Lead Reactivity decreasesChemical Properties of Non-Metals>» _* Mostly oxides of non-metals are acidic and neutral. oO You Oz, SiOz, N03, NO, NzOs, gy P40 Puro, SOx Char Os are acidic oxides. Know Acidic order : N,O; > NO, >N;03 1,0, > S03 > N,05 > CO, > SiOz is 1,0, > Cl,O,> CIO, > ClO * Neutral Oxides : NO, N,O, CO and HO are neutral oxides. ae , N20, A ', Amphoteric oxides of non-metals : Oxides of As, Sb and Ge are amphoteric. « Reaction with Acids Non-metals do not react with dilute acids at all. This is because they are electronegative in nature and thus cannot displace hydrogen from acids. On heating with concentrated sulphuric acid and concentrated nitric acid non-metals are oxidised to respective oxides or salts. Seq + 2H:SO (conc) 4 3S0x9) + 2H20(y Sp) + SHNO3(conc) —P-+ H2SOg4oq)* ONO) + 2H,0% Recah brown vapour) Phosphorus also reacts similarly, 2P {+ BHzSO conc) —Bt> 2HPO, + SSO, + 2Hy Py) + SHNOs(concy —2> H3PO4 + 5NO2+H20 «Reaction with Chlorine (Formation of Chlorides) Non-metals are electronegative in nature and cannot transfer valence electron to chlorine to form jonic bond with it. Instead they react with chlorine on heating to form covalent chlorides. These dhlorides are non-electrolytes and generally exist as gases or liquids at room temperature: 2P +5Ch > 2PCl) Phosphorus pentachloride 25+ C,—#> S.Clag) super monoctoride «Reaction with Hydrogen (Formation of Hydrides) Non-metals when heated with hydrogen form covalent hydrides. Like chlorides, hydrides are also non-electrolytic in nature and generally exist as gases or liquids at room temperature. Hydrogen combines with sulphur at 440°C (or 713 K) to form hydrogen sulphide gas. Hzg)*59— HS Hydrogen combines with nitrogen at about 500°C (0r773 K) in the presence of iron catalyst to form ammonia gas. The reaction is of reversible nature. Nag + 3Hag) = 2NFs@) © Reaction with Salt Solution ‘Amore reactive non-metal displaces a when chlorine is passed through a solution are formed : Jess reactive non-metal from its salt solution. For example, of sodium bromide, then sodium chloride and bromine —> 2NaClha) + Bron Sodium chloride Bromine : conorine "ae : Be estacnent actor. no ettve nor metal chlorine is displacing a less reactive non metal bromine from its salt (sodium bromide) solution. een* Inquantum mechanical view, within metallic lattice, conduction Do You electrons divide their density equally over all the atoms which function as neutral entities. Know In periodic table, metals are largely confined to s, d, f-block and conduction electrons in these metals are derived from ns in case (n -2)f in case of f-block metals. , Some elements from p-block are also known to show metallic nature and in them electrons can also be derived from np sub-shell too other than subshells given above in case of metals. @ Anions are derived from non-metals which are confined to p-block. They accept electrons _ from metals which enter their np sub-shell during formation of ionic compounds. of s-block; ns and (n — 1)d in case of d-block and; ns, (n—1)dand | Properties of lonic Compounds¢ Lattice Energy and Hydration Energy The energy released in the formation of 1 mole electrovalent compound from isolated gaseous ion is called lattice energy for that compound or lattice energy may also be defined as the” energy required to separate 1 mole ionic solid into gaseous ions completely. High lattice energy for an ion means solid crystal is highly stable with very high melting and boiling points with low freezing point. The energy released when 1 mole of gaseous ions get hydrated is called hydration energy for that compound. 4 Hydration or solvation i.e., dissolving of ions in water is an exoergic process. High hydration energy _ indicates that hydrated ions are highly stable and compound is highly soluble in water. If this solvation energy is higher than lattice energy, then lattice will break up and substance will get dissolved. If solvation energy is less than lattice energy then to break lattice, sufficient energy will not be available and substance will remain insoluble. e Electrical Conductivity Tonic compounds conduct electricity when molten or in solution, but not as solids. This is because in solid state ions are very closely packed and are not free to move.g, Ores of Al (i) Kaolin (i) Corundum (ii)Bauxite (iv)Mica (v) Diaspore (vi)Cryolite 9, Ores of Sn Cassiterite or Tin stone 10. Ores of Pb (i) Cerussite (ii) Anglesite (iii)Galena (iv)Matlockite 11. Ores of Cu (Malachite (ii) Chalcocite (iii) Azurite (iv)Chalcopyrite or copper pyrites (v) Cuprite 12. Ores of Ag (i) Kerargyrite (ii) Native state (ii)Pyrargyrite (iv) Argentite 13, Ores of Fe () Limonite (ii) Tron pyrite (iii)Siderite AL,O,25i0,-2H,O ALO, Al,O32H,0 K,03A],0,.6Si0,:2H,0 Al,0;H,0 Na,AlF, $n0, CuCOyCu(OH), CuyS (Copper glance) 2CuCO,Cu(OH), CuFeS, (Fool's gold) Cu,0 (Ruby copper) AgCl (Hom silver) Ag Nuggest Agy5:Sb.S; (Ruby silver) ‘Ag, (Silver glance) Fe,0,3H,0 FeS, FeCO, Fe;O3 Fe,O, Hgs Zn4(OH),(Si,0;)H,0 ZnO ZS ZnSiO, ZnCO, Mn,03H,0 MnO, C03 FeO-Cr,03 FeO TiO, TiO,Metallurgyy Separation or Levigation : In this method, ore and gangue get separated on washing am of running water which separate them by gravity due to difference in density. The particles (generally ore) stay settled at the bottom and lighter particles (generally gangue) with the flow of water. The method is used to separate oxides of iron and tin and for like gold and silver which occur in free state as they are heavier than impurities present¢ Extraction of Manganese by Thermite Process Manganese metal is extracted by the reduction of its oxide with aluminium powder as (},, agent. When manganese dioxide is heated with aluminium powder, then mangane 7 produced : 3MnO, ;,) + 4Al,) —> 3Mnq, + 2A1,0,,) + Heat Manganese dioxide Aluminium powder Manganese metal Aluminium oxide (Reducing agent) This is a displacement reaction between MnO; and Al. The reduction of manganese dioy OXide wi aluminium is a highly exothermic reaction. A lot of heat is evolved during the reduc ie Uction manganese dioxide with aluminium powder because of which the manganese metal prodiyc., in the molten state (or liquid state). = e Extraction of Iron by Thermite Process A mixture of iron (III) oxide and aluminium powder is ignited with a burning magnesium rib}o, | Aluminium reduces iron oxide to produce iron metal with the evolution of lot of heat. Due ts | heat, iron metal is produced in the molten state. 7 | Fe,03,,, + 2Al,,) — > Fe, + Al,Ox, + Heat Iron (Il) oxide Aluminium powder Iron metal Aluminium oxide (Reducing agent) (Molten state) The molten iron is then poured between the broken iron pieces to weld them (to join them), This process is called aluminothermy or thermite welding. Thermite welding : It was Do You developed by Dr. Charles Cadwell in 1938. In this process Kn ow a mixture of ferric oxide (rust) and aluminium powder, called 5 thermit (or thermite) is placed in a crucible made up of silica (SiO,). Thermite is ignited with the help of magnesium ribbon attached to magnesium powder and barium peroxide which constitute starting plug. Magnesium burns in the presence of barium peroxide (BaO2) which helps ignition. As a result of heat produced, aluminium present in thermite reduces ferric oxide to iron. ribbon Mg Tapping hole Thermite for molten iron 1} Spot for welding 2Al + Fe,O, —Bts Al,O, +2Fe + heat The heat evolved keeps iron in molten state. It escapes from the tapping hole and fills the gap of | broken article as shown in the figure. Sar e Extraction of Highly Reactive Metals Oxides of highly reactive metals (K, Na, Ca, Mg, etc.) cannot be reduced with the help of oar (coke) because they are very strong reducing agents. They can be obtained by electrolysis of a salts generally chlorides or oxides ic, electrolytic reduction method. This method has an aac advantage that metal obtained after electrolysis is comparatively pure as compared t0 ot methods. ee During electrolysis of metal chloride, metal is produced at the cathode (negative ° lec! and chlorine gas is formed at the anode (positive electrode). i. nenZone refining is another Heater Germanium Ingot ” method used for refining ve Do You fives metals like germanium etc. Kn ow The impure metal is casted in form of a cylindrical bar or rod called ingot. A narrow region of this ingot is molten using a circular heater which moves from one end to other. As heater moves forward impure metal recrystallize as pure metal and impurities move along the length of ingot in the molten zone. \ Molten Zone _IinpuritiesAlloys Analloy can be defined as a homogeneous mixture or metallic solid solution composed of two or more metals (or a metal and small amounts of non metals). An alloy is prepared by mixing the various metals in molten state in required proportions, and then cooling their mixtures to the room temperature. The alloy of a metal and a non-metal can be prepared by first melting the metal and then dissolving the non-metal in it, followed by cooling to i The properties of an alloy are different from the properties of the constituent metals (from which it ‘is made). In general : ‘Alloys are stronger than the metals from which they are made. Alloys are harder than the constituent metals. are more resistant to corrosion. have lower melting points than the constituent metals. have lower electrical conductivity than pure metals. mmercial important ores are given below : Brass is an alloy containing 80% copper and 20% zinc. Brass is more malleable and ‘than pure copper. Its colour is also more golden. It is used for making cooking utensils, nuts, bolts, wires, tubes of scientific and musical instruments like microscopes and Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin containing 90% copper and 10% tin. Bronze is h and highly resistant to corrosion.(iii) Solder : Solder is an alloy of lead and tin containing 50% lead and 50% tin. Its melting point ig less than that of pure metals. (iv) Amalgam : An alloy of mercury metal with one or more other metals is known as an amalgam. A solution of sodium metal in liquid mercury metal is called sodium amalgam. All metals are known to form amalgam with mercury except iron and platinum. (v) Duralumin : It is an alloy of aluminium with copper, magnesium and manganese. In this form aluminium is more strong and durable as compared to pure aluminium metal. (vi)Mangalium : It is an alloy of aluminium with magnesium which is very light as compared to pure aluminium atom and more stronger also. (vii) Steel : Steel is an alloy of iron containing carbon to make it harder and stronger. Carbon content varies from 0.1% to 1.5% depending on quality of steel. It is less corrosive than pure iron.SENATE for COMPETITIVE Exam Comparison of Physical Properties of Metals and Non-metals Property panies ——_—_Non-metais 1, Lustre Metals have lustre and can also | Except iodine, non-metals do n ~ . » > ‘ot be polished. have lustre and also cannot b, polished. cedars sian neutron 2. Hardness Metals (e cept sodium and | Non-metals (except diamony —~ amond ang potassium) are generally hard. boron) ar’e ‘generally soft 3. Malleability and Metals are malleable (can be | Non-metals are neither malleabi) ductility hammered into thin sheets) and | nor ductile. They are actually brittle. Non-metals except raph ductile (can be drawn into wire: ry Conductivity Metals are good conductors of : “a ite ang] heat and electricity. gas carbon are bad conductors of heat and electricity. 3 Melting, points and| Metals (except mercury and Non-metals (except carbon and | boiling points gallium) generally have high boron) have low melting melting and boiling points boiling points. —— he Sonorosity dee Metals are sonorous (i.¢., produce Non-metals are Non-sonorous (ie, sound when hit with a hard | do not produce any sound when and ___| object). pw hit with a hard object) _ ae ay Metals generally have high | Non-metals generally have low. | density. density. 8. Tensile strength Metals generally have high tensile | Non-metals generally have low strength and hence cannot be | tensile strength and hence can be | easily broken, easily broken. 9. ‘Physical state Metals are generally solids (except | Non-metals (exce pt bromine mercury and gallium which are | which is a liquid) are either solids liquids) at room temperature. Or gases at room temperature ¢ Oxide of metal are of four type : 1, Basic oxide : Mostly metals form basic oxides, Oxides of alkali me are strongly basic. Basic character: Cs, > Rb,O > K,O> Na,O > Li,O BaO > SrO > CaO > MgO > BeO NazO > MgO > Al,0, > Fe,O, 2. Acidic oxide : Mostly oxide of metals in which oxidation number of me: are acidic in nature, Example : V,Os, CrO3, Mn,O3, OsO, 3, Neutral oxide : Some oxides of metals are neutral, tals and alkaline earth metals tal is +5, +6, +7 and + Example : MnO, 4, Amphoteric metal oxides : Some oxide of metal are amphoteric in nature ie., they react bo! acid and base. Oxide of Be, Al, Ga, Sn, Pb and Zn are amphoteric oxides. Example : BeO, Al,O3, Ga,Ox, SnO, SnO,, PbO, PbO,, PbO, Pb;O,, ZnO. | THY | Metals amd Non-metals mene CLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE | CHEM'Sspecial Methods of Refining of Metal ¢ Van Arkel Process ‘This method is generally applied for obtaining ultrapure metals. The impure metal is converted into a volatile compound while the impurities are not affected The volatile compound is then decomposed electrically to get the pure metal. Ti, Zr, H, Si, ete, have been refined by this method. Impure metal + I — Metal i 823K Ny +24, > TH Comparison of Chemical Properties of Metals and Non-metals 700K lin? TH, PES TH+ 2. iodide —Hesting.y Pure + I, Tungsten ent metal This method is quite expensive. {7 Property Metals Non-metals 4, Nature of ions Metals are electropositive elements and hence lose one or more electrons to form positive ions. For example, Na —> ‘Na’ +¢é ‘Sodium ‘Sodium ion Ca Ca" Calcium Calcium ion = +26 Non-metals are electronegative elements and hence gain one or more electrons to form negative ions. For example, Oxide ion Oxygen 2. Nature of oxides Metals form basic oxides. For example, oxides of Na and Mg dissolve in water to form bases which tur red litmus blue. 4Na +O, ——> 2Na,O Na,O + H,O——> 2NaOH (Base) ‘Non-metals form acidic oxides or neutral oxides. For example, oxides of nitrogen and sulphur dissolve in water to form acids which turn blue litmus red 4NO, +0, +2H,O—> 4 HNO, (Acid) | CO, NO and H,O are neutral. 3, Reaction with water/ steam ‘Some active metals like Na, K, Ca, Al, Fe, etc. displace hydrogen from water or steam. Non-metals (except fluorine) generally do not react with water. 2F,+2H,0 > 4HF + O, Hydrofluorie Oxygen acid 3F,+3H,O > 6HF Fluorine Water + 0; Ozone 4. Reaction with dilute acids Metals which lie above hydrogen in the activity series displace hydrogen from dilute acids. For example, Zn + dil, H,SO, > ZnSO, + He Non-metals do not react with dilute acids and hence do not displace hydrogen from dilute acids. 3. Oxidising and reducing behaviour het Metals have strong tendency to lose electrons and hence they behave as reducing agents. For example, Na reduces Cl; to Cl ions. 2Na ———> 2Na + 2e7 Cl, + 2¢ Reduction, 2c Chlorine Chloride ion Non-metals have a strong tendency to accept electrons and hence they behave as oxidising agents. For example, Cl, oxidises Na to Na’ ions. 2Na Oxidation, aNat +26 Sodium ion Cl pte 2, ‘GLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE | CHEMIS a Metals and Norrmetais| 187© Zone Refining or Fractional Crystallisation Elements such as Si, Ge, Ga, etc, which are used as semiconductors are refined by thig Highly pure metals are obtained. The method is based on the difference in Solubility o¢ wet in molten and solid state on the metal. A movable heater is fitted around a rod of a jn purest The heaters slowly moved across the rod. The metal melts at the point of heating ang i _ Met moves on from one end of the rod to the other end, the pure metal crystallises while the be Ca pass on the adjacent melted zone. ; Purity Metals and ionic compounds are both solids. Metals like copper and silver conduct electri; such, whereas the ionic solids like copper sulphate, sodium chloride, etc. conduct bi é in molten state or aqueous solution. Metals are conductors due to electrons which more i Onk the solid state, hence metals are good conductors in the solid state. The ionic solids conduct a ED in due to movement of ions. Ions have no mobility in solid state hence they do not conduct eer in solid state. icity © Sometimes certain non-fusible earthy gangue impurities are still present in the roasted o order to remove them, a substance called flux is added during smelting. It combines sae Ih gangue to form a fusible mass called slag. The slag being lighter than the metal floats ae the surface of molten metal and can be removed time to time e.g. during extraction of iron in = furnace lime is added to remove impurities of silica, last Flux + gangue — slag CaO + SiO, + CaSiO, (flux) (gangue) (slag) e Types of Flux Depending upon the nature of the impurities associated with the ore, the flux is of two types (i) Acidic flux - used to remove the basic impurities like CaO, MnO. e.g. ‘ CaO + SiO, > CaSiO, Impurity Flux Calcium silicate (slag) MnO + SiO, > MnSiO, Impurity Flux Manganese silicate (slag) (ii) Basic flux - If the impurities are acidic in nature, then flux to be used is basic in nature eg SiO,, P,O,, are removed by basic flux like CaO or MgO. SiO, + CaO + CaSiO,; Impurity Flux Calcium silicate (Slag) P,Oj + 6MgO — 2Mg;(PO,)2 Impurity Flux Magnesium phosphate (Slag) _@ The function of different substances added in froth floatation process are as follows. a) Frothers : Substances which are added to make froth, e.g., Pine oil. : ~ @) Collectors : The surface of collectors adsorb small ore particles and these collector particles _ come with froth with the bubbles. e.g., Ethyl xanthate or potassium ethy] xanthate. Activators and depressants : Activators promote the foaming tendency of a substance while ler itsreduce the foaming capacity of a substance, e.g., CuSO, is activator while NaCN or KCN are depressants. bS), sphelerite (ZnS) or pyrite (FeS,) are also present. In the mixture potassium (collector) and NaCN (depressants) are also added. NaCN reduces the frothing d FeS, and thus only PbS particles are collected with froth. ferent living systems also. Descending order of mass abundance of dif st CLASS 10 FOUNDATION couRSE | CHEM!elements is given below : Crust — O>Si>Al> Fe > Ca>Mg>Na>K>Ti> H>P ‘Ocean — O>H> Cl> Na>Mg>S>Ca>K>C>Br>B Humans — H>O>C>N>Na>K>Ca>Mg>P>S>Cl ‘The various metals present in different biomolecules are as follows 1. Fe — Cytochromes, Ferritin, Transferrin, Myoglobin, Haemoglobin, Hemerythrin, IRE- BR, Fur, Siderophores, Oxygenases, Hydrogenases, aconitase, Endo III ete. 2, Cu = Ceruloplasmin, Haemocyanin, Cup 2, Blue copper [Oxidases, reductases, Hydroxylases}(with-Fe and Mo), Phosphatases (with-Zn, Mg), Tyrosinase, Lactase, Plastocyanin. 3. Mo — Nitrogenases, Oxidases, Reductases, Hydroxylases. 4. Mg — Chlorophyll, phosphatases, aminopeptidases 5. Co — Vitamin B,», Dipeptidase 6. Ca — Calmodulin, skeletal 7. Cr — Prawn 8 Zn —_[Metallo thioneine, MeR} (with -Hg), Carboxy- peptidases, eyes of cats and cows, Carbonic anhydrase, DNA polymerase. 9. V — Cucumbers 10.Na_ — Na-specific ATPase 1.K —_ K-specific ATPase, pyruvate phosphokinase 12.W — Aldehyde ferredoxin oxidoreductase. Alloys of Gold ‘The purity of gold is expressed in terms of ‘carats’. Pure gold is said to be of 24 carats. Pure gold ((anown as 24 carat gold) is very soft due to which itis not suitable for making jewellery Gold is alloyed with a small amount of silver or copper to make it hard. This harder alloy of gold is more suitable for making omaments. In India, gold omaments are usually made of 22 carat gold i. 22 parts pure gold is alloyed with 2 parts of either silver or copper for making ormaments. Thus, 22 carat gold is an alloy of gold with silver or copper. When alloyed with various other elements golden colour of gold can be changed to various other colours like: = White gold : In it gol is alloyed with nickel manganese and palladium. = Red gold : It is an alloy of 50% gold with 50% copper = Green gold : It is an alloy of 73% gold with 27% silver. = Dark green gold : It is an alloy of 75% gold with 29% silver and 2% cadmium. = Grey gold : It is an alloy of gold with manganese and its composition varies with colour. = Purple gold : It isan alloy of 79% gold with 21% aluminium. = Blue gold : It isan alloy of 46% gold with 54% indium. Extraction of Metals in Detail Extraction of Iron The extraction of iron from the magnetite, haematite and limonite ores The extraction of iron consists of the following steps : Step - I: Concentration of the ore : It is done by magnetic separation. Step -Il: Calcination and roasting : The concentrated ore is heated in excess of air which results in the following changes : = Moisture and carbon dioxide are removed. Fs ese 00 8 8 a a a2Fe,03:3H,O —> 2Fe,O; + 3H,0; FeCO;—> FeO + CO, - Ferrous oxide is oxidised to ferric oxide. 2Fe0 + 0, —+ Fe,0; — Impurities (such as P, S, C, As, Sb etc) are removed as their volatile oxides. S+O,—> SO2; 4As +30,—> 2As,0, - The entire mass becomes porous to bring in reduction easier. Step - III: Smelting : The calcinated ore mixed with lime stone, CaCO; (a flux) and coke (an in the ratio of 8: 1:4 and is known as charge. The charge is sent into the blast furnace fy, cone of the blast furnace to smelt it. The furnace is heated with a blast of hot air blown we water jacketed pipes called turyeres. Blast furnace has different temperatures at differen, Tough it. The lowest part has the highest temperature and the temperature decrease on Moving = es and different reactions occurs at different zones. (a) Reduction zone (Upper most portion) : The upper most zone of the furnace with tem range from 250°C to 700°C involves reduction of oxide ore to iron by upcoming CO, 3Fe,03 + CO + 2Fes0, + CO? Fe,0, +CO 8° > 3FeO + CO, FeO +CO —™*S> Fe +CO, Iron so formed is called spongy iron. (b) Slag formation zone (Central portion) : In the central zone temperature ranges between gy 1000°C and in this zone lime-stone decomposes into CaO and CO, Caco, 28S + CaO + CO, CaO acts as a basic flux and combines with silica (acidic impurity) to form a fusible slap CaSiO3. Gof CaO + SiO, —> CaSiO, in PWan erature Fe,O, +3CO = 2Fe +3CO, | Reduction zone Sponsy iron (400-700)°C CaCO, =Ca0+ CO; Slag zone CaO + SiO, = CaSiO; (slag)} (800-1000)°C Fusion zone (1200-1300)°C Combustion zone +C=2C0;C+0,=CO, GO,FE=2COIE FOR CO) sso reoyvc Coke + liquid spongy iron + slag} (for molten iron) Molten iron Blast furnace for the manufacture of pig iron sat Lass 10 FOUNDATION COURSE | HEM{) Combustion tone (Lowest portion) : The lowest portion ofthe furnace above hearth where the fomperatre is about 1500-1600°C involves the following changes. 1 5+ 40, —» CO; aH=-ve C+ 50) —> CO; aH =-ve C+0,— COs AH=~ve Carbon dioxide rises upwards and partly reacts with red hot coke to get itself reduced into carbon monoxide, Both reactions are exothermic and thus produce high temperature. CO, +C EMS, 2C0; AH =~ve {a) Zone of fusion Just above lower most portion) : It is just above the zone of combustion (temperature range 1200-1300°C), The spongy iron (FeO) dropped down after the reduction in uppermost part of the furnace (having already absorbed impurities of C, Si, P, Mn etc.) melts at 1300°C and collects at the bottom of hearth, while the slag being lighter floats over the molten metal and thus prevents oxidation of Fe by blast of hot air. Iron obtained from the blast furnace és culled pig tron, Which contains 93% Fe, 5% C along with Si, Mg, P, etc., as impurities. The pig iron is melted again and poured into moulds which on solidifying forms cast iron. Molten pig on sudden cooling forms white e: iron is formed. iron whereas if slow cooling is made, grey cast [Crude Tron Ore | A. Concentration (i) by magnetic separation (iy by gravity methoxt 1B. Caleination d Roasting, (li) FeO is oxidised to Fe,0, Roasted Ore | C.Smelting (in blast furnace) Heating of ore with coke and limestone © Types of Iron On the basis of carbon content, iron samples are classified as follows : Cast iron (@) It contains maximum carbon percentage (2.5 to 5%) and is the most impure form of iron and other impurities (~ 2%) include Si, P, Mn and S etc. (b) Itis of two types : = White cast iron : In it, carbon is present in the form of cementite, FesC. = Grey cast iron : In it, carbon present is in the form of graphite. (© It does not rust easily. It is neither tempered nor magnetized easily. (d) It is hard and brittle due to high carbon content and cannot be welded. Wrought iron (or Malleable iron) (@) It is obtained from cast iron by pudding process (0) Pudding process : In this process, impurities are oxidised by oxygen of haematite, present in the lining. ‘USS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE | CHEMISTRY —_—— nS Merals and Nowmetals| 191= Oxides of carbon and sulphur escape out as volatile gases while Mn, P and Si are Tem, slag. Ved 3C + Fe,O,; —> 2Fe+3CO 3Si + 2Fe,O; —+ 3SiO, + 4Fe 3Mn + FeO; —> 3MnO + 2Fe MnO + SiO, —> MnSiO, Slag 6P + 5Fe,0, —>3P,0; + 10Fe P,0; + Fe;0; —> 2FePO, Slag After the removal of impurities, the melting point increases and it becomes a SeMi-solid my, whichis taken out inthe form of alls, These balls are beaten under steam hammerstogg out as much of slag as possible. The product so obtained is almost pure ion knownas wre iron. Bat (c) Wrought iron is extremely tough, highly malleable, ductile and h permeability. (d) If becomes soft at 1000°C and then it can be forged and welded. (€) Due to the presence of very small percentage of slag, it has fibrous structure and thu stand high stresses. (f) Wrought iron is resistant towards rusting and corrosion. Extraction of Copper (Roman-Cuprum) e Extraction from Sulphide Ores (A) Dry process or smelting process or: Pyrometallurgical process : Ores which contain more than 3% are extracted by this method, ~ Concentration of the ore : It is done by froth floatation process (sulphide ore) - Roasting : It is done in a current of air on the hearth of the reverberatory furnace following changes : ¢ S, As and Sb are removed as their oxides. $+0,—+SO, 4As + 30,—> 2As,03 4Sb + 30.—> 25b,0, © The pyrites ore is converted into cuprous sulphide and ferrous sul 2CuFeS, +O,—» Cu,S + 2FeS + SO, * The sulphides of copper and iron are partially oxidised to respective oxides 2FeS + 30,—> 2FeO +250, 2Cu,S +30 —> 2Cu,0 +250, ~ Smelting : The roasted ore is mixed with coke and silica anc Presence of excess of air. 98 high magne, S CaN With copper content bringingin phide. SO, is alsoevolved id smelted (in blast furnace) in te air vents A reverberatory furnace 192 | Metals and Non-metalseal Oe gerne During the process, FeS and Cu,O react as follows FeS + Cu,O —> FeO + CuS Note : Slag of ferrous silicate is formed by reaction between SiO, and FeO. FeO+Si0,—+ _FeSiO, Ferrous silat lag) __ Bessemerisation : The matte obtained from smelting is mixed with some sand (SiO2) and transferred to a Bessemer converter. A blast of air is blown through the molten mass. Molten copper Bessemer Converter In the Bessemer converter, following reactions take place «Remaining FeS gets oxidised to FeO. 2FeS+ 30, —> 2FeO +250, «FeO and SiO, from slag (FeSiO3) which is drained out. FeO + SiO, —> FesiO, slag, A part of CupS is oxidised to Cu,O which combines with remaining Cu,$ to form metal. 2CuyS + 30, —+ 2Cu,0+ 280, ‘Cu,$ + 2Cu,0 —> 6Cu + SO, (Auto-reduction) ‘The molten copper is obtained when allowed to cool so that the dissolved sulphur dioxide ‘comes out and large blisters are formed on the surface, and this solid copper is known as ‘plister copper’ (98% Cu, 2% impurities). — Refining : Refining of blister copper is done by either of the following methods © By poling : In this method, impure Cu is heated in a reverberatory furnace having silica lined walls. Some Cu is oxidised to Cu,O which dissolves in the melt and supplies oxygen to the more basic elements as impurities. These oxides either escapes out or combine with silica forming slag. The left Cu,O as well as other lft impurities are reduced by introducing, poles of green wood and stirring them vigorously. The hydrocarbons formed from the wood act as reducing agents giving Cu (=99.5% pure). «Electrolytic refining : Anode ; Blister copper Cathode ; Pure copper Electrolyte : (15% CuSO, + 5% H,SO,) solution CuSO, = Cu” + SOF At cathode : Cu +2e —> Cu At anode : Cu—> Cu" + 26° ‘26s 19 rouxoarion couRsE | cxewista¢ —<_£_—_—$—~$ nnn Metals and Howrmetals| 199 SieBattery ne Pure copper as cathode as anode Electrolytic tank Impurities (Anodemudy el Acidified copper sulphate solution Experimental set up for the electrolytic refining of copper Highly electropositive metal impurities like, Fe, Zn, Ni, Co ete. remain in the solution wh jode in the form of anodic mud, Theo, w Ag Au and Pt (less electropositive) collect below the an obtained 99.96-99.99% pure. (B) Wet process or hydrometallurgical process : Poor ores containing small percentage of copper 2, extracted by this method. In this process coppeT present in the ore is converted into soluble Copper compound and then precipitated by addition of iron oF by electrolytic process Copper sulphide ore when exposed to air and rain, is slowly oxidised to CuSO,. From which Cu precipitated by the addition of scrap iron. 4CuS +70, —> 2CuSO, + 2CuO + 2502 CuSO, +Fe —> Cu+ FeSO, Zinc (Zn) ‘The name zinc originates from Latin word denoting leucoma or white deposits. Some scholars relate zinc to German word zink which means lead. e Extraction of Zinc Important ores which are used for extraction of zinc are zinc blende (ZnS) and calamine (ZnCO)}, It may be extracted by Electrolytic process. It is modern method and the metal obtained by electrolytic method is of high purity. It involves following steps : | — The crude ore is concentrated and converted into ZnO (as in carbon reduction process) — Leaching: The roasted ore in leached with dilute H,SO, to convert it into ZnSO, ZnO +H,SO,— > ZnSO, + H,O — The solution thus obtained contains the impurities of Fe, Mn, Cu, Cd, Al, silica ete: and thet ions interfere in electrolytic process. The impurities of Fe, Mn, Al, silica, etc. are removed by precipitating these as hydroxides. For this purpose calcium hydroxide is added in it FeSO, + Ca(OH) —> Fe(OH),! + CaSO, Cu, Cd and Ge are removed by adding Zn dust in the solution. | CuSO, +Zn —> ZnSO, + Cu CdSO,+Zn —> ZnSO, +Cd Co and Ni are removed by adding organic acids. se | cst 194 | Metals and Non-metals CLASS 10 FOUNDATION CO!Electrolysis : The solution finally obtained is electrolysed by using Al cathode and pure Pb anode. Zn is deposited on cathode from which it may be recovered by melting Granulated Zn is obtained by melting the metal in a clay crucible and pouring the drops of melt in cold water. Zn sheets are made by heating metal at 150°C when it becomes soft and can be rolled into sheets ction of Aluminium 4» Occurrence 1, Bauxite Al,O,:2H,O 2, Kaolin Al,0)- 25i0, :2H,0 3. Cryolite NasAIR, 4. Feldspar K,0- Al, 6Si0, 5, Corundum Al,O; 6, Orthoclase KAISi,O, 7. Beryl BeAL,Si,Og Main source is bauxite Feldspar or orthoclase on weathering give rise to porcelain-clay, China-clay or Kaolin. + Aluminium is extracted from bauxite 1. Baeyer’s process : This process is used when Fe,03 is largely present as impurity. The powdered ore is first roasted at a low temperature so as to convert ferrous oxide into ferric oxide. It is then digested with a concentrated solution of sodium hydroxide (density 1.45 mL") inanautoclave under high pressure at 150°C for several hours. The aluminium oxide dissolves forming soluble sodium meta aluminate (NaAIO,) and ferric oxide and silica remain insoluble and settle down. Silica react with sodium hydroxide (flux) to form sodium silicate (slag) and is removed. Al,0,.2H,0 +2NaOH—S > 2NaAlO, +3H,0 Sodium meta aluminate $iO,+2NaOH—> Na,SiO, +H,O silica Sodhmsilcate ‘The sodium meta aluminate solution is agitated after adding small amount of freshly precipitated Al(OH); for 36 hours. In the process, sodium meta-aluminate is hydrolysed with formation of Al(OH); precipitate. NaAlO, + 2H,0—» NaOH + Al(OH); Precipitate The precipitate is washed and dried. The solution of NaOH is concentrated and used again. 2. Sexpeck process: This process is tised when silica (SiO,) is largely present as impurity. The ore is mixed with coke and heated at 1800°C in presence of nitrogen, when AIN (aluminium nitride) is formed. ‘AlO;2H,0 + 3C + Np — 100°C 2AIN + 3CO + 2H,0 Silica is reduced to silicon which vapourise at this temperature. SiO, +2C—> Si+2CO AIN on hydrolysis gives aluminium hydroxide and ammonia obtained as by-product is used for various synthetic processes or sold commercially. 3. Hall’s process : This process is used when both Fe,03 and SiO, are present as impurity. Bauxite is fused with sodium carbonate and aluminium oxide combines with it forming sodium meta- aluminate. ‘AS 6 rouarion cours | cnemistry¥ —————_—— tas and Hon metat| 195A1,0,.2H,0 + Na,CO, tue ahaa, + CO, +2H,0 jum meta aluminate Liquid mass is extracted with water to dissolve soluble meta aluminate and Fe. 0 remain in the suspension as they are insoluble in water. The solution containing 2 and 54 °C and carbon dioxide is circulated through it, AWOH) me. 3 Separs aluminate is warmed to 50-60 out as precipitate. rates 2NaAlO, +CO, + 3H,0 —> 2Al(OH), + Na,CO, Precipitates The precipitate is filtered, washed and dried and NaCO3 solution is concentrateg P Bain f, reuse. e Electrolysis of Al,0; (Hall-Heroult Process) The purified alumina obtained from the above processes is dissolved in a fused mixture of g (Na3AlF,) with a little fluorspar (CaF). The fused mixture lowers the melting point of TYOlite and increases the electrical carbon which serves as cathode. The anode consists fused electrolyte (AlO3 + NasAlF, + CaF,). The high density current maintains the required t mr a3 . 2 al conductivity. The electrolysis is carried out in an iron tank thio °c with of a number of carbon rods which dip in ty N the emperature of the cell and carries oy th e electrolysis as follows: Oxidation at anode : C+20% —>+ CO, +4e]*3 Reduction at cathode : Abt +3e —> Al]x4 3C + 4Al* + 607 —> 4A1+3CO, Anode (oxidation) : 20> —+ O,+4e]*3 Cathode (reduction) : AP* +3e — Al] x4 Overall 2A1,0, —> 4Al +30) Oxygen gas reacts with carbon anodes (at elected temperature) to form CO. graphite rods anode) powdered coke iron tank fused Al,O TERE som —carbon lining sini (cathode) Extraction of aluminium from alumina by Hall-Heroult process e Refining of Aluminium n this proce Molten aluminium obtained from the above step is refined by Hoope's process: Ir impure aluminium is refined electrolytically. The electrolytic cell contains three li different specific gravities. quid layers ysttt Ta acian cOUnse | “HmThe upper most layer consists of pure molten aluminium having carbon electrodes dipping in it. This layer acts ps cathode. The middle layer consists of a molten mixture of fluorides of sodium, barium and aluminium. This layer serves the purpose of electrolyte. The bottom layer consists of impure on (im the molten state) having a carbon electrode. This layer acts as anode. On passing electric current, aluminium ions from the fused electrolyte pass into the upper-most layer and get discharged. Pure aluminium thus set free collects in this layer. At the same time, an equivalent quantity of aluminium from the bottom layer goes into the middle layer. The impurities are left in the bottom layer itself. Impure aluminium is added from time to time to the bottom layer. Aluminium obtained from the top layer is 100% pure. .Analytical Chemistry introduction Chemistry deals with the study of numerous chemical compounds to understand the various applications of each compound in industry. Not only their uses but their process of development and their identification is very important. In the identification process of a chemical Substance chemical analysis need to be done. The relevant subject that deals with systematic study in identifica tion of chemical substan comes under the topic analytical chemistry. Analytical chemistry is the science of obtaining, proces: ng and communicating information about the composition and structure of matter, In other words, itis the art and science of determining what matter is and how much of it exists. Analysis The chemical compound can be basically analyzed in two ways-qualitatively as well as quantitatively. The substance being analyzed is known as analyte. Analysis is divided into two categories (i) Quantitative Analysis (ii) Qualitative Analysis * Quantitative Analysis In the quantitative analysis, the compound with respect to its quantity in a substance is analyzed. ‘There are various methods to analyze a analyte quantitatively. The common methods used in quantitative analysis are volumetric analysis and gravimetric analysis In volumetric analysis, the quantities of the constituents present in the given unknown solution are determined by measuring the volume of the solutions taking part in the given chemical reaction. Itis a process by which the concentration or strength of a chemical substance is measured by measuring the volume of its solution taking part in a given chemical reaction, The main process of this analysis is called titration which means the determination of the volume of a reagent required to bring a definite reaction to completion Gravimetric analysis is the quantitative measurement of an analyte by weighing a pure solid form of the analyte. Pure solids from solutions containing an unknown amount of a metal ion are obtained by precipitation. Since gravimetric analysis is an absolute measurement, it is a principal method for preparing and analyzing primary standards. * Qualitative Analysis In the qualitative analysis, the compound is analy; {s identified as a gas, a salt or an ion. In qualitative analysis, the given compound is analyzed ed based on its chemical nature. The compound for the radicals, i.e., cation and the anion, that it contains. Physical procedures like noting the colour, smell or taste of the substance have very limited scope because of the corrosive, poisonous {GLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE | CHEMISTRY ), sulphide (S*>), sulphite {SO;*>) and nitrite (NO;). The group reagent is dilute sulphuric acid Experiment _ Observation Inference milky. ‘Salt + dil. HSO, | Effervescence or evolution of gases Pr group of acid radicals is nt (a) Colourless, odourless gas turns lime water | Carbonate (CO,>) is confirmed lead acetate paper black. (b) Colourless gas with rotten egg smell and turns | Sulphide ( ) is confirmed. (©) Colourless gas with suffocating smell, Heatand | S0,2-is confirmed pass the gas through acidified K,Cr,0, solution, The solution turns green. (@) Colourless gas followed by brown gas and it | NO} is confirmed turns ferrous sulphate solution black, © Second Group of Acid Radicals The acid radicals present in this group are chloride (Cl), bromide (Br), iodide (1°) an nit"° (NO}). The group reagent is concentrated sulphuric acid (H$0,), mee reentry. st 530) css 10 rounvarion course | 088" aiQbservation ie Effervescence with colourless or coloured gases 2" group acid radical is present | {@) Colourless gas with a pungent smell and gives | The acid radical may be Cl. | dense white fumes when a glass rod dipped in | ammonium hydroxide (NH,OH) is exposed (b) Brown gas evolves which intensifies on| The add radical may be Br- addition of MnO,- | (Q) Deep violet gas evolves, The acid radical may be I-. The acid radical may be NO¥ (@) Light brown gas evolves which intensifies on | addition of copper turnings, + Third Group of Acid Radicals The acidic radicals involved in this group are sulphate (SO}>), borate and phosphate. Observation Inference | A white ppt. insoluble in dilute | Sulphate (SO,2>) is confirmed. | HCL is obtained | u | Na,SO, + Bacl, > | BaSO,! + 2NaCl_ | white ppt Substance +@mL. cone. | Cana%y yellow Precipitate is | Phosphate (PO,*) is confirmed. HNO; and heat, then | obtained. | Cas(PO,)p + 6HINOs > | eee eeammontum | 6Ca(NO3)) + 2HyPO, | eyecare thst | H3PO, + 12(NH,);MoO, +21HNO3 > (NH,)yPO¢-12MoO3 yellow ppt IVITY CORNER| ‘salt sample. n the presence of chlorid ion in the given ¥ Fe Act olou gas with a pungent smell is observed. When glass rod n is brought near the mouth of test tube, dense white fumes are es confirm the presence ofchloide(Cr}) inthe salt@ A 22s gives pungent odour with dilute H,SO, Can it contains sulphite anion? Soln.: We cannot surely say that the gas contains sulphite ions because NO,” also gives a pungent odour. Presence of sulphite ions can be confirmed by acidified K,Cr,O, paper. If the Paper turns green it contains sulphite ions. © What are acidic and basic radicals? Soln.: Radicals carrying positive charge are called basic radicals and those carrying negative charge are called acidic radicals. © Why do inorganic salt ionise when Identification of Cations bea VTS dissolved in water? Soln.: Dueto the high dielectric constant of wate, the force of attraction holding the two ions in ‘a salt decreases. Thus, the two ions separate The ions are further stabilized by solvation, | Why a salt containing lead turns biack in | colour, when placed fora long time in laboratory? | Soln.: Due to the formation of black lead. | sulphide by the action of H,S in atmosphere Salt also contains a cationic part (basic radical). Preliminary test such as dry heating test, char. coal cavity test, flame test and borax bead test may give us some indication about present in the salt. However, the cation is finally detected and confirmed through analysis involving various tests. Before carrying out the tests for analysis of cation, th to be dissolved in some suitable solvent to « Flame Test ion systematic salt has prepare its solution. This is a specific test done for the detection of some cations’ which can impart colour to the flame. | Cation | Colour ofthe flame | Sodium | Golden yellow coi [Potassium | _Lilac colour Zine Green flashes _ Barium Apple green Calcium Brick red Copper Light green * Acetic acid gives smell of vinegar but when added > with alcohol gives a fruity smell of ester (organi¢ Do You compound). 4 i | | | Know $ ae cavity test is also used for detection of acid | * Borax bead testis performed only for coloured — a ane CLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE | couemsTtY ca a‘Addition of Reagent (Experiment) Observation Salt + NaOH + heat ‘Ammoniacal smell due to evolution of NH, gas. | The gas gives white fumes when a glass rod | dipped in dil. HCI brought near to the mouth of test tube. NH,Cl + NaOH —!5 NaCl + H,0 + NH,T) NH, + HCl > NH,CI | (white Fumes) Salt solution + dil. HCI White ppt | Pb(NO,), + 2HC] > PoC +2HNO, | ‘ (tite PPE) a Salt solution Yellow ppt | + dil. CH,COOH + H,S gas CdCl, + HS > CdS) +2HCL | (petiow pe | ae Salt solution + White ppt | conc. HNO, +NH,Cl+NH,OH| AIC, + 3NH,OH > 3NH,Cl + AI(OH),+ (tite pe) Fe* Salt solution + conc. HNO, + NH,CI + NH,OH Reddish brown ppt FeCl, +3NH,OH — 3NH,Cl + Fe(OH); (redish brown ppt) cu Salt solution + NH,OH Bluish ppt | Cu(NO,), + 4NH,OH | — [Cu(NH,),] [NO,], + 4H,O (bive ppt) Zn Salt solution + NH,CI sa pl oe Zn(OH), + H,S — ZnS | + 2H,O (pink ppt) Salt solution + NH,C1 White ppt NH,OH + (NH),CO, CaCl, + (NH),CO, > Caco, | + 2NH,CI (vite pp) « H,S gas is prepared in an apparatus known as Kipp’s apparatus by using FeS pieces. Use of excess salt in borax bead test leads to the formation. ___ of opaque bead. « We should never boil the salt with conc. H;SOy as the may decompose to give SO, gas. Analytical Chemistry \ 533FOSstH DUO EM paajoaa se yojora dag? _1 woun}os HO"HN 0} pasoda aya SouITy aN AR asuap saat ‘ jouls qwa8ung :_1D spejq uoRnjosayeydns snouray susny ‘se8 umoig : [ON sypejquadedayeyave peal susny ‘ssaysnojod +25 Aq Tae auny sum) ‘ssazMojod 309 -uaas8 uonnjos4ouD payrppe suum) “nopo Suyeroyns ‘ssapnojo> :se8ZOg “Ayu Joye oury su ‘ssa]nopo ‘sano :se8°OD -uonsnguios jo zajsoddns ‘ssajinopo ‘ssajmojod :se8%, punos dod YM ourey UT onyq ‘swung ‘gsajmnopo ‘ssajinojo> :se82y speiquaded ayeyape peay suny “TOUS $89 uoyor ‘ssapMojOD —:seBgeH “HOHN IM dd ysinig, se8S7H + HO'HN wim add Utd “HOTHN UN dd aM se ¢*H pure HOOD"HD EP ynidd moyp, DH TP addon “HORN dVW 1d33NO) ym ows peoemouny = 2422 tgUZ tl +42PD SdESSENTIAL POINTS for COMPETITIVE EXams Borax Bead Test Borax is heated on a loop of platinum wire then colourless glassy bead of sodium metahora, and boric anhydride is formed. Na,B,O;10H,0 —> Na,B,0, —> 2NaBO, + B,O, Borax Sodium metaborate boric anhydride When boric anhydride reacts with coloured metallic salt, a characteristic colour bead of mn tal metaborate is formed €8- CuSO, +B,0, —+ Cu(BO,), + SO, Copper metaborate (ive) Coloured metallic salts give different colour beads in different flames. | Colour of the bead os 3 Inference In oxidising flame | In reducing flame | 1. Green when hot, light blue when | Colourless when hot, ‘opaque red | cue | cold. | when cold. 2 Yellowish brown when hot, pale | Green, hot and cold. Fe™ or Fe* yellow when cold. | | 3. Amethyst (pinkish violet) in both | Colourless, hot and cold. | Mn® | hot and cold. | | 4. Brown when hot, pale brown when | Grey or black when hot and opaque Ni? cold | when cold. | 5. Deep blue in both hot and cold. Deep blue in both hot and cold. | Co” Titration *¢ The main process or important step in volumetric analysis. The process of titration is emploved offind out the volume of one solution required to react completely with a certain known volume of solution of some other substance. In other words, determination of strength of one solution using another solution of known strength under volumetric conditions is known as titration. * The substance added to theanalyte ina titration is known as titrant. End point pl. role in the titration. It is the point where reaction between two solutions is j the point in a titration at which the quantity of titrant is exactly sufficient for stoichiometric reaction to be completed with the analyte. At this point there is a sudden change in physical Properties such as indicator colour, pH, conductivity or absorbance. © Thus, titration is a general class of experiments where a known to determine unknown properties of another solution. There a acid-base titration, oxidation-reduction titration, lays an important just completed or Property of one solution re various types of titrations 0 iodine titration, complexometric titration ete err Chass 28 po DANON COURSE | GHEMITIYChemical Equilibrium n, only the reactants are present and that of the reactants mntrations of itis commonly observed that in the initial stage of a react tas the reaction proceeds, the concentration of products increases jvereases. But after sometime, a stage is reached when no further change in conce fants and products is observed. At this stage, rate of formation of reactants is equal to rate reac stopped. This state is said to be af formation of products, so the reaction seems to be qquilibrium state, © thus, equilibrium is the state at which the concentration of react. with time. fiquilibrium can be established in both phys feactions. The study of chemical equilibrium helps in the el conditions for the greater yields of the products. ants and products do not change cal processes like in change of state and in chemical Jucidation of the optimum of Chemical Reactions ‘Chemical reactions can be classified as irreversible and reversible reactions. Irreversible Reactions Reactions which moves only in one direction ‘., only product is being formed from reactants and after a particular time reactants completely converts to products are called irreversible reactions. In irreversible reactions, products do not react back to form reactants, thus the reaction moves “only in forward direction Examples NH,NO, —*4 N, + 2H,0 (Decomposition reaction) AgNO, + NaCl —» AgCl + NaNO, (Precipitation reaction) "Reversible Reactions ‘chemical reactions which move in both the directions, ie., the products which are being, ‘ed, react with each other to produce the reactants. Thus, these reactions do not reach to pletion. That means the reactions which proceed in both the directions, ie, forward and ‘ward direction are said to be reversible reactions. ples: CaCOs + CaO + CO; CO,+H, == CO+H,O Bie = 2HI reactions two half arrows (==) are used instead of the single arrow (+). Equilibrium ibility is the important aspect of equilibrium system. Consider a reaction A+B== C+D ‘COURSE | CHEMISTRY ee Chemical Equilibrive | 487ct together to form C and D. As soon as Cand 5 Initially only A and B are present, they rea! e concentration of 4 ¢ A and B. After some # formed, they start reacting to produc ee A and decreases so rate of forward reaction decreases but the concentration of ; and D increases e comes when rate of both reactio rate of backward reaction increases. And finally a time comes when rate of both reactions becg equal. This state is called equilibrium state. Thus at equilibrium Rate of forward reaction = Rate of backward reaction 8 ate for forward Poo reaction (Rj) —> R= yo Rs System at : {eae 35 equilibrium § | 7 heached 2 fate for backward 4 Rate Reaction () 3 Reactants ° Time —> ° Time —> Dynamic equilibrium stage Rate reniiesaniemnoae ina reversible reaction of the reactants and products @ For the fotlowing reversible reaction N,+3H, == 2NFy represent the dynamic equilibrium graphically. of formation of NH, is equal to the rate of Soln.: Forward reaction is formation of N, and H,. Graphically itis shown: N, + 3H, + 2NH, ts When Ni starts forming, there is also the as stage when NH, starts converting into N, a and H, z 2NH; —> N; + 3H) é | A dynamic equilibrium is attained when rate g Pee z CO To understand dynamic equilibrium Choose a water tank with an inlet and outlet. © Open the inlet and outlet in such a way that rate of flow of ‘water remains same. is Observation: The level of water does not change with time, ie., remains constant. Conclusion ‘As the amount of water coming inside from inlet is equal to the ~ amountof water going out from outlet, thus the water level remains constant, though both the inlet and outlet of water are working all the time. That means dynamic equilibrium is attained in water tank. » Atequilibrium stage, the number of moles of substances Do You produced per second in the forward reaction is equal Know to the number of moles of substances which disappeats per second in the backward reactions, q LASS 10 FOUNDATION couRSE | CHEMISTCharacteristics of Equilibrium State * _ Chemical equilibrium is dynamic in nature, ie — Chemical equilibrium can be attained onl closed, some of the products (if gas) m, enter. ~ Chemical equilibrium is characterised by constancy of certain properties such as concen tration, density a pressure or colour, at a particular temperature ~ Chemical equilibrium can be approache: , both reactions move in speed. ly if the system is closed one. If the system is not ay escape or some new reacts ts from outside may 'd from either direction = Catalysts help in attaining equilibrium rapidly but they does not change the equilibrium state. Paha tT aig m with nitrogen dioxide and seal them. flask A in ice bath and flask B in boiling water and observe the changes. me, transfer both the flasks in a bath containing tap water (Temperature around flask A (placed in ice bath), the gas becomes colourless and gas in flask B (placed water) has reddish brown colour. h flasks in tap water, colour of gas in flask A starts changing to reddishLaw of Mass Action Consider the following reaction aA + 0B == cC+dD ‘The molar concentration of A, B, C and D is [A], (BI and a,b, , d are the moles of A, B, C and D respecti ‘Then according to law of mass action, Rate of forward reaction « [A] [B]* , [AF [B]!, where ky = Rate constant for forward reaction and Rate of backward reaction « [C]' [D]! = ky (Cl [D], where k ‘Thus, according to law of mass action, the rate of chemical reaction is directly proportional to [C] and [D] respectively, ly. ate constant for backward reaction the multiple of the molar concentration [also called active mass] of the reactants at the particu. lar temperature. At equilibrium, Rate of forward reaction = Rate of backward reaction Thus, K LAP [B}’= ky (Cl (DI! Ky (cr ior iar et As k, and k, are constants thus the ratio of k /k, is also constant say K,, is called equilibrium, constant cr (Dr x= Sher (AF (B} This equation is known as law of chemical equilibrium Equilibrium constant (k,)is the ratio of concentrations of products and reactants at equilibrium and it has a constant value for a reaction at a given temperature. "The units of equilibrium constant depends upon number ° of moles of reactants and products involved in the Do You reaction. If number of moles of reactants is equal to | Know number of moles of products, K has no unit, while if number of moles of products is different from number of moles of reactants, K some unit. For the reactions, N, +3H, == 2NH; 3 and in,+ 2h: == NH; ke INH, Ww write down the expression for equilibrium * {N,]? (H,] constant K, and K.’. How is K, related to K.’? Squaring equation (ii), we get Soln.: For equation, N, + 3H, == 2NH, (k= _(NH,F INH? (N, 1H, n ve “INL? ae Equations (i) and (iii) are same, thus and for Gaae oot dea 6 © Av equilibrium system for the reaction $a Sg eh between hydrogen and iodine to given 490 | Chemical Equilibrium LASS 10 FOUNDATION coUKSE | cHEMSTAT a!Eesieect X-tna 8 litre flask @© In the following gaseous phase . kad i equilibrium in 5 L flask at constant temperature, : p number of moles of SO, and SO, are equal Calculate number of moles of , at equilibrium 250, +0, = 250s, k= 5 Soin. Let equilibrium moles of SO, = $0) and that of O; = y {S0,] = [SOs] = a mol L => [OJ= . mole L! Gy _S0,F < Beata ae 5 [Given] syed Hence, O, at equilibrium = 1 mole. | tion Energies for Forward and Backward Reactions When a reaction starts, reactants form some activated complex and these activated complex then converted to products. _ Reactants —* Activated complex —> Products ‘The minimum energy which is required to form these activated complex is known as activation In a reversible reaction, the reactants in the forward reaction and the products in backward reaction follow the same path, so form the same activated complex. However the activation energy of both the reactions is different. Threshold energy Ey ; | | Ean & E, i a renege 5 E, Products Reactants Progress ofreaction —> Progress of reaction —> ‘Activation energies for the Activation energies for the forward and backward reaction forward and backward reaction where forward reaction is where forward reaction is exothermic endothermic | Ey =9 Activation energy for forward reaction Eyy = Activation energy for backward reaction AE = Egy ~ Egy) = Overall energy change hermic reactions Eyy) < E,») thus AE = ~ ve reactions E,y) > Eq thus AE = + ve> Acatalyst lowers the activation energy of both the forwarg and backward reactions thus rate of forward as wet} as backward reaction increases. So equilibrium speeds up by the addition of catalyst but no change in overall equilibriuin, state happens. © Fora reaction x + ¥, heat of reaction is + 83.68 KJ, energy of reactant X is 167.36 KJ and energy of activation is 209.20 kJ. Calculate (i) threshold energy (i) energy of product Y and (fii) energy of activation for the reverse reaction (Y ~> X). Soln. (i) Given, Ey) = 209.20 kj, AE = + 83.68 kJ Energy of reactant, X = 167.36 KJ Threshold energy = Energy of reactant X + Activation energy for forward reaction = 167.36 + 209.20 = 376.56 kJ (ii) Energy of reaction, AE = Energy of product ~ Energy of reactant Energy of product = 83.68 + 167.36 = 251.04 kJ (iii) Activation energy for backward réaction = Threshold energy ~ Energy of product = 376.56 - 251.04 = 125.52 kJ © Classify the following reactions a5 endothermic or exothermic. i (1) Nay + Org) + 180.5 k} == 2NO,, | (2) ANHyy + 50x) ~ 905.6 kJ | == 4ANO,, + 6H,0,, | (3) N,O,(H® = 9.16 kJ mol") | == 2NO, (H* = 33.2 kj mot) | (4). Nag) + 3Hag == 2NHy, | (Hgi, =~ 46.1 kJ mol | Note : Enthalpy of element is taken as zero (Hy = 0). | Soln. (1) AH® = + 180.5 kJ endothermic (2) MH® = -905.6 k] exothermic (9) BH" = 2H. Hy, 6, = 233.2 - 9.16 = +57.24 kJ endothermic ) BH = 2H 4 ~ (Hy, +3) = 2x(-46.1) - (0+ 0) = Le-Chatelier’s Principle Concentration, temperature and pressure are the three main factors which can change the state of equilibrium in a reversible system. Le-Chatelier and Braun (1884), French chemists, explained the effect of these factors on equilibrium. When one of these factors equilibrium gets disturbed and the system readjusts itself until it According to Le-Chatelier princip! subjected to change, eturns to equilibrium » “change in any of the factors such as concentration, temperature and pressure of a system will shift the equilibrium in such a manner to reduce ot to counteract the effect of the change” * Effect of Change of Concentration If the concentration of either the product or reactant is increased, the reaction proceeds in the direction where consumption of the added substance occurs more rapidly. Thus, if the reactant is added to the reaction mixture, reaction will proceed in forward direction to consume the added reactant. «Effect of Change in Pressure If pressure is increased in a gaseous system at equilibrium, then the equilibrium will shift in 492'| Chena tA CLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE | CHEMISTRY| the direction in which pressure is reduced. As the volume occupied by the system de din a way where volume “jg getting decreased. Pressure of the gaseous system is increased, fate decreas thus to release the stress, the reaction will 8 gett she getting increased or number of moles of gaseous substances Increase in pressure Shit itiedinctionor ? Less number of gaseous moles Decrease in pressure __Shit he equtisrium inthednciorcr > Larger number of gaseous moles , Effect of Change in Temperature According to Le-Chatelier’s principle, if the temperature of the system at equilibrium is increased, ie., heat is i 7: rf ‘ B Faris abeotbed. supplied, the equilibrium will shift in the direction in which the added When a equilibrium is id disturbed by a change in concentration, pressure or volume, the composition of oe rium mixture changes but equilibrium constant does not change. But when the equilibrium is disturbed by change in temperature the value of equilibrium constant changes. KeT [For endothermic reactions, AE = +ve} Ke z [For exothermic reactions, AE = -ve] Increase in temperature —Suitthecguiibrom Endothermic reaction Decrease in temperature —Shttheequilirium , Exothermic reaction in the diection of + The Effect of Varying Condition on the Equilibrium aA + bB == cC+dD, An, = (c+ d)- (a+b) Change imposed on the Equilibrium position moves [Equilibrium | Any other points system in equilibrium constant ine. of A and/or B increased To right No change = anc. of C and/or D increased To left No change = Pressure increased To right if No change | Very little effect, if any, (c+d)< (a+b), ie, An,=-ve |” on reactions in liquid solution Tolettif No change (c+d)> (a+b) ic., An, = +ve No change if No change (+d) = (a+b), ie, An, = 0 Temperature increased To left if AH =-ve (exothermic) | Value Equilibrium decreased achieved faster To right if AH = +ve (endothermic)] Value increased "Addition of a catalyst No change No change Equilibrium achieved faster Carrier of oxygen by haemoglobin in the blood to the tissues You and the removal of carbon dioxide from the tissues by blood. r can be explained by Le-Chatelier’s principle. Even the tooth Know decay due to eating more sweet substances can also be =: explained by this principle. {COURSE | CHERS TY, es Chemical Eguiiorize | 483su90-ania pure uoKpaiIp premsoy spremoy umniagimba ayy yrys syueyeor om “unuqiinba ye spueyIeaI jo uOT;eI}UaIUOD 0} syonpord jo UOHeYUADUOD JO ONLY queysuos umuqyinby woREHUau0D [syuryeal jo UoHeQUBDUOD] >> Y UORIOIIP IOYTO wiory poypeordde aq ue} « [aSsaA paso[d UT ATU SINI20O ¢ asueyp zip jopaya Sues oy wniagyinbe ap yyrys [[IM “ways: adie Aen ee eee este afdpung s32HaeYyD 271 Sree one WoRIeaT preMmyreq JO ayer OF Jenba st uogpvas premioj Jo ayeI UaYM, Woardal nda a uorpeay psemopeg uonpeay premog SUOTPAIP dy} YO UT sarc UORILAY suorpeay a1qisi2Aay t “om ION COURSE | CHEMISTRY —<—<—<—<—<— —_—_— Chemical Equilibrium | 495BU for COMPETITIVE EXAMs Reaction Quotient The concentration ratio, ie, ratio of concentration of products to concentration of reactay any stage of reaction is known as concentration quotient or reaction quotient ang by Q (@) At equilibrium, Q-=K (b) When, Q > K, reaction will not be at equilibrium and Rate of forward < Rate of backward reaction (©) When K > Q, reaction will not be at equilibrium and Rate of backward reaction < Rate of forward reaction MS, at dis den Noted Q E KQ B. | 1 |] oO ec ane Relation between K and Q and the direction of the reaction Equilibrium Constant As the equilibrium constant is generally expressed in terms of molar concentration thus it is denoted as K, Consider a reaction, 4NH; +50, —* 4NO +6H,O [Noy [H,07° [NH,]*[0,° In gaseous systems, the concentration of gases may also be expressed in terms of partial pressures and equilibrium constant can be expressed as K, Then —K, Consider a gaseous reaction, aA + bB == cC + dD = Pcl Po) (P4)" (Po? Where py Py Pc and pp are partial pressures of A, B, C and D respectively, Relation between K, and K, Consider a reaction, aA +bB == cC+dD 496 | Chemical Eli ht), CLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE | CHEMISTRYf um constant in terms of concentration : pri sas! (cr [py 2. “ [4r BP al gas, pV = nRT e “a lideal gas equation] p=nRT_ mol 7 [molar concentration} pat {AIRT, Ps = (BIRT, pe = [CIRT, py = [DRT ee pe *Po__CIRTY QD) EUs ICTY, go Kr" py xps (CAIRT)(BIRTY [ay [By T) (era) —(as8)) = K.(RT)"*, =(c+d)-(a+b) ao & where O"s = number of moles of gaseous products ~ number of moles of gaseous reactants Equilibrium An, K, = K.(RTD"s Hot xo = 2H) 0 K-K {NO <= 2NOw i = Kern Ny * 3H) == 2NHag) 2 K, = KART)? Cpt Ox — Cx 0 K-K NHHSy = Nay + FS) 2 K, = K(RT}? NH + HO = NH,OHo -1 K, = K(RT)" l fermodynamics of Chemical Equilibrium + Spontaneity ‘Aspontaneous process is a process which occurs in a system left to itself once started. A non- sponténeous process will not occur unless some external action is continuously applied. » Gibbs Free Energy and Spontaneity Gibbs free energy change can be defined as AG = AH - TAS where AG = Change in Gibbs free energy ‘AH = Change in enthalpy AS = Change in entropy (disorderness) T = Temperature AG is the criteria for spontaneity, AG should be negative for a reaction to be spontaneous. [Case] an | AS | AG Result Example PS Spontaneous at all temperatures | 2N;Ow > 2Nay) + Ox) - spontaneous at low temperature HO > H.0@ + |non-spontaneous at high temperature + | non-spontaneous at low temperature - | spontaneous at high temperature - | + | non-spontaneous at all temperatures Tas=AH | 0 equilibrium 2NHyg > Nag + 3H) 304g) > 20x) a8« Relationship between Equilibrium Constant (K) and Gibbs Free Energy ic For a chemical reaction to occur the Gibbs free energy change should be negative ! chemical reaction, Gibbs free energy decreases and at equilibrium it becomes equal ¢ ting a ‘oO 2er, :Gstrenctants). Ge(products) Gibbs energy,G —> Reactants Products The equilibrium composition of a reaction corresponds to minimum Gibbs energy change The change in Gibbs free energy, AG = AG° + RT InQ AG° = Standard gibbs free energy change At equilibrium, AG = 0 and Q = K. So, 0=AG°+RTInK, or AG°=-RTInK, or InK= -AG°/RT or AG®° = - 2.303 RT InK. or K = e8@RT This relation is very important, by this we can predict the spontaneity of a reaction. - If AG°=0, then K.=1 — IfAG°<0, i., negative, then K. > 1. This implies the reaction which proceeds in forward _ direction. - IfAG°>0, ie., positive, then K. <1. This implies the reaction which proceeds in backward direction.Atomic Structure duction qhe existence of atoms Mand 400 BC. All matter is composed of numerous tiny particle cal aa by John Dalton, Later stuclies reveated that atoms consist of smaller part sete of early India and Greek philosophers 1 ‘atoms’ was first pat | to has been proposed since the tiny fo electron, proton and ne ental particles because these regarded sutron, into which it may be further divided, These particles ar are the main constituents of all atoms, Discovery of as fundam: ment of these particles inside the atom. »ads to the study of pattern of arrar these particles mic Models atomic models visualizing various patterns of arrangement have been proposed by “stot | arious different scientists such as Thomson, Rutherford, Niels Bohr, ete JJ. Thomson's Atomic Model vn, an atom is considered as a sphere of positive charge in whieh negatively embedded uniformly to neutralise that positive charge, ‘According toJ.J. Thon charged particles (electrons) are Rutherford’s Atomic Model Rutherford performed the ot -ray scattering to know about the position of fundamental particles and concluded that sof predominately empty space. Nucleus is located inside the atom, containing - Atom consis positively charged particles — Flectrons revolve at high speed in the extra nuclear space around the nucleus. Electrons are revolving around nuclei show emit radiation and lose energy giving continuous spectrum but the atoms give rise to discontinues line spectra, + Bohr's Atomic Theory The main postulates of this model are — Inaatom, electrons revolve around the nucleus in certain definite circular paths called orbits. 3 — Fach otbit is associated with definite energy called energy level or energy shells named as KL,M,N, ete shells starting from the nucleus. = Electrons radiates energy when it jumps from orbit of higher energy to lower energy. 13.6 eV (= 1,2, 3.nsnsss) - Only the energy levels (orbits) in which angular momentum of the electron is an integral (whole number) multiple of h/2n, are permissible, AE = E,- E = hy, peat oq (= 01,2... ‘WFOUNDATION COURSE | CHEMISTRYQuantum Mechanical Model Quantum mechanical models are the modern concept to explain structure of atom, theories are: * De-Broglie’s Theory In 1924, de-Broglie suggested that just as light exhibits wave and particles properties, al fundam, Particles behave like a wave. Thus, according to de-Broglie, “all material particle Possess wave characteristics”. According to de-Broglie, the wavelength associated with a particle of mass m, movi velocity v is given by the relation: penPiah mop where ht is Planck’s constant, » is the velocity and p (= mo) is momentum of the particles waves associated with material particles are called matter waves. The Sin motig Ng with, FCN ag Leaner LASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE | CHFation of de-Broglie Relationship Derivé The relationship may be derived by combining the mass-energy relationships proposed by Max Planck and Einstein, According to Planck, photon of light having energy E is associated with a wave of frequency vas Ewlw (i) According to Einstein, mass and energy are related as : Ee me’ wuu(Hi) (¢ is velocity of light) Combining the above two relations in eq. (i) and (Ii), we get : In = me © ¢ ce 0 or ht ta since U= 5 x7 h A == mc or Ae ea me The equation is valid for a photon. de-Broglie suggested that on substituting the mass of the patticle (m) and its velocity (v) in place of velocity of light (c), the equation can also be applied to material particles. ‘Thus, the wavelength of material particle, & Ae Be (where mv « p = momentum) mo equation is known as de-Broglie’s equation. ‘his constant, 1 a momentum inberg Uncertainty Principle ‘subatomic particles have significant wave character. Since the wave spread out in space, it is not possible to determine accurately the position and velocity of such particles at _thesame time. This physical limit was suggested by Werner Heisenberg (1927) in his uncertainty "principle. This principle commonly known as the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. It states "that “itis not possible to measure simultaneously both the position and momentum (or velocity) ‘of a microscopic particle, with absolute accuracy. matically, this law may be expressed as: h x 2 ar vhere Ax = uncertainty in position 4p = uncertainty in momentum sign > means that the product of Ax and Ap can be either greater than or equal to xn it ‘never be less than é ‘The sign equality refers to minimum uncertainty and is equal to in(i) If Av is small ie, the position of particle is measured accurately, Ap would be large, ;,, would be large uncertainty in its momentum. (ii) On the other hand, if Ap is small, the momentum ofthe ‘Ax would be large ic, there would be large uncertainty with regard to the position of the p particle is measured more accu, Schrodinger Wave Equation Quantum mechanics, as developed by Erwin Schrodinger in 1926, is based on the wave mg associated with the particles. For the wave motion of the electron in three dimensional spa around the nucleus, he put forward an equation, known after his name as Schrodinger equation, which plays an important role in quantum mechanics. The equation is : 2 2, & + = a ey ef Sem e-vy=0 where ¥ is the amplitude of the wave where the coordinates of the electron are (x,y,z), E ig total energy of the electron, Vis its potential energy, m is the mass of the electron and his P constant. 8° /8x? represents second derivative of ‘Y with respect to x and so on. In short, Schrodinger wave equation is written as AY =EY where fj isa mathematical operator, called Hamiltonian operator. ‘The solution of Schrodinger wave equation for an electron in an atom gives the value of E w. The values of E represents the quantized values of energy which the electrons in the a can have. The corresponding values of y are called wave functions.An electron has been excited from first f fourth energy State in an atom. What are assible transitions w hen the electron come mc to the ground state? yin: The possible transitions are : sans 4>1, 2>1 4493, 452, $2 391 6 Why are Bohr’s orbits called stationary gates? goln; Stationary orbits means that the energies ofthe orbits in which the electrons revolve are Axed. What do you mean by saying that energy af the electron is quantized? Soin: This means that the electrons in an atom have only definite values of energies. 0 Calculate the energy of photon of radiations whose frequency is 5 x 10 s* Soin: E = hv i h = 6.626 x 10™ Js, v=5x 10"%s7 |) B= 6.626 x 10 x 5 x 10" | = 3.313 x 10-” J / 6 What will be the wavelength of a ball of mass 0.1 kg moving with a velocity of Wms? Soln: Here m= 0.1 kg. 9 =10ms? Concept of Atomic Orbitals The quantum mechanical model of of the probability of finding it in the space around the nucleus. The us leads to the concept of atomic orbitals. electron in the space around the nucle bf ERT TW) h A=— mo \ = 6.626 x 10 / 0.1 x 10 A = 6.626 x 104 m o Calculate the mass of a photon with wavelength 3.6 A°. Soln : Here A = 3.6 A® = 3.6 x 10° m As photon travels with the velocity of light, v=3 x 10° m/s By de Broglie equation, 4 = h/mv m=— do 6.626 x 10 m= 3.6 x 10 x 3 x 10° = 6.135 10° kg @ oat should be the uncertainty in position if uncertainty in momentum is 1 x 107g cm s? Soln : Ap = 1x 10? gcm/s=1x 107kg m/s h= 6.625 x 10**J s : Axx Ap -t Scalia 6.625 x 10 “an x Ap 4x3.14x107 Ax = 0.527 x 107m atom describes the state of an electron in an atom in terms probability of finding an “An atomic orbital is defined as the three dimensional region in space around the nucleus in which the probability of finding the electron is maximum”. Thus an electron in any atom does not always remain at a definite distance from the nucleus. It can move anywhere, but most of the time, it will be found within a small region of space called the atomic orbital. The difference between an orbit and orbital in an atom is shown in figure. SASS 19 FOUNDATION COURSE | CHEMISTRY Nucleus an orbital is denoted by a region of high probability of finding an electron an orbit is denoted by a definite path along which an electron moves Fig.: An orbit and an orbital Atomic Structure | 455* Difference Between an Orbit and Orbital 1,] An orbit is a well defined circular path in which electron revolves, These are numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4... or labelled as K, L, M,Novw 2.) It represents the movement of electron around the nucleus in one place, 3.) An orbit means that the position as well as momentum of an electron can be known with certainty 4] Tt can accommodate at the maximum 2n? electrons, where nis the numberof orbit © Shells and Subs! - Shel difference, ~ Subshell : Subshells are of four types. 1. s-subshell, 2, p-subshell, 3. d-subshell, 4. fsubshell. s-subshell : It contain one s orbital, p-subshell : It contain three p orbitals, It present all shells, except first shell, It has maxim electrons. It presented by he circular path on which electron revolves around the nucleus is called shell (@ tis represented by letters K, L, M, N .. They was first proposed in Bohr’ atomic and each shell is characterised by fix energy . Two successive shells differ by a fix Orbital = ‘An orbital Is the region of space ovoanay gu nucleus where the probability of find) electron is maximum, It may be sphepiegh dumb shell in shape. It represents the three-dimensional mg ofelectron around the nucleus, An orbital does not represent the posit and momentum of electron with comp certainty, An orbital can accommodate at the moat f electrons with paired spins, Px Py (a 4-subshell : It contain five d-orbitals. It present in third, fourth, fifth shell——, dy da dy dye | dye ‘Orbital diagram fsubshell : It contain seven forbitals, Note : Ina subshell, orbitals are present and all orbitals in a subshell have. equal et are energy levels within single shell and their energies differ by very small value, In a su ‘only one type of orbital are present. This way with in a shell more than one subshell m present. In other words, subshells are shells that exist within a shell. ~ Nodal Plane : The region where the probability of finding electron is almost zero is node or nodal plane or nodal surface, The region of high electron density is called lo — Subshells inthe shelis _ In quantum model, subshells are proposed to exist with in shells, + m=1:In first shell (n= 1) only one subshell is present called 1s subshell In this subshe + one orbital is present therefore number of electrons in first shell is restricted to2, * =2: In second shell (n = 2) two subshells are present namely 2s and 2) subshe Subshell only one orbitals present and in 2 subshell3 orbitals are present. Therefore of electrons in second shell is restricted to 8we dain fourth shell (n = 4) four subshells are present namely 4s 4p, 4d and 4fsubshells. In 4s ital is 5 i Or es ubs! - subshell only one orbital is present; in 4p subshell, 3 orbital are present; in 4d subshell 5 ian ar preeent and in 4f, 7 orbitals are present. Therefore number of electrons in fourth shell is Nucleus n= 1; subshells present - 1s n= 2; subshells present - 2s, 2p n= 3; subshells present - 3s, 3p, 3d subshells present - 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f ES cal experiment in which we take a set particular electron, say the only electron of hydrogen atom, at v1 y (say almost instantaneously). Ifthe electron in each picture is rep if all the pictures are superimposed then the final picture looks PY had CORNEof | Principal Quantu ‘Azimuthal | Magnetic Quantum | Spin Quantuyy ind geaation | ea | cuantumNe.(D, | __No- norm) tsorm) 1, Necessity | To explain the main lines ofa spectrum To explain the fine structure of the line spectrum To explain the splitting of lines ina magneticfield To explain th magnetic pro per ofsubstances 2, Information| (i) Main shell in which the electron resides (ii) Approx, distance of the electron from the (i No. of subshells present in any main shell (ii) Relative energies ofthesubshells No. of orbitals present in any subshell or the number of orientations of each subshell Direction of elecirog spin, i.e., clock anti-clockwise nucleus (iit) Energy of the | (iii) Shapes of shell orbitals (iv) Max. no. of electrons present in theshell (2r') 3. Symbols n I morn, sorm, 4. Possible | 1,234 etc, ie, any | For a particular| For a particular | Fora particular value values integer valueofn,l=Oton-1 | value ofl, m=-I to+l | ofm,s= +1/2, ~1/2 | includingzero 5. Other K,L,M,Nete. I=0,s-subshell ; Forp-subshell m: ‘Two arrows pointing designations I=1p-subshell; | 0,+1 designated asp, | in opposite directions, 1=2,d-subshell ; p,andp, ie, Tandd 1=3,fsubshellElectronic Configuration of Atoms ‘The filling of orbitals in an atom is a hypothetical process in which the atom is built up by feeding electrons in orbitals, one at a time and by placing each new electron in the lowest available energy orbital. The distribution of electrons in different orbitals is known as electronic configuration of the atoms. This characterizes each electron in an atom. The orbitals of an. atom can be filled with electrons by applying following rules. No. of electrons | eo i Principal beet A 3 (geld) ou ft tal (gs pdorf) oes Aufbau Principle . 2 ‘The word ‘Aufbau’ in German means ‘building up’. Thus, this is also known as building up ciple. The building up of orbitals means the filling up of orbitals with electrons. The ple states as follows- : geteatae electrons in an atom are so arranged that they occupy orbitals in the order of their sing energy”. In other words, electrons first occupy the lowest- ital availa ‘to them and enter into higher energy orbitals only when the lower energy. ce, the energy of an orbital in the absence of any magnetic field, depends m number (1) and the azimuthal quantum number (1), hence the 0 h electrons may be obtained from the following generalizations : |The orbital for which (n + 1) is the lowest is filled first. Wi n two orbitals have the same values of (n + 1), the orbital d first. ‘of filling of various orbitals with electrons obtained by th y, 3s, 3p, 45, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 65, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, Sf‘To illustrate the (n + 1) rule, different examples are given ealowe 1 Prine ‘Azimuthal | Orbital | + cum. Quant m0, ) 1 0 Is 1 2 0 i Z 1 » 2 3 0 be fi 1 » 4 2 ad 2 4 0 e A 1 4p ~ 2 ad f 3 5 9 s , 2 aes ‘ es 1 & 7 © Pauli’s Exclusion Principle In 1925, Wolfgang Pauli discovered exclusion principle. This principle is very useful in construc of the electronic configuration of atom. According to this principle “No two electrons in an atom can have the same values for all the four quantum numbers’ For example, in 1s orbital of helium atom there are two electrons. According to the concept quantum numbers and Pauli’s rule, their quantum numbers are : Electron n 1 m s Electron 1 bs 0 0 +1/2 Electron 2 1 0 0 -1/2 The + and ~ sign before 1/2 refers to the clockwise and anticlockwise spins of the electr Thus, the two electrons having the same values of n, and m could have different values of s, % _is, their spins are in opposite directions. This lead to a very significant observation that “ ‘have maximum two electrons and these must have opposite spins”. o electrons in an orbital can be represented by by an arrow) have opp anticlockwise or vice v2- An orbital cannot have more than two electrons, Inanyn By level (shell), the maximum number of electrons is twice the total number of orbitals or is equal to 2n?, where n is the principal quantum number. « Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity This rule deals with the filling of electrons into degenerate (same energy) orbitals of the same subshell. This principle is very important in guiding the filling of electrons in p.d and forbitals. The Hund’s rule states that, “When more than one orbitals of equal energies are available, then the electrons will first occupy these orbitals separately with parallel spins. The pairing of electrons will start only after all the orbitals of a given sub-level are singly occupied.” Hund’s rule is also known as Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity. This is due to the fact that electrons being identical in charge, repel each other when present in the same orbital. This repulsion can, however, be minimised if two electrons move as far apart as possible by occupying, different degenerate orbitals, Further, all the singly occupied orbitals will have parallel spins, that is, in the same direction, either clockwise or anticlockwise. This is due to the fact that two electrons with parallel spins {in different orbitals) will encounter less inter-electronic repulsions in space than when they have opposite spins (while staying in different orbitals). Consider, for example, the following illustration For the element, nitrogen, which contains 7 electrons, the following configurations can be written eras _is_ 2s 2p, 2p, 2p _ @ [tJ [ ts t|t 1] Total spin of unpaired electrons=3+5 nie &) (ral [r] tlalt Total spin of unpaired electrons=4-24+3 = ee [alfa] [rt] | m2 ‘accordance with the Hund’s rule, the configuration (2) in which the three unpaired electrons occupying 2p,, 2p, and 2p, orbitals have parallel spins (either all clockwise or “anticlockwise) is correct while the configuration (b) in which the unpaired electrons do not ‘have parallel spins is incorrect. The configuration (¢) in which the pairing of the electrons has been shown in the 2p, orbital without putting the third electron in 2p, orbital is alsonot consistent » with the Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity. By the term maximum multiplicity, we mean that the otal spin of unpaired electrons is maximum. 5 : 11 For example, the total spin of the unpaired electrons in configurations (@){b) and (¢) are 15/5 and } Thus, in accordance with the Hund’s rule, configuration (a) with maximum multiplicity of 15 108 ———— ce el Rotee | a1ee ee eT i, Electronic Configurations of Some Elements The electronic configuration of certain elements are given below Electronic configuration Box notation form Name Symbol ie Notation form H as, a Helium He 2 rs Lithium u 3 1s! 28 Neon Ne 10 1828 2p, 2p; 2p, Sodium Na un [Ne] 3s' Magnesium Mg R Ne] 3¢ Anomalous Electronic Configurations In case of few elements, the actual rules are slightly violated for writing the electronic con this is because of the greater stabilities of half filled and fully filled subshells in com to the neighbouring configurations. Examples: Chromium - Half filled configuration. Copper - Fully filled configuration. How many nodes are present in 3p-orbital? @ Soln: No. of nodes in an orbital = (n - 1 - 1) ERS TNT No. of nodes in 3p orbital = 3- 1-1-1 MD tae 2 = 0 = a7 are seat ® What is the maximum number of — quantum numbers, is the state possible or not? electrons possible fora seventh principalshell? Soin: Here, n=2, 1=2, m=0,s=-12 Soln : No. of electrons in a shell = 2n? since I cannot have value equal to n, hence this Electrons in 7" shell = 2 x 7? = 98 State is not possible.y>vo LORDAS uo 108 sey jjoysqns yeyp ©) SurBuojaq jeuquo wea aun soejd ofe1 you saop (J 10 p’d) syjaysqns aus 2p 07 BurBuo[aq sperquo Ap Ur suORDa[a Jo SuuTEg :9]ny spuny uids wooo jo woR>aitp ‘aoueysqns yo saysadoid sougew sureidxa ‘8, hq pauasauday Hyaquiny umjuend) uidg sieysqns ut quasaid sjenqio j0-ou ‘pjag snouseus ut sau jo Sunyds sureidxa ‘m1, Sq pruasaudoy 12qUINN wNUEND ZHIUseW suoquunu winjuenb snoy jo 308 umes ayy aaey ue> Woy Teuqiojoade [sorSsous stoys pur sjjousa fesizods oun, yo osmaonay ATS AY HOU Uy A fa 8 - RUD wag ky “hg "RS “woye Ue UT UoNDa[P Jo JOLAEYOG aquussep 0} uonenba Teoneuypeu © ane8 a ae wget 22 Law yu soy" Pry oy spuodsass0> €7'L =u -suqio Laeuones 10 Soeano>e ainjosqe wpm apnied qjeuis © 40 wnjuawour pur uonisod jaya A{snoaueapnurs unseat 01 ajqyssodurr stay myenby ul aajoaas suon014 aaem 298urposyrs PPOW snwory sa4oR E Ae avay “Ayureys20 “sjouryd ‘om snopnu ayy puns! aajoasr suon2aty “wow jo anuso aig ye juasaud| st snajonn ‘adeys ur peouayds | ue ur suon>aI9 OM ON jouy sureidxs ‘1, 4q payuasasday} ajdpung sPPOW rojdpung ssined Haquiny wnuend eynunzy| Ayurepa9un SiequastoH arwoiy s,projsouiny, "aE “KB1919 89M} JO (ye) Sie hy, ynoyai Ayuuogtun| Tenqio ays qm Bunzeis ys ur yuasaid suonsaja jo ag Pn asuiere eae “kB1aua Buyseasout Joquinu ‘1jays jo ABsaua ‘joys “sousumpexey> 3A “woxe aprsuy Jo Jopso ap UF pay ze uyeus ‘exjsads jo sou ureus anes sassed uonow ut peppequia ats -suonosia| STenguo ou rey S9HEIS 41 uiejdxe “4, £q paruosaaday soprued jeuaeu ity ‘Jeotsoyds $1 woy :ajdpuug neqyny saaquiny winjuENd edu shooays sandorg-2c SRPOW S,uosuioy \WOYRANSIZUOS 91U0I]D21qESSENTIAL POINTS 7% COMPETITIVE EXAMs Electromagnetic Radiations In 1856, J.C. Maxwell proposed that light and other forms of radiations propagate ‘hrough Sree 7 tae em OF siaives sail gated Hnecey) called HG agnétic Wave Theory- ay Waves have electrical and magnetic fields associated with them and therefore, these are ¢ electromagnetic radiations. These travel with velocity of light that is ¢= 3 x 10%m/s, These electromagnetic radiations are described in terms of any of the following p, alled, arametens, © Wavelength (A): It is defined as the distance between any two consecutive crests or roughy Itis represented by (lambda) and is expressed in A° or m or em or nm or pm 1 A® = 10 cm = 10 m, 1 nm = 10° m, 1 pm = 10? m. . Frequency (v) : It is defined as the number of wavelengths travelled in one second p= distance travelled by radiation in one second wavelength of radiation _velocity of radiation °* “wavelength of radiation ” It is expressed in cycles per second or Hertz 1 Hz = 1 cycle/see. © Wave number (1): It is defined as the number of waves present in 1 em length. It is equalty the reciprocal of the wavelength. but 2=£ > le wie So c Particle Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation The electromagnetic wave theory of radiation believed in the continuous generation of enemy This theory explained the phenomenon of propagation of light quite fully but failed to explain about : (a) Black body radiations. (b) Photoelectric effect, These phenomena could be explained only if electromagnetic waves are supposed to have particle nature, * Black Body Radiations If the substance being heated is a black body (which is a perfect absorber of energy, that is, which can emit and absorb all frequencies), black body radiations, The German physicist Max Planck studied the blackbody radiations and found that the characteristics of blackbody radiations could be accounted by proposing that each electromagnet oscillator, an atom or a molecule, can emit or absorb only certain discrete quantity of energy: This limitation of the energy of an object to discrete values is called the quantization of energy (E=hw). Oe Ae 8 CLASS 19 FOUNDATION COURSE | CMTE and perfect radiator the radiation emitted is calledPhotoelectric Effect When radiations with certain minimum frequency (v,) strike the surface of a metal, the electrons are ejected from the surface of the metal. This phenomena is called photoelectric effect and the electrons emitted are called photoelectrons. ENERGY OF _ | so ETE athe ELECTRON INOIDENT, ucHT —) Each photon carries an energy equal to hv. When the light of suitable frequency (U> Vo) is made to fall on the surface of any metal, the photon transfers its entire energy to a single electron in the surface of the metal. A part of this energy is used up in overcoming the attractive forces and the residual energy is possessed by the ejected electron as kinetic energy. Thus, Energy of photon of incident radiation = Work done in bringing the electron out from the interior of the metal - kinetic energy of the photoelectron. v= W -4 mv? (but W= hus) fro = hv, — Lino? 2 or fm? = hv — hvy = h(v = v9) Thus, "Kinetic energy of the photoelectron = h(v ~ Uo) "The above equation thus predicts a linear variation of the kinetic energy of photoelectrons with the frequency of the light beyond the threshold frequency, that is at u> vp. Atomic Spectra Unlike the spectrum obtained by analysing the sunlight, the spectra of atoms are not continuous. The spectra of atoms consist of sharp well-defined lines or bands corresponding to definite frequencies. There are two types of atomic spectra: (i) Atomic emission spectra (i) Atomic absorption spectra. Atomic Emission Spectra Emission spectra are obtained when the radiations emitted from substances that have absorbed energy (either by passing electric discharge through a gas at low pressure or by heating the substance to high temperature) are analysed with the help of spectroscope. Atoms, molecules or ions that have absorbed radiations are said to be excited. Emission spectra are of 2 types: ~ Continuous spectra : When sunlight or a glowing heat fluorescent substance like tungsten wire present in an electric bulb, is analysed with the help of spectroscope, the spectrum obtained on a screen is observed as divided into bands of seven colours, which are in a continuous spectra. Such a spectra is called continuous spectra. GLASS 40 FOUNDATION COURSE | CHEMIST ‘Atomic Structure | 465~ Discontinuous or line spectra : When atoms of a substance is excited, it emits ragisys These radiations are analyzed with the help ofa spectroscope, then many fine brig gu of specific colours in a sequence are seen in the spectrum which is not continuous, ya there is dark zone in between any two lines. Such a spectra is called discontinuous o, spectra. Maximum number of lines in a spectra is given by n(n-1)/2, where n ig Pringipay quantum number of the highest excited state Line Spectrum Red Blue Screen Violet Discharge tube containing hydrogen Violet ‘The emission spectrum of hydrogen atom * Atomic Absorption Spectra ‘When white light emitted by glowing heat fluorescent substance is allowed to pass through g 885 oF a solution of some salt and the transmitted light is analysed, we obtain a spectrum j which dark lines are observed in an otherwise continuous spectrum. These dark lines indi that the radiations of corresponding wavelengths have been absorbed by the substance fg the white light. Such a spectrum containing a few dark lines due to absorption of light is kno as absorption spectra, sit ‘Transmitted me ao ak Solution Photographic plate Absorption spectrum of sodium chloride. (66 | Atel Stra CLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE |Mole Concept, Stoichiometry and Behaviour of Gases introduction Thestudy of chemistry is based both on quali ofchemistry lead to the concept of mole and che describes the quantitative substance und sachemical reaction in chemistry is done by using the mole concept. Mole is th unit, The term mole is derived from Latin word meaning ‘ea, often as a breakwater. Likewise the term mole in chemistry represents a pile or mass of idies, The developments y. Chemical stoichiometry e and quantitativ nical stoichiome going chemical changes. The quantitative aspect of hemical counting 1 pile or mass of stones placed in the jioms, molecules, ions or electrons Mole Concept phe mole is a concept of quantity in terms of number and mass, which relates the mass of @ gmatenial to the number of atoms, ions or molecules in it The mole, as per definition accepted internationally, is defined as mole is the amount of a substance which contains the same number of chemical units molecules or ions) as there are atoms in exactly 12 g1 {C12 is found to contain 6.023 = 10” atoms of C-12. Thus a mole % 10% chemical units. The number 6.023 « 10 is called Avogadro's number. Avogadro's number ms of pure carbon-12” presents a collection mole represents the quantity of material which contains one 10°) of chemical units (atoms, molecules or ions) of any substance. pple ~ one mole of H atoms = 6.023 = 10° atoms of H ‘one mole of H molecules = 6.023 « 10® molecules of H ‘one mole of electrons = 6.023 « 10” electrons Mass and Gram Atomic Mass mass of an element is the average rel ‘atom of carbon-12 taken as 12. It is also called as atomic weight, 4 a - Average mass of 1 atom of the element lative mass 6f its atoms as compared with an 1 <(mass of one '*C atom) this steenic mass of an element expressed in grams is called gram atomic mass. This amount Sef the’ element is also called one gram atom, ¢.g., atomic mass of oxygen = 16 amu ‘Gram atomic mass of oxygen = 16 § Molecular Mass and Gram Molecular Mass The Molecular mass of a substance (element or compound) is the number of times the molecule N)eF the sistance is heavier than 1/12" the mass of an atom of carbon-12 isotope ae oR DOR ieial mass of a substance is the average relative mass of its molecules as compared Sn atom of carbon-12 isotope taken as 12. Molecular mass is also called as molecular weight. Coney ey of Gases 419Average mass ofa molecule of substance Molecular mass = Average masa ofa molecils of swetance 4 (Mass of an atom of °C) The molecular mass of a substance expressed in grams is called its gram molecular moog amount of the substance is also called one gram molecule. For example, Molecular mass of H,SO, = 2 x Atomic mass of H + Atomic mass of S + 4 Atomic ma =201+92+4%16=98.u Molecular mass of H,SO,=98 u Gram molecular mass of H;SO, = 98 g © Formula Mass Incase of ionic compounds, ¢., Na°Ch, the term molecular mass loses its significance beg no definite molecule exists in such compounds. According to Pauling, in stich cases of formula mass should be used The formula mass is obtained by adding the atomic mass of all the atoms present in the emp formula of the compound. For example, Formula mass of NaCl = Atomic mass of Na + Atomic mass of Cl =23+355=585u * Molar Mass The average mass of one mole of any material is called its molar mass. Mass of the substance m MN: ht A> Sole Cie (inmoles) "1 + Relation Between Mole And Mass Moleis the mass of the substance containing particles equal toits atomic weight or mass exp! in grams, 1 mole of | __ Contains Avogadro number (N) Weighs substance] SS ‘of particles aes Gram atomic mass (GAM) or Gram molecular mass (GMM) Occupies 22.4 litres at STP prov | the substance is in ga state 6.023 « 10" 6.02 «10° GMM 2S litre at STP i Mole Volume (in litres) at STP GMV(gram molecular volume) neq | Mele Concent Steichometry and Bobeviou of Gapep mo nce 9 goyy tion COURSE |The problem involving these calculations relate the weights of two substances or a weigi a substance with a volume ofa gas or volumes of two or more gases, and may be classified) the following different types : - Mass - Mass Relationships i.e., mass of one of the reactants or products is given and of some other reactant or product is to be calculated ~ Mass - Volume relationships ic., mass/volume of one of the reactants or products ig gf and the volume/mass of the other is to be calculated - Volume - Volume relationships i.e., volume of one of the reactants or products is gg and the volume of the other is to be calculated | The general method of calculations for all the problems of the above types consists of following steps (@ Write down the balanced chemical equation. (ii) Write the relative number of moles or the relative masses (gram atomic or molecular mag of the reactants and the products below their formulae. (iii) In case of a gaseous substance, write down 22.4 litres at STP below the formula ing of 1 mole. (iv)Apply unitary method to make the required calculations. | ® Calculate the mass of iron which will be o converted into its oxide (Fe,0,) by the action g Cite Of 18 g of steam on it. Soln.: The chemical equation representing the Obtained by decomposing 12.26 g of KCI : reaction is Soln.: KCIO, decomposes as follow: BRS HO FROM gH BHC, 30, =, 72g 2 moles 3 moles iil Thus 72 g of steam reacts with 168 g of iron 2 lle +163) x DAL =245 6 72 Lat | 18 g of steam will react with & x18 Thus, 245 g of KCIO, gives 67.2 L of O. | = 42 g of iron 12.26 g of KCIO, will give~ ©? «12.26 + Mass of iron required = 42 ¢ eo x =3.36 . @ catculate the volume of oxygen at STP Thus volume of oxygen liberated is 3.36 Behaviour of Gases ‘When the molecular forces of attraction between the particles of a matter are minimum, the part exist in a state known as gaseous state or a state of matter in which molecules are far from each other and free to move in available space is called gaseous state. Of the three St of matter, the gaseous state is the simplest and shows greatest uniformity in behaviour behaviour of gases can be described by certain quantitative relationships between mass, pte volume and temperature. These relationships are called gas laws. e Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases The main postulates of kinetic molecular theory of gases are as follows ~ All the gases are made up of molecules moving randomly in all the directions ~The volume of the individual molecule is negligible as compared to the total volume of the — Pressure exerted by gas is due to collision of gas molecules with the wall of the cont So, pressure s number of collisions per unit time per unit area by the molecules on the! of the container. 421 | Mole Cocape Se MeenTy sod Reka vloer of Gig ——-————ev-w—eereCASS:10 FOUNDATION COURSE | CIbetween two molecules or between a molecule and a wall are perfectly elastic. the molecules obey Newton's law of motion. ‘molecules neither attract or repel each other. tic energy of gas molecules depend upon the absolute temperature. So, Kinetic energy = absolute temperature force of gravity has no effect on the speed of gas molecules. Je Properties/Parameters of Gases behaviour of gases can be described by four variables : volume, temperature, ‘mass known as standard variables. (m) : The mass of a gas is denoted by ‘m’ which is related to the number of moles ‘”'- eer ot moles (ny = (Mase in grams) ‘M (Molar mass) m=n*M (V): Gases occupy whole space available to them. The volume occupy by a 83s 1S to the volume of container in which it is filled. jume of a gas is denoted by ‘V’ and it is measured in units of litres or cubic metre ‘em? or dm’. 1 L= 1 dm? = 1000 cm = 1000 mL sure (P): It is the force that the gas exerts per unit area on the walls of its container. fe = ECfore)_ mass *acoslaration A (Area) area ts of pressure are atm, pascal (Pa). torr 1 =76 cm He = 760 mm He = 760 torr n= 1.013 x 10° Pa (D: It is defined as the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. its are K, °C, °F. Other units of pressure are cm Hg, mm Hg, of a gas under known conditions of P, V, T is described by laws known as gas igiven by Robert Boyle in 1622. The law states that temperature, the volume ofa certain amount ofa gas is inversely proportional to of a certain amount of gas under pressure P at a fixed temperature, then vee Sor PY constant tant depends upon the amount and temperature of the gas. count of a gas occupying a volume V, under pressure P; and changes by , and so on. Thus the product of each P ~ V will be equal. Then = P;V2 = P3V4 = ~~» = constantGraphical Representation of Boyle's law + 1 1 (i) PusV (ii) Pe. Gor Vos ia Ws v= Ww (iii) log P vs log V (iv) PV 0s P t a log P| PV log V > 2s Charle’s Law This law was given by scientist Charle. It states that “Ifthe pressure (P) is kept constant, the volume (V) of a certain amount of gas is directly proporti to the absolute temperature (7) of the gas.” VeT = If pressure is kept constant, volume of gas V; at temperature T, changes to V; at T, and so the ratio of each V ~ T set would be constant, i.e., y,. Tae, constant Graphical Representation of Charle’s law : @) VosT Gi) Vosd or Tos 1 v i WT 3 (iii) log V vs log T (iv) WT vs T + tT logT > Gay Lussac’s law This law was given by Gay Lussac, It stat fes that “At P) given mass is directly proportional to ite constant volume, the pressure ( absolute temperature (T)”the pressure of a gas is P, at temperature T, riers constant, then changes to P at T, and so on. While” ALR LBL 7, t r so" constant. representation of Gay Lussac’s law ; T a (ii) Vos 2 or Tos 2 WT (iv) PIT vs T t PIT logT > ’s Law 5 given by Amedo Avogadro in 1811. It states that “At constant temperature and volume (V) occupied by a gas is directly proportional to the number of moles (11) rr of molecules of the gas” Ven T> ‘m (mass) 1 = "M (molar mass) pees M tation of Gay Lussac’s law : om 1 (i) Ves 4 or nos 4 n VA ns 1us to find the variation in volume (V) when all the terms P, T and 1 vary [Boyle's law] (0) [Charle’s law] ...2) [Avogadro's law] ...(3)By combining the equations (1), (2) and (3), we get Voc 2T P RnT V = —)—, where R = Universal gas constant PV = nRT It is an ideal gas equation Value of R changes in different systems R .314 joules mol K~ (SI value) 314 « 107 erg mol! K4 (CGS value) 0821 litre atm mol"! K-! (Practical value) TIVITY Cal mol K* (Others) Fah = CORNER SB Sar ass ce Seer Cs ee mei * Procedure : Mercury with certain volume (Vj) is filled in U-tube having air pressure (P To verify Boyle’s law. * Materials required : U-tube, mercury. Now the pressure is increased by putting more mercury into the open limb. The volume air enclosed in the space above mercury in the shorter limb was noted each time. Atm. pressure (P ) Atm. pressure (P;) |Air (Pressure =P, +h Volume=V.) h t R R R Pie © Observation : It was observed that as the volume of mercury level increases, the pre goes on decreasing. * Conclusion: Thus volume is inversely proportional to the pressure. This verifies Boyle's law. To verify Charles’ law. + Materials required : The apparatus for the study of variation of volume with temperature atconstant _ Variable Temperature 0 pressure. Jacket + Procedure : A gas with certain volume is added or removed and temperature changes were noted each z time. © Observation : By changing the volume of the gas in the piston it was found that their is also fluctuation ee in temperature. When volume is lowered, temperature decreases. Similarly, when volume of a gas is increased its temperature also raises up. ¢ Conclusion : Thus, temperature is directly related to volume. This proves Charle’s la" is 428 | Mole Concept Stoichiometry and Febaviour of Gates ng 30 equnvarion counst | CH"CONCEPT MAP Mole Concept, Stoichiometry and Behaviour of gases { Sloichiomelzy equations iwhich Sonia: seme ‘yumber| [Mass-masi ] [Mass-volume stmt cadly apr Cia = [EMM-GMM] | [GMM-GMV] Mole rati = Volume ratio ‘Atomic mass & gram atomic |_,| mass( x armel '1. Gases contain small particles ‘mass fits atoms: called molecules. with an atom of 2 Their molecules moves ‘C-12 taken as 12. Atomic mass randomly inall directions. a oft ‘expressed in grams Rete of collisions per iscalledGMA. unitvolume. 4. Kineticenergy temperature. Molecular mass & |_,|molecular mass ( 4. Temperature 5, No.of moles Boyl At constant temperature, volume (V) of ga8 is inversely proportional topressure(P), ie. vec} Charle’s Law : At constant Pressure, volume (V) of gas is directly proportional to temperature (7), i.e, VT Avogadro's Law At constant ‘temperature (7) and pressure (P), volume (V) of gas is directly proportional to Aumberof moles(1), constant V, pressure (P) of gas |18 directly proportional to | temperature, ie,,Po Bridge elements : The typical Do You elements of third period are also K called bridge elements as the pee now division between two subgroups A [Ca 2a : and B starts from these elements. Insecond group, Mg acts as a bridge element. The properties of bridge elements ‘are somewhat mixed properties of the { elements of two subgroups as magnesium shows Ra resemblance with alkaline earth metals on one hand and with zine metal on the other. Group A, © Description of Groups The salient features of groups are : = There are 18 vertical columns in the periodic table which constitute 18 groups or fa groups are numbered as 1, 2, 3, .. upto 18. All the members of a particular group hav ‘outer shell electronic configuration. — The elements of groups, 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 are known as normal or representa elements. 3 = group 18, outermost energy levels (valence shell) are partially filled or comple ~The elements of groups 1 and 2 have outer shell configuration as ns! and ns?, respect whereas those of groups 12, 14, 15, 16,17, 18 possess ns2np!, ns?np?, ns configuration of valence shell, respectively. ~ Theelements of groups 3, 4,5, 6,7, 8,9, 10, 11 and 12 possess ns! or ns? (ns also in some iP, ns?np, nsenp?, ns(Ac: at no. 89, group 3) which are placed at the bottom of the main table are knowhy as janthanoids and actinoids, respectively. In these atoms last electron Penters (n - 2)f sub-shell and the electronic configuration for valence sub-shell is ee on 1) (0-29 {gome of the groups present in periodic table and there members are tab\ lated below : 7 | Name Element ad Alkali metals Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs Fr Coinage metals | cu Ag Au Alkaline earth metals Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra N, P, As, Sb, Bi Halogen (salt formers) ;, Cl, Br, I, At He, Ne, As, Kr, Xe, Rn | Noble gases (inert gases or rare gases) It is not necessary for all the elements in a particular group to have similar electronic configuration. e.g., in the following, groups, exceptions are noticed. 6 7 8 9 10 Cr osMn oe Cg Ni 354s! -3d°4s?—Sd%4s?_— S745? Sd ts? Mo — ge =~ Ru ggRH—ggP 4d55s!Ad'5s? 475s! Ad®5s!_— 4ad1959° Bd? S565? Sd56s*—Sd’6s* Sd?! features of periods are = sven horizontal rows of the periodic table are known as periods. h period begins with the outermost electron entering into a new principal quantum number d completes after the outermost shell (p-subshell) is complete. ‘number of period denotes the number of outermost shell of that element. first element of each period (except I period) is an alkali metal and the last element is an very short period 2 elements i 8 elements 18 elements. very long period 32 elements very long period _19 elements (incomplete)elements which donot include lanthanum and a To avoid the inconvenience, 14 7 to 6th and 7th period are placed in two separate rows at the bottom of periodic tap), as lanthanoids and actinoids respectively). atures are tabulated below Period | Elements 1H and ,He sLito ;Ne [Na to ;sAr [Kt a¢kr a7Rb to 5,Xe 55C5 to ggRn a7Fr to contd. To study the electronic configuration of different elements of group 1 of modern periodic table ‘* Look at the group 1 of the Modern Periodic Table, and name the elements present in it. * Write down the electronic configuration of the first three elements of group 1 © What similarity do you find in their electronic configurations? * How many valence electrons are present in these three elements? ‘+ Discussion — Thenames of the elements present in group I of the periodic table are Hydrogen (H), Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Rubidium (Rb), Cesium (Cs) and Francium (Fr) - iH 1 Liege Na 2,81 Ko aosaee (Li, Na, K actually belong to first group). — They have same number of electrons in outermost shell. —_ One electron is present in valence shell of each element. « Advantages of the Long Form of Periodic Table — The table is based on a more fundamental property ie, atomic number. = It correlates the position of elements with their electronic configuration more clearly ~ The completion of each period is more logical. In a period as the atomic number increases energy shells are gradually filled up until an inert gas configuration is reached — Iteliminates the even and odd series of IV, V and VI periods of Mendeleef’s periodic — The position of group 0 is also justified in this table as group 18. All the transition elem=® have been brought in the middle as the properties of transition elements are intermedi* between s- and p-block elements. ~ _Dueto separation of twosubgroups, dissimilar elements do not fall together. One vertical accommodates elements with same electronic configuration thereby showing same POP" ~The table completely separates metals and non-metals. Non-metals are present in UP corner of the periodic table, lassthe a Periodic of Element cn 346 | I Of eS ees CLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE!F sere isa gradual change in properties of the elements with increase in - Bee pesorictyy Of properties can be casily visualised. The san ms ase in th we 8, 18, 18 and 32 elements which indicates the capa Ps re test advantage of this periodic table is that this can be of vario and block elements. ° ‘arrangement of elements is easy to remember and lies of the Long Form of Periodic Table ‘ riodic table has remove eg a Brace his recy id all anomalies of the Mendeleef’s periodic table except ~ {anthanoids and actinoids still find place in the bottom of the table = edocs not reflect the exact distribution of electrons among all the orbitals of the atoms of all the elements. > s7Laand goAcare d-block elements and should not be treated as po You lanthanoid and actinoid respectively but due to close resemblance in their properties with f-block elements, they are Know studied with them. periods of the table divided into four blocks namely reproduce electronic configuration of elements of second , anal VITY period of modern periodic table i A ts) a 148 ok at the long form of the Periodic ‘will find that the elements Li, [ Elements of | Electronic configuration N, O, F, and Ne are present in second period K L period. Write down their Li 2 1 configuration Be 2 2 | elements also contain the same B 2 3 | ence electrons? c 2 4 | the same number of N 2 5 | ° 2 6 | ¥. ys Zz | elements do not contain same ‘Ne 2 8 | ectrons in their valence shells. | Il these elements contain two shells. Cd is the expected mass of Na? Soln.: Atomic mass of sodium will be mean mass of the lithium and potassium. | | | 7439 2 easy 2 ‘Atomic mass of Na =o Explain law of octaves with example- | Sotn. When the elementsare arranged inthe onde |ofinereasing atomic mass, the properties of ei8hP [element (starting from a given element) are IM | repetition of the properties of first element: 68: lwe start from lithium (Li), then the seventh |element is sodium (Na) and further seventh | element is (K). The above elements have similar | chemical and physical properties. Similarly, Beand Mg, Band Al, Cand Si ete, have similar chemical and physical properties. H, Li, Be B, GC N/O F, Na, Mg Al, Si PB, S @ What was the position of isotopes in Determination of Group and Period if Atom! 8, 12, 17, 19, 24, 27, 30, 34 Select cases under investigations; say » Locate Period Mendeleef’s periodic table? Soln.; Mendeleef's original pericgic, not explain the position of isoto,, 7. ‘able are the atoms of the same clemeny different atomic masses. Therefore, = to Mendeleef’s classification those «hy placed at different places depending yp! atomic masses. For example, hydrogen;, with atomicmasses 1,2 and 3 should 4. at three places. However isotopeshave ngs given separate placesin the periodictabjep of their similar properties. ate leo ic Number is given Write electronic configuration of each element for which at. no. is given. The no. of outermost, suggests the period to which it belong in periodic table. In other words the number of y given in electronic configuration (ris) suggest the period for that atom 8 s?, 2s%2pt II period 17: 2s?2p8, 3s*3p> II period 19 : 1st, 2522p, 3523p, ds! IV period 24 : 15%, 2st2p8, 35%3p°3d8, 4s! IV period 30 : 132, 2s2p6, 3s 3p63a0, 4s? IV period «Locate their Block and Group Group can be located after knowing block of an element as : ~ for s-block elements, gP. no. = No. of s-electrons in valence shell. ~ for p-block elements, gp. no. = No. of s-electrons + p-electrons in valence shell + 10 — for d-block elements, gp. no. = No. of (n ~ 1)d electrons + ns electrons (a) s-Block : ns! or ns* configuration represents s-block elements. ns! in I group. At-no. 11 ...3s! ns? in II group group 1 (s-block) At. no. 12... 3? group 2 (s-block) (b) p-Block : ns*np'~° represents p-block elements ( + p) electrons + 10 stp! nstnp? nstap> ns?nps ns?np5 snaps 348 | Periodic Classification of Elements. cuss 10 rounnarion covrst! 13 4 15 16 17 18 oo aa Reh 7 omic a p-block : fae group 15 36 group 17 F p-block ens!2(n — 1)p5(n — 1)d1-10 ¢, group 18 eine: 12°70 — DIE ~ 13” contiguration represen mupnumber (A)= [Number of ee ts d-block elements. trons in outer s| ell + Number of electrons in penultimate Atomic number Electronic configurato, sercete 21 Bee ee Group Sp® 3d! 4s 22 382 3p6 342 4e2 a 3s? 3p6 303 4s 24 +. 3s? 3p6 345 4st 25 - 382 3p 345 452 26 ws 35? 3p 346 gs? ee 3:? 3p 3a? 452 28 3s? 3p 38 42 29 3s? 3p6 310 got ‘ 30 3p 300 452 ‘Atomic No. 24 ... 3s*3p6 348, 4s! ‘@) fblock (i) Elements with at. no. 58 to 71 are placed with atomic number 57 in VI period and gp. 3. (ii) Elements with at. no. 90 to 103 are placed with atomic number 89 in VII period and gp. 3. to (10 +7) = 17 group. For F: As there are four shells in F, therefore, it belongs to fourth period. ‘As there are 7 electrons in valence shell, it belongs to (10 + 7) = 17 group. @ Give the name and symbol for the element that occupies each of the following positions in the periodic table. (i) Period 2, group 16 (ii) Period 4, group 2 (iii) Period 1, group 1 (iv) Period 4, group 18 (v) Period 3, group 17 Soln.: (i) Oxygen-@ (i) Calcium - Ca (ii) Hydrogen - H_ (iv) Krypton - Kr (v) Chlorine -Cl© The table given below shows the mass | i its | number and numberof neutronsin fourelemen | P,Q Rand s. | [Element | [Mass num | [Number of neutrons ce | (@) Write down the atomic numbers of P,Q, R oT a re ‘i 7 ag -14) | and s. - oup - 18) | Gip Write down electronic configuration of P, R-1 (group -1) | $-10+7=17 (group - 17 Rand S. ; | fe To which group P, Q, Rand S belong? (ivP - ee : : i ‘ich period P, Q, R and $ belong? Q- Period - to Nach cnn theaborecementsis able R- Period - 3 an alkali metal and a halogen? pane (v) Qis a noble gas, R is an alkay; Soln.: (i) Atomic numbers P-6, Q-10, R-1, S-17 a halogen. : Be | (v) Which amongst the above: eet Metal, ¢ Position of Metals and Non-metals in Periodic Table 'All the elements on the left side and in the middle of the periodic table (except metallic elements or metals. Also, majority of elements in periodic table are met elements ar® metals; all d-block elements and flock elements are also metals along wis, the p-block elements. ie, roughly three quarter of the elements are metals. The metal ares from the non-metallic elements or non-metals by a diagonal step like line that runs from by, to astatine (At). Note that hydrogen, although on the left side of the periodic table is Some non-metals are gases, someare liquids and rest are solids at room temperature. They gg differ from metals in appearance and in other physical properties. Some elements that lz, the line that separates metals from non-metals, have properties that fall between those om, and non-metals. These elements are often regarded to as semi-metals or metalloids eg 3,5,¢ As, Sb, Te and At. «Important Characteristics of Metals — Metals possess a characteristic lustre. — Metals show good electrical and thermal conductivity. — Metals are malleable (transformed into thin sheets) and ductile (drawn into wire. = Most metals are solid at room temperature except mercury (melting point - 39°C) liquid, Cs (m-pt. 28.4°C) and Ga(m.pt. 29.8°C) are liquid above 30°C. Metals on reaction with non-metals loge electron and form cation MM" + ne — Most metals from ionic compounds. — Almost all the metal oxides are basic, but zinc oxide and aluminium oxide are amphit#* « Important Characteristic of Non-metals ~ Non-metals vary greatly in appearance. ~ They are not lustrous and are generally poor conductor of heat and electricity. =, - Themelting points of non-metals are generally lower than those of metals. Howeve" (an allotropic form of carbon) has a high melting point (3570°C). All Princ Coie nates 0 i et cass 40 rounparion cOUtSmetals under ordinary conditions xi lecules (Hz, Nz, O2 ® ; ist as diatomic mol (Fl, Nz Or Fe le solid) 7 ud like diamond and soft like sulphur ). The remaining non-metals are solids that can i react with metals and gain electrons to form anions, At+ne—, Ay : ds in Metallic Character in Periodic Table ‘metallic character increases down the group and decreases along the period. ‘non-metallic character decreases down the group and increases along the period. #Alll the non-metals and metalloids belong to p-block (except H and He). is in Properties of the properties of elements after certain intervals when the elements are arranged #f increasing atomic numbers is known as periodicity. The cause of periodicity in the of elements is due to repetition of similar outer shell electronic configuration after each The periodic table evolved largely as a result of experimental observations. ent or distribution of electrons in various energy levels in an atom is referred structure or electronic configuration.” configuration changes periodically when elements are arranged in order of increasing ber and this periodic change in electronic configuration is responsible for periodicity referred as periodic properties. the above finding, let us consider the electronic configuration for some groups. Name Electronic configuration of valence shell Alkali metals ns! Alkaline earth metals ns a =) echt? Boron family ns), Carbon family nse mp a ns, np? Sear ns, np! Baie ns?, np® ‘Noble gases 3 ms ae iaValence Electrons and Valency Valency is defined as the combining capacity of an element. It depends upon, electrons present in the outermost shell or valence electrons. Mi * Variation of Valency in a Period On moving from left to right in a period the number of valence electrons incre... valency increases from 1-4 and then decreases from 4-0. For example. 2 9 4 15 16 17 18 1 2ndperiod [Li] Be] B | ©} N] O| F |Ne 3 tion |281]282|283]2.84128,5|28,6]2,8,72.8.8 elements {es pei 7) 8 oie Electronic configuration |21|22|23|%4|25|26|27|28 Valence ae 1 eS a Valency ol oshe |) A 3rd period | Nal Mg] Al] si | P| s [a [a: elements M1 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 Electronic 12.8.4) 4 4 Cit Ag ACTIVITY Xi)valency in a Group ‘ents in a group have same number of valence electrons. Therefore valency of all min a group is fixed or same. eg. all elements of group 1 have valency 1 while all ve taken as the distance between the centre of the nucleus and the outermost shell of definition, atom is considered as spherical object with definite boundaries, but according nmechanical concept, atom does not have sharp boundaries. So in such concept it W ould ir to define the atomic radii of an isolated gaseous atom because inot possible to locate exact position of electrons in an atom as an orbital has no sharp ly possible to isolate the individual atom for determination of its atomic radii atom is highly unstable and reactive except for noble gases. : bility distribution of electrons (basis of concept of orbital) in an atom is in! ence of other atoms. Thus size of an atom will be different when its environment changes is difficult to determine exact magnitude of atomic radii. pts have been proposed for defining atomic radii depending upon their experimental s and nature of atom. These are : fluenced is the term which is generally used for defining radius in case of non-metal. as 1e distance between two successive nuclei of two covalently bonded atoms in a only be used if the bond between both atoms is purely covalent. $ x Internuclear distance between two alike covalently bonded atoms (d).. 2 covalent radius: are just touching one another. radius of the internuclear distance between the nuclei of two non bonded adjacent ing to the molecules having identical atoms in solid state. “internuclear distance between the two non-bonded adjacent Clatoms in two Cly Half of this intemuclear distance i, 1.8 Ais the van der Waals radius of chlorine Proc crass tcation of Erements\ 353js always smaller than its van der Wa, ‘g.covalent bond and, therefore, i 2 it atom. The covalent radius of an one pecause atoms come close together between them is decreased: of chlorine ‘yan der Waals radios Covalent radius of Cl atom = 099 A Van der Waals radius of Cl atom = 1.80 A ¢ Crystal Radius or Metallic Radius eat radius is the term which is generally used for defining radius in case of covalent radius can not be used for metal atoms 25 they are bonded by metallic bo for 2x Crystal radius tis defined as “half ofthe distance between two successive nuclei of two adjacent me in the closely packed crystal lattice”. Motals are known to form covalent bonds in some hydrides or organo-metallic compa metallic covalent radii of metals determined from hydrides or organo-metallics isa than its metallic radii because metallic bonds are comparatively weaker In case of crystals of noble gases also metallic radius is used to express the atomic called crystal radius. « Ionic Radius Itis equal to the distance between the centre of the nucleus of the ion and its outermost The radius of cations and anions present in the crystals of ionic compounds such as NC. Nal, KI etc. is determined by X-ray study. Radius of cation : The radius of cation is always smaller than its neutral atom Na > Nat Mg > Radius (A) th by: 095 1.36 0.65 Electronic Configuration: 2, 8, 1 28 2,82 28 Explanation : ee a cation is formed, usually outermost shell of electrons disappears or become electron(s). The number of filled shells in Na and Na® are 3 and 2 respec Ni —— Biers +e 4K aatia Bau 354 | Periodic Classi cation ‘of Elearents en sei ccuass 10 FOUNDATION OMin Fe atom and Fe** ion are 4 and 3 respectivel y. ns are given out, the effective nuclear charge of the Cation is increased. The electrons sed. Thee orbit are attracted towards the m a uch radius of cation decreases, cleus by greater force. Due to this increase s have same number of electrons, is smaller in size. then cation having greater number of protons 10 Re Me > aye 10 10 , Smaller is its ionic radius. ons : 26 charge (Z.«) is greatest in Fe?*, Therefore, its ionic radius is smallest. Due to uuclear charge, electrons of the outermost orbit are attracted towards the nucleus Similarly radius decreases in the following order ->Sn*, Au> Au* > Au* + Radius of anion is always greater than its neutral atom. ms > OR eo > 0 1.36 0.72 140 074 ‘one or more electrons are taken up by an atom, effective nuclear charge (Ze) ) increased repulsion. Electrons of the outermost orbit are now attracted towards force. Hence, radius of anion increases. have same number of electrons, then the anion having greater number of aller in size. The radius of the anions decreases in the order. Ne > O > F 10 10 10 7 8 9 jions having same number of electrons effective nuclear charge is highest for the greatest number of protons. Greater effective nuclear charge results in greater s the nucleus and therefore radius of the ion decreases. five charge on the atom of a given element, greater is its radius ie., me > O > O 10 9 8 8 e atoms and ions contain same number of electrons, the ion greatest number of protons has highest effective nuclear ge and is, therefore, smallest in size. atoms and ions have same number of protons, the ion smallest number of electrons has highest effective nuclear e and is, therefore, smallest in size.‘Arrange the ions Ca®, CI" and $* in the decreasing order of their ionic radius. Soln.: sh > cl > Ca Numberofelecrons : 18 18 18 Namberofpromns : 16° 17° 30 [All the ions contain same number of electrons: Ca?* ion contains greatest number of protons. Effective nuclear charge is highest in Ca*” and therefore, its radius is smallest. Effective nuclear charge is lowest in S* and therefore, its radius is longest. D Arrange the ions Na‘, O% and Fin the decreasing order of their ionic radius. Soln.: O® > Fo > Nav Numberofelectrons: 10 1010 Numberof protons : 8 9 1 All the ions contain same number of electrons. Due to the presence of greatest number of protons in Na*, its effective nuclear charge (Z.) is highest © Variation of Atomic Radii effective nuclear charge increases. — Along group : On moving down in a group, atomic radii increases, because number o increases, [Atomic radiua/pm Atomic radius across a period « Factors Affecting Atomic Radii ‘Along period : On moving from left to right along a period. Atomic radii decreases bra and, therefore, its radius is smallest, q2. smallest number of protons. Its effectiyg charge is lowest and therefore, its ionic rautle largest. i Greater is ratio of Z/e, smaller is the r US ig radius, ion. Beet Z=number of protons, ¢ = number of ejeg rns Bp Arrange 1 and I in the decreasing on of their atomic radius. a Soln.: T> 1 Number ofelectrons : 54 53s» Numberofprotons :53 53 55 Effective nuclear charge is lowest in I- which results in larger atomic size. Effective nucjeay charge is highest in I* and it is smallest in size 300: 250) 200 150: 100 ‘Atomic raiusipm 0 10 20 30 40 50 Atomic number ‘Atomic radius in a group orce betwee _ Effective nuclear charge: As the effective nuclear charge increases the attractive ! rnucleus and valence electron increases. So size of atom decreases, that is why on movi"8 to right along a period atomic radii decreases thus, Atomic radii = 5 ‘ff. . — Size of valence shell : Atomic radius is a measure of radius of valence she 1 (principal quantum no. increases for an orbit, atomic radius increases, ha down in a group, atomic radii increases. ell, As the valve tis why on mo" wen Periodic Classification of Element o 356) ition of | iis CLASS 10 FOUNDATION couRsELi Na K Rb Cs ‘ a aps 2.03 2.16 2.35 pond : Covalent radii decrea: pli ‘ses as the multiplicity of bond increases. For 0.77 0.67 0.60 character in bond Increase in % ionic character leads in shorting of bond and atomic radii. zs ° a ae oe on lesser than its parent atom and greater is the Fe > Fe* > Fe® > Fe ; decreasing ionic radii cation involves loss of electrons, thus effective nuclear charge increases and so s are more tightly pulled towards nucleus, ¢g., Li Na kK RB Cs Mg” AL 1.23 157 203 216 «2350 «1361.25 it Nat KY ORDY Cs) Mg® AR 0.60 0.98 1.33 148 1.67 0.65 0.50 of anion : Size of an anion is always larger than its parent atom. Formation of anion ofelectrons by an atom and so effective nuclear charge decreases. So now valence are less tightly held by nucleus. radii of some atoms are given below : ; a Br 1 ° N A) O64 (099° 114133, 073075 F fcr Bro ONE 1.33 181 1.96 2.19 140 171 jber of electrons added in anion formation, larger is its size. ic ions decreases with increase in atomic number. >O* > F-> Na* > Mg” > AP* electrons in its shell whereas the number of proton in the nucleus increases table). Thus, an increase in atomic number in isoelectronic ions brings an nuclear charge to show a decrease in ionic radius. F Na’ | as) - wo | 10 10 ; 9 | ou 12 13 133 | 098 | 0.65 0.50 Ne is also isoelectronic to above given atoms but its sis 1.60 A. It should not be compared to other ionic noble gases do not form ionic compounds and iii are simply van der Waal’s radii. end of period, atomic radii of inert gases are ‘do not form molecule and their radii are simply van Periodic Classification of Elements | 357jallic characte! ues nena ae aa 1, 2, or 3 electrons in their ape shells an, a strong tendency to lose electrons to form positive ions. Therefore, metals Jectropositive elements and the metallic character is also called electroposiy, Nom-metals, on the other hand, generally have 4 to 8 electrons in their respe, shells and thus havea oo idakdean There are also called electronegative element 2 character. * Variation in a Period As we move across a period, the number of valence electrons increases from | t. 7 the effective nuclear charge acting on the valence electrons increases and hen, of the element to lose electrons decreases. Conversely, as the effective nuclear ¢ the tendency of the element to gain electrons increases. Thus, on moving fro; th are a), ive ctive fore, no, delectns or s atexy Ce the tenga harge inca’ i ™ left ty a period, the metallic character decreases while the non-metallic character increases. f.B Second period elements Li Be BC N OF Metals Non-metals Metallic character decreases Nature of elements lon-metallic. acter increases Thus, in the second period, lithium is the most metallic element followed by ty non-metallic character starts with boron and keeps on increasing. Thus, fluor | non-metallic element of the second period. | The change from metallic to non-metallic character is more striking among the third period as shown below : eryllium, 7 “| Ne is the may elements of The period elements Na Mg Al Si Psa Metals Metalloid Non-metals Metallic character decreases Nature of elements. 0S Fer intienzee In the third period, sodium, magnesium and aluminium are metals. The properties of sie arein between those of metals and non-metals. Therefore, silicon isa metalloid. The nevtsles phosphorus, sulphurand chlorine are non-metals. In other words, metallic character ccna from sodium to magnesium to aluminium; silicon is a metalloid while the non-metallic increases from phosphorus to chlorine. Thus, among the elements of the (Na) is the most metallic element while chlorine (Cl) is the most non-metall the most metallic elements lie on the extreme left hand side while most 1 on the extreme right hand side of any period. ¢ Variation in a Group - On moving down in a group, the metallic character or electropositive character increases For example, when we move down alkali metals of group 1 of the periodic table, the metal character increases from lithium to francium. Thus, in group 1, lithium is the least me element while francium is the most metallic element. third perio iic element. In geneal non-metallic elements Least metallic element K Metallic character or Rb electropositive character Cs increasing on moving down the group ir Most metallic element 388 | Periodic Classification of Elements, ast To cuss 10 rounvarion courst |jown a group, the non-metallic char apie when we move down halogens of 8toup 17 of th aracter decreases from fluorine (F) to astatine e non-metallic element while astatine acte; elect / eT Or elect ronegative character decreases. Periodic table, the non- wat (At). Thus, in group 17, fluorine 8 the least non-metallic el at a iement, jement Non-Metallic character | F Most non-metallic element 1 ; a Non-metallic character or ' elec tronegative character decreases on Bi moving down the group Least non-metallic element form of periodic table, the elements have been broadly divided into metals and by a zig-zag line running diagonally across the periodic table. The elements on of the line are metals and those which lie on the right hand side are non-metals jie along the border of this line. : ber of shells increases on moving down the group the hold of the nucleus on electron decreases, hence the tendency of an atom to lose electrons increases e to increase in electropositive or metallic character down the group. e jod number of shells remain same but nuclear charge increases, the force of on between the nucleus and valence electrons increases. Therefore the tendency to s decreases, resulting in decrease of metallic character along the period. and non-metals in | ACTIVITY otis etey i TS ic table do you find the metals? lic table do you find the non-metals? period can be classified as follows Na Mg Al erent Metals. left-hand side of the periodic table. t-hand side of the periodic table. n of electropositive character in groups and periods to lose electrons will change in a group? Si P S$ Cl Ar Brae fe Metalloid — Non-metals atomic size gradually increases. As aresult the force of attraction ns decreases resulting in increase in the tendency to e electro tropositive ions. it in a period, the nuclear charge increases, the force of attraction valence electrons increases resulting in decrease in tendency to loseae To study the varia periods and groups ‘© How would the tendency to go from left to right in @ period? «How would the tendency to gain el Discussion ~ Ina period from left to right, th increases due to increase in ~ Ina group due to increase In size of atom, electron decreases hence ® ‘Onwhat basis an element can be classified as a metal or a non-metal? Soln.: The metallic character of an element is due to their tendency to release electrons. By losing electrons, metal atoms change to positive ions or cations. Hence metals are electropositive in nature. M-e 3M Non-metallic character of an element is due to their electron accepting tendency. By accepting, electrons, non-metal atoms change to negative ions. Hence non-metals are electronegative in nature. E+e +E lonisation Enthalpy The term ioni electrons from an isolated gaseous atom. The term is generally used as energy required to remove an electron from the subshell) of an isolated gaseous atom. Term isolated gaseous atom refers for the without any bonding with other atoms. It is represented by I.E. The ionisation energy required to remove firstelectron from neutral atom is termed energy (I.E.).Similarly energy required toremove second and third electrons ionisation energy (I.E) and third ionisation energy (I.E.3) respectively. The removal of second electron is relatively more difficult because after removal of fir remaining electrons in the cation are more effectively pulled by the nucleus due nuclear charge, thus Mg — Mite AH=LE, Mi —> Mp +e” AH=LE2 Mey — Me te AH=LE.5 and LE3>LE2>LE, ‘Periodic Classification of Elements. rc 360) CLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURS tion of electronegative chara gain electrons change as we rectrons change as we go down the group e nuclear charge increases, the tendency to gain force of attraction f force of attraction of the nucleus for the tendency to gain electrons decreases. a mn enthalpy (or energy) of an atom means the energy required to remove \cters in ‘or the incoming electron, Tons the incon BD explain the change from metalic metallic character among the elements o¢, period. Soln.: Third period contains the folloy,, elements Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl = In this period sodium, magnesium ang aluminium are metals. The properties of si are in between those of metals a) Therefore silicon is a metalloid. Ph sulphur and chlorine are non-mets can say metallic character decreases from so to chlorine. sm 5. | 008values: id = are endoergic and are often expressed in kcal atom or kJ/g. atom of 06 keal/mol = 96.3 kJ/mol t specified then take it as IE. mn potential is also used here, which represents the potential difference (in volts) required gaseous atom. It is expressed in eViatom, derived from Born Haber Cycle. lonisation Enthalpy ds upon the force of attraction between. nuclei and electron which is removed. charge : More is the effective nuclear charge more is the attraction between and so more energy will be required for its removal. Thus LE. e Zug. 20 40 Atomic number (Z) 50 «60 ‘Variation of first ionisation enthalpies with atomic number for elements with Z=1 to 60 + As the size of atom increases the nuclear attraction force on valence electron in larger atoms less energy is required to remove valence electron i.e., lower I.E. which electron is removed : For a given shell, more a subshell is near to the ‘tightly the electrons are held by the nucleus. So LE. will be in the following : s>p>d>f iven shell more energy will be required if electron is removed from s-subshell and ved from f-subshell that is why I.E., of B (1s? 2s? 2p!) < LE., of Be (1s? 2s2). tion : Half filled or completely filled electronic configurations are more filled configuration requires more .E. than a normal case. ¢.g., 2p) > LE.; of O (1s? 2s? 2p*) tion enthalpy, I.E. of © > LE. of N because in nitrogen second electron is configuration, but in case of oxygen second electron is derived from more from completely filled configuration requires much more LE. than anormal or screening effect : It is evident that more is the shielding effect, lesser is the charge and lesser is the ionisation energy: Periodic Cassitication of Elements | 361sonication energy increases as WE MOVE from left to ri, ~ Along period: Genel Wn atomic number in a period effecve nuclear hare period, because with increase Netge and so electrons are more tightly held. eer c oN Ne Tisenbenity 8 1742 21.56 meer 54 93 |62) 112 1454 [13.64 LE te é i LE. values of I period However a number of exceptions are known which are discussed below and can be expaings ‘on the basis of electronic configuration. s (1) On moving from 2-> 13 and 15-916 in 24, 3" and 4" period : Exceptions in Periodicity of LE. (in eV) Period Se 7 g B(8.3) N(14.5) — 0(13.6) ee, - SEE pe OP | a 2Mg76) > ,AN(6.0) Paos 3¢ 3373p" 3523p? # | Cai61) 5,660) A598) > seo. PERG Ay 3d'"/4s? Ap! 3d" 45?,4p? 34° 432,4p¢ Explanation: @ In elements of gp. 2, valence electron is Present in ns-subshell, which is more tightly held than valence electron in atom of gp. 13 in which itis present in np-subshell, energy ns > np. (@) in ements of 15, the -subshell is half filled (np) while in 16 itis incompletely fled (1 Half filled subshell is more stable and so more energy is required to remove electron fm it. Note It is observed that the difference in IE values in above cases decreases from 2° to 4% pris Mest Probab itis dito shielding eft electrons which ae absent in 2"! and 3" pred ons play some role. . a of prabstis P10) > AB (Group 11): This exception can be explained onthe as ionisation - r crews CLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE |is present in 4d-subshel] ‘ore energy). So 5s-elec 12413 in 5" and 6th (closer to nuclei, tron is removed easil bse energy) while in Ag ly. tl 4f'*,5d!° 632, 6p! tion :In Cd and n - Hg Pe cee we Present in 5s and 6s subshell respectively pletely filled, while in In and Tl electrons are present in 5p and n ee in a group, valence shell become far away from the nucleus and Is test electron decreases which results in decrease in ionisation 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Atomicnumber LE. Values of Group-1 ¥y and Stable Oxidation States of Elements ce in two successive I.E. values (AI.E.) for an atom is approximately 10 - 15 eV her ox. state will be more stable. 60eV, LE: = 188 eV, BAeV and LE4~120eV. "ALE, 2) 128 eV, AMI), ALEq 3)=9.6eV, AMI), ALE.5,4)= 91.6 eV, 1ore stable than Al(II) or AI(IV). Eis greater than 16,0 eV, then lower ox. state will be more stable e.g, 1 eV, LE = 473 eV. 4eV d and not Na (II). value of LE. while Cs has lowest. gases are exceptionally high due to stable configuration. Mee Ne Ar Kr Xe = Rn iis 216 4158 140 121 10.7 periodic Classification of Elements | 362 —————eee @ select in cach pair, the one having lower ee | See ee ae . @ Gateuate the amount of energy re al sodium ion. Ionisation ener: } sees (® BeandB nk : : OMETBY of Na age £LE, =5.1 eV atom ~ 5.1 « 953 | sotn: (a) F (Lower effective nuclear charge) Sol yeaa 63 HY mop | ©) K (Lower effective nuclear charge) (6: 1eV atom = 23.06 keal mot ~ 963 y | © Li (Lower effective nuclear charge) ‘Energy required for five mole. Tats) (@) Ba (Larger size of atom) = 491.13 «5 kJ = 2455.65 ky Se @D catcalate the amount of energy rgucg = Se ae convert7.974g of cesium atomsin the gaseous 4 , foform cesitum ions. LE. of Cs~374 4) mots gy & Arrange in onder of increasing ionisation atomic mass of Cs is 132.9 amu 3 energy : Li, Be, B, Na. Solution : Mole of Cs atom : 7974/132.9 - py convert 5moles of Sodium atom inthe ga.” 250004 (© Liand Li®— @)_Baand Sr Soln: Na 9 enn e 2. The roots are put together in the order of the digits which make up the atomic nu" terminated by ‘ium’ to spell out the name. The final ‘n’ of ‘enn is removed when it occu ‘nil’ and the final ‘i of ‘bi’ and of ‘tri’ when these occur before ‘ium’. cen — meee CLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSEMendelevium Nobetium Lowrencium Lr Rutherfordium De Dubnium oe Seaborgium Sg Bohrium Bh Hassium | Hs | Meitnerium a Uun | Dermstadtium Ds Uuu Rontgenium Uub , ed Uut 7 Uuq a 7 | Uup a | Uuh fe r Uus 5 Uuo | a | Uue la Unbinilium = Ubn : names yet to be announced, _b = Elements yet to be discovered. into s, p, d and f-blocks (based on electronic configuration) [study the connection between electronic configuration of elements and periodic tion in a Period indicates the value of principal quantum number (t) for the valence shell, ber of shells present in atom. .g., He (two elements with only one shell) 1s? Ne (8 elements with two shells) ‘Is?, 2s*2p> Ar (8 elements with three shells) etc 1s?, 252p%, 35°3p° inaGroup g to same group have similar general configuration. ¢.g. Periodic Classification of Elements | 3638p: ae 1 (Alkali metals) ns 2. (Alkaline earth metals) oe ie 13. (Boron family) Baath ° We i een aie to understand many of the pet! and physical Prope, elements, An important feature of the long form ofthe periodic table s its division into fout gen if sections known as s, p, d and block elements. This classification is based on the ty wen orbital to which a differentiating (last) electron enters. On the basis of electronic config. elements are frees in four blocks. Pics ies +— 13 to 18—__, a on d-block +3 to 12 >} Period 1to7 woo eon fdlock (lanthanoids) (actinoids) © s-Block Elements (i) Those in which differentiating electron enters into outermost s-subshell (ji). (ii) These have ns! or ns* configuration followed with (n — 1)s*p® or (n — 1)s? in Li and Be, 1. ns! alkali metals or group-1; 2. ns? alkaline earth metals or group-2. ns! elements group 1 re gee eae or [He] 2s! Naar. 5 281 or [Ne] 3s! - Kj 19 8 ey or [Ar] 4s! Rb 37° -2,8, 18,81 or [Kr] 5s! Cs 55 2, 8, 18, 18, 8,1 or [Xe] 6s! Fr 87,2, 8, 18,32, 18,81 or [Rn] 7s! ns? elements group 2 OWE eee or [He] 2s? Mg 12 2,82 or [Ne] 3s? Ca 202.882 or [Ar] 4s? Sr 38 2, 8, 18, 8,2 or [Kr] 5s? Ba 56 2, 8, 18, 18, 8,2 or [Xe] 6s? Ra 88-2, 8, 18,32, 18,82 or [Rn] 752 © p-Block Elements Those in which the differentiating electron enters in p-orbital of outermost shell. This blockin"™* 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 group elements, ‘Periodic Classification of Elements. po 70) of iss 10 rounnarion course |[ata | Tae T A group | 15 group 16 group ary c N 292? . Ar 3973p 3<°3p? 32396 $e, Br kr _| # apt 4s*4p? 434p° Sb ere elt eae 585 i$ Pst stigt | stat * Po At Rn 656p° 6576p! 6s%6p? 65%6p* ofs+lelectron ofp ie, ns? np! electrons of s + 2 electrons of p ie, ns? np? sofs+3electrons of p ie, ns? np? Of s+4electrons ofp ie, ns? npt of s +5 electrons of p ns? np s of s + 6 electrons of p ns? npé differentiating electron enters in (n — t)d orbital. This block has 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12 groups (total 10 groups). z two incomplete outer shells are known as transition elements. fion (nt — 1)s*pSd'-10, ns! t2, ‘between s and p-block elements and are thus known as transition eleménts. plete and one incomplete d-series. d~10, 4s? (21Sc to 3921) d, 454y°4d"19, 5s? (59 to 4gCd) 2 0, sP4yad aft, 5325p%6d!-°, 6s? (72HE to soHg) Ac, soARE, 0sDb. the differentiating electron enters in ( ~ 2)f-orbital. ee incomplete outer shells are known as inner-transition or f-black elements, figuration (n — 2)s*p°d'9f-4, (n - 1)s*p*d?, ns*. of f-block elements corresponding to the filling of 4f and 5f-orbitals. +: The differentiating electron occupies 4f-subshell. i peas, Se5f5A', 6s ‘The differentiating electron occupies 5f-subshell. Bf, 6526p%6d, 75? Periodic cassitcation of tremens | 3114, 6d}, 75? wth: 2 B65, Se 5, 6s%6p*6d!, 75 Jements. The elements from atomic number 93 on ya been made artificially. Seaborg has significany, «**y Nitiby * sob: (iv) The actinoids are radioactive el transuranic elements and have! in the discoveries of these elements. . that last in val b-sh Dita pniteting ie in valence sub- ; Differentiating electron is the electron that enters las tub-shell (ns, np, og ' (n-2)fi, and decides the properties of the atom. Important Characteristics of Elements Some main characteristic features of elements are listed below : (@) s-block elements : = ‘The electronic configuration of outermost shell of s-block elements is 1s! (alkali meta, 1) or ns? (alkaline earth metals; group 2)- s — The valency of group 1 elements is +1 and those of group 2 elements is +2 These are soft metals having low melting points and boiling points. — Most of these form ionic compounds on account of their lower ionisation energy ~ Most of these metals (except Be and Mg) and their salts impart characteristic coloy, flame e.g., sodium imparts a golden yellow colour; potassium imparts violet colour tothe - These are highly reactive elements and are strong reducing agents. — All are good conductors of heat and electricity. (b) p-block elements : = Theelectronic configuration of outermost shell of p-block elements (group 13, 14,15, 16,1724 18) is ns? np'-*, = These elements include metals and non metals with a few metalloids. The metallic charscy however, decreases along the period but increases down the group. = These possess relatively higher ionisation energy which tends to increase along the pei decrease down the group. — Most of them form covalent compounds. ~ Most of these elements show negative (except some metals) as well as positive oxidation sts (except F). ~ The oxidizing power of these elements increases along the period but decreases down thers (© d-Block Elements : ~The electronic configuration of valence sub-shells of d-block elements is (11 ~ 1)" ~ All (except Hg) are hard, ductile metals with high melting points and boiling points ~All of these are good conductors of heat and electricity. ~ Their ionisation energies are higher than s-block elements but lesser than p-block elem ~ Most of the transition metals form coloured ions (Zn”*, - These elements show variable oxidation states, = Most of these elements possess catalytic activity. : = Metals and their ions are generally paramagstetic due to the presence of unpaired e*™ ~ Moa of the transition metal fons possess the tendency to form complex ions by ~ Most ttansitis ye : Hg", Cd? are colourless) ” i 2 008" crass 40 rounparin coves: — 2f4, (n — 1)? ns? 4s rare earth elements where: as transuranic elements foe feslency, (made artificially), ions. outer electron experiences two 0} : posing forces : from nucleus. a from inner electrons. ‘ty Shel! (valence shell (re ‘Shall <— Test electron _Atraction free berwee® Screen which ucleus and. Shield valence which penultimate shell electrons act as screen or shield in between nucleus ectrons and thereby reducing nuclear charge is known as shielding effect. ect valence electron experiences less attraction from the side of nucleus as if ent, Itis also known as screening effect as inner electrons create a protective \sand valence electrons. The penultimate shell electrons also repel the valence te in reducing the attractive forces between valence electrons s way contribut ‘of an atom are unable to experience the total nuclear outermost electrons Both terms are related by ‘tude is reduce to effective nuclear charge (Z*). Z=Z-0 g constant ar charge or nuclear charge actually expe ve nuclear charge is not same for se between electron and nucleus. upon following factors : aie erienced by an electron is termed as effective all the electrons present in an atom and periodic Classification of Elements | 373= More is illed ic. ~ shape of orbitals (subshells) completely filled i atom, Alkali Metals called the alkali metals, because ) NOY tp 1374 | Periodic Classification of Ele 00815 me us c1ass 10 rounparion counst| cleus, more is shielding, subshell, more is shielding subshell present in core of ate shells to the nu ~ Closer ae the pen ina penultimate the number of electrons 1, except hydrogen are 4 Telements are soft silvery grey metaly, yy." lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidiyy, Bro | ing the My ‘The members of Group water to form alkaline so! of the periodic table consists eta hydrogen. They are soft enou i reactive of all metals, reacting readily with water and air. Of all the alkali metals, only sodium and potassium are found in abunclance in nota, are seventh and eighth most abundant elements by weight in earth’s crust jutions. All the grouP of six elements ~ gh tocut with a knife. The alkali met th D Physical Properties = Allthe alkali elements are silvery white solids ‘These are soft in nature and! can be cut yp help of knife except lithium. Thesilvery lustre of alkali metalsis due tothe Pre lattice. — Melting and boiling points : The energy bind ‘on account of a single electron in the valence shell. Consequently td sence of highly mobile electrons oft mea ing the atoms in the crystal latices fy hed metals is relatively low trctal have low melting and boiling points, These decrease in moving coven from Ly metallic bond strength due to decreases in cohesive forces. ‘i = Conductivity : The alkali metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. This is duetong presence of loosely held valence electrons which are free to move throughout the metal ty - Specific heats : The specific heat values decrease from Li to Cs. {Flame colouration : The alkali metals and their salts impart a characteristic colour to fang Li Na K Rb Cs ‘Crimson rod Gollen yellowe Pale violet Red violet Violet ‘Chemical Properties = They have low values of ionisation energies and readily lose their valence electrons to form ion. = Reactivity towards air : All alkali metals react directly with most nonmetals (other than noble gases). However, only lithium react with nitrogen, which it reduces to the nitride 6Ligg + Nag 24 2LisNo — Reactivity towards water : Alkali metals decompose water with the evolution of hydrogen 2M + 2H;0 —> 2MOH +H? val ae eae NRO water slowly. Sodium reacts with water quickly. K, Rb and Cs rext wi water vigorously. The reactivity towards water increases from Li to Cs. This is due st of electropositive character in the same order. — Reactivity towards hydrogen : The alkali me : tals combine di vith hydrogen t0 DL Eu BALE ES. combine directly with hydrogen (0 2M + H,—> 2MH The hydrides react with water liberating hydrogen MH + H;0 —> MOH +H, : ~ Reactivity towards, pista ‘oxygen oxides and hydroxides): Affinity towards oxygen increas josphere of oxygen, the alkali “say metals ignite and form oxides.*M,0' react with water to § 2MOH hydroxides increases from Lio} > KOH > NaOH > LioH form hydroxides, H to CsOH, halogens : The alkali : ‘metals directly react with halogens forming the halides vit of alkali metals towards a particular h, : ractviy of halogens towards a particula > Te ‘alogen increases from Li to Cs. On the alkali metal decreases from F; to I; ie., s and bicarbonates : All the alkali metals electropositive character increases from Li to Cs, ‘same order = : COs > K2CO; > NaxCO; > LiCO, yposes on heating and is insoluble in water. olutions of carbonates are alkaline. This is due tohy i ; . yydrolysis of carbonates produces weak acid (H,CO; carbonic acid), 7 1H,0 == 2MOH +H,CO, Strong alkali Weak acid form carbonates of the type the stability of the carbonates periodic table consists of six elements — beryllium, magnesium, calcium, and radium. These elements are collectively called as alkaline earth metals and as alkaline earth group. These oxides were alkaline in nature and existed in the med alkaline earths. : All the group 2 elements are metals and too reactive, so they cannot occur in state in nature. They are all silvery white metals. They have greyish white reshly cut, but tarnish soon after their exposure in air due to surface oxidation. oiling points : The melting and boiling points of these elements are higher than ‘alkali metals. This is due to the presence of two electrons in the valence shell bonded in the solid state ty : On account of the presence of two loosely bond valence electrons per atom freely throughout the crystal lattice, the alkaline earth metals are good and electricity. The alkaline earth metals have the tendency to lose electrons and change as strong reducing agents. The reducing nature increases as the atomic number and hence do not occur free in nature. ture. Beryllium is not very abundant. ine earth metals are reactive elements calcium are found in abundance in nat and radioactive element. ee periodic Classification of Elements 375fatal f| Carbon and Its Compounds Carbon is a non-metal with atomic number 6. The amount of carbon present in the earth’s crust and atmosphere is very small. In fact, all the living things, plants and animals, are made up of carbon compounds. Alarge number of things which we use in our daily life are made of carbon compounds. Our food materials like grains, pulses, sugar, tea, coffee, fruits and vegetables, etc., are carbon compounds. The materials like cotton, silk, wool, nylon and polyester which are used for making clothes are carbon compounds. The fuels like wood, coal, kerosene, LPG, natural gas, CNG, petrol and diesel which are used for cooking food and running vehicles are carbon compounds. Organic Chemistry In words of old alchemists organic compounds and organic chemistry can be defined as The compounds having organic origin i.e., compounds found in living organisms are known as organic compounds. The branch of chemistry dealing with study of compounds having organic origin i.e, compounds found in living organisms is called organic chemistry. s and various organic In modem days organic compounds are not restricted to living system compounds are known which came from non-living systems. For this reason modem scientists define organic compounds as Compounds made of only carbon and hydrogen (hydrocarbons) and their derivatives. This redefined organic chemistry as The branch of chemistry dealing with the study of hydrocarbons and the compounds which could be thought of as the derivatives of hydrocarbons. + Justification of the Study of Organic Chemistry as a Separate Branch The organic compounds differ markedly from inorganic compounds in composition, structure it is more convenient to study them in a separate branch. The main reasons for the study of organic compounds in a separate branch of chemistry are as follows. = Large Number : The number of organic compounds actually prepared in the laboratory or isolated so far is more than five million and comprise about 90% of all known compounds. ber of compounds in inorganic chemistry would dis-balance it. and behaviour. Therefore, Inclusion of such a large num! ~ Composition : A large majority of organic compounds are built up of only three elements- carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Other elements like halogens, nitrogen, phosphorus etc, are also present but to a very small extent. On the other hand, inorganic compounds are formed from any of 107 elements known. ~ Complexity of molecules : Although or; they possess complex structures and sometimes and possess low molecular weights. properties of organic compounds are decided ganic compounds are made up of only a few elements, possess very high molecular weights. Inorganic compounds are relatively simple ~ Properties decided by functional groups : The mis 2 10 eeNnArOw COURSE jE x_n ES --» by certain active atoms or groups of atoms called functional §r2UPS. No such behay, shown by ‘compounds. inorganic « generally ionic in nature. = ee bos éj pat of rigid and directional covalent bonds, organic bonis exhibit the phenomenon of isomerism in which a single molecular formula represen, : compounds differing in physical and chemical properties. Isomerism is not common ining. compounds. ~ Melting and boiling points : Organic compounds usually possess low meiting ang j.:, points due to their covalent nature and are volatile. On the other hand, inorganic comp, Possess high melting and boiling points and are non volatile. ~ Solubility : The majority of organic compounds are insoluble in water but readily sii, non polar solvents. The inorganic compounds, on the other hand, are readily soluble in. and usually insoluble in non polar solvents. — Combustibility : The organic compounds are combustible whereas inorganic ‘compounds ip usually non combustible. covalent bond. As shared pair is helium atom in valence shell. He +H Seo, sae €QD or H?H or H-H shared Shared pair is under influence a bonding are not available as sed beth tule and therefore electrons participating ® “" lectrons. For this reason Properties of covalent compo ere oot ene E2N85 40 rounosnvon covrst!different from ionic compounds, Single covalent bond is represented by sign (—). Covalent bonds are only known in case of nonmetals. Depending on number of electrons present in valence shell two atoms can form 1, 2 or 3 covalent bonds by sharing 1, 2 or 3 electron pairs between them Example : In chlorine molecule both chlorine atoms contribute one electron and thus share single electron pair to form single covalent bond. As shared pair is shared by both atoms, they acquire inert gas configuration of argon atom in valence shell. Example : In oxygen molecule both oxygen atoms contribute two electrons and thus share two electron pairs to form two covalent bond. As shared pairs are shared by both oxygen atoms, they acquire inert gas configuration of neon atom in valence shell. Such bonds are called double bonds. % 3B SE GOD « be w 0-0 = Example : In nitrogen molecule both nitrogen atoms contribute three electrons and thus share three electron pairs to form three covalent bond. As shared pairs are shared by both nitrogen atoms, they acquire inert gas configuration of neon atom in valence shell. Such bonds are called triple + Covalent compounds exist as single molecules which are mostly in gaseous le, H, Cly, NH, CHy, SO;, ete. are gases at room temperature. However, some .. Br.) and a few may exist as solids (e.g. Iz, Py Sx molecules). ce no ions are present in the covalent molecules, the attractive , these compounds have usually low melting and boilingq = Solubility : We know that ionic compounds are usually water Soluble, Howevey : ‘ h compounds are normally not soluble in water ‘They dissolve in covalent solver tetra-chloride (CC), benzene (CoH) acetone (CHyCOCHs), ete. ike cay ac ‘+ Comparison of Properties of lonic and Covalent Compounds liquids or soft solids. 3. They have low melting and boiling points. 4 They are usually soluble in organic solvents. 5. They are usually insoluble in water. aie “They do not have true molecules, but are aggregates of + ve and ~ ve ions, They are usually crystalline solids, They have usually high melting and boiling points. They are usually insoluble in organic solvents. They are usually soluble in water. ‘Their aqueous solutions are good conductors of electricity. They also conduct electricity in molten state properties. e crystalline and amorphous. Diamonds! third form of crystalline carbm we awarded Nobel prize in 19% by single bonds only. Bach ext e other 4 carbon atoms linked i* Tetrahedral arrangement of atoms in diamond n lireconal covalent bondsare prt if o canss 10 rounoarion cov! osethe lattice. Since diamond exists as three dimensional network solid, itis the hardest substance on earth, Ithas high density and melting point, uses of Diamond Due to its hardness, diamond is used for cutting marble, granite and glass. It is used as an abrasive and for polishing hard surfaces. Diamonds when properly cut brilliant light is refracted from its surface, which makes it precious gems and jewellery. Dies made from diamond are used for drawing wires from the metals. It is used in making special surgical knives. » Structure of Graphite Ingraphite each carbon atom is linked to 3 other carbon atoms by single bonds. The fourth electron oneach carbon atom results in the formation of x-bond. Graphite has sheet like (layered) structure having hexagonal layers. It has two dimensional structure. The hexagonal rings are fused together and are held together by weak van der Waals forces. One layer slides over the other layer which makes graphite soft in touch. It is the reason that graphite is used as lubricant. ‘C—C bond length in graphite is 141.5 pm and the distance between two layers is $40 pm 141.5 pm 2D Structure of graphite * Uses of Graphite - Asa reducing agent in the extraction of metals. ~ In making electrodes for electrolytic cells. = Since graphite cleaves easily between the layers, it is soft and slippery. Therefore, it is used as ‘a dry lubricant in machines running at high temperature. Graphite is also used to moderate the fast moving neutrons in nuclear reactors. Mixed with wax and clay, graphite is used for making cores of lead pencils as it can mark paper black, It is, therefore, often called plumbago or black lead. te crucibles can withstand very high temperature and can be used for high melting«Differences between Diamond and Graphite Graphite 1. Diamond has three dimensional rigid | Graphite has layer structure. The asetie can slip over one another. layers 2. Diamond is hard. It is hardest Graphite is soft and greasy. a substance known. 3. Diamond is a bad conductor of a good conductor of boi —~ electricity but good conductor of heat. electricity and heat 4, Diamond has very high density Graphite is less dense (density =2 >>, > @.514 gem’). than diamond. Bien? [ 5: Dinmondlis a transparent substance, ee ee oe. a * Fullerenes Fullerenes are made by the heating of graphite in an electric arc in the presence of inert gas. 4s helium or argon. The sooty material formed by condensation of vapourised C, small maja., consist of mainly Cjp with smaller quantity of Cand traces of fullerenes consisting of evenniny of carbon atoms upto 3: Fullerenes are the only pure form of carbon because the, Thename Buckminster fullerene was given neh e Faller who designed geodesic dome cient mut of American architect Robert Bu dome structures. + Uses of Fullerenes me Fullerenes in pure state act ‘ . under suitable se but can be converted to semiconductors **° improving ta T and antifriction properties of lubricating eae P different atoms or molecules makes the™ : ee CLASS 10 FOUNDATIONmedical field. For example, radioactive Cy can be use = Fullerenes in small amounts can catalyse the Forms of » Amorphous . eee Carbon black, Ge e ae charcoal are all impure forms of graphite or fullerenes. _ Coke 3 Coal is subjected to destructive distillation for the manufacture of oil gas. Coke is left as residue in the retort. It is a greyish hard solid = Charcoal : It is a black, soft and highly porous Substance, It exists in following forms : (i) wood charcoal, (ii) animal charcoal and (iii) sugar charcoal. @ Wood Charcoal : It is obtained by heating wood in a limited supply of air. (ii) Animal charcoal :Itis also called bone charcoal. Itis obtained by the destructive distillation cof bones. It contains 10 to 20% carbon and rest is calcium phosphate, {ii) Sugar charcoal : I is obtained by the action of cone. H,S0, on sugar. CigH,,0,, 8% 904, 11H,O > Carbon black or lamp black : It is obtained by heating rich hydrocarbons in limited supply of air. cancer as well as in AIDS therapy. Photochemical refining in industry. CH, +0, —H""_4¢4.2H,0 __ Animal charcoal and sugar charcoal are used to remove colouring matter. “+ Uses of Carbon = Graphite fibres embedded in plastic material form high strength, light weight composite. The a tes are used in products such as tennis rackets, fishing rods, aircraft and canoes. ood conductor, graphite is used for electrodes in batteries and industrial electrolysis. les made from graphite are inert to dilute acids and alkalies. ‘highly porous, activated charcoal is used in adsorbing poisonous gases; also used in iters to remove organic contaminators and in air-conditioning systems to control odour. black is used as black pigment in black ink and as filler in automobile tyres. ‘used as a fuel and largely as a reducing agent in metallurgy. ae Ae YC central atom islinked three other atoms by covalent bonds. ) le in which central atom has ten sharing. © Wy are diamonds so hard? Soln.: In diamond each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms by covalent bonds giving rise toa rigid three dimensional network structure. Therefore diamonds are very hard in nature. © Wiite some physical properties of graphite Soins (i) It is a dark grey solid having a metallic lustre. (ii) Ithas a soft greasy touch. It marks the paper his density is 2.25 g cm™, ) Ikis a good conductor of heat and electricity Carbon and Its Compounds | 24% fens t¢y —$<$<—<—$— <— _<_$_ —_<_ee ue to higher C—C bond energy (348 kJ mol), the long chains formed by carbon are stable ‘The tetra covalence of carbon also helps in catenation. Carbon possesses four electrons in its vyalence shell and can form stable covalent bonds by sharing them with other carbon atoms of Forming Multiple Bonds * ue to small size and presence of four valence electrons, a carbon atom can form multiple bonds some other carbon atom as well as with other atoms like oxygen, nitrogen etc. This increases the variety of compounds formed by it and hence the number of compounds is tremendously Pe poe —CaC-C=C— jsomerism * \gomerism is the phenomenon in which certain compound having same molecular formula, can exist in different forms due to different arrangement of atoms in the molecule. ‘Thus, a single molecular formula can represent several compounds. For example, corresponding, jo the formula CsHio, following two structures are possible. HH HH HH H beabede hi a sein) H-C-¢-¢-C-H H-C-C-C-H t T T HH HH H | H (CHACH,CH.CH, Butane) aeexamples of heterocyclic show properties identical to aromatic c nT shin syclic com, mca natie compounds HOCH eee I 1 T ‘e i ses i ne hoy i Oo re HES wet Pyrrale Furan Thiophene Pyridine # ae mers Organic compounds can be represen } RR Formate sit seers aa’, following ways, ~ gven compound. : the atoms and their number present in a molecule of the cu.cr,.cr.cn, (Condensed structural formula), notation only bonds are represented. A single bond is represented. -), double and triple bonds are represented by two (=) and three (w=) parallel at which two lines meet represents carbon atoms and appropriate are guessed on basis of bonds made by carbon, For example, the ‘structural and bond line formulae of berizerie are as follows, H Aka ache.) Sof (Structural formula) (Bond line notation) Carbon ane Its Compormes | 48In general, the word root for different aliphatic compounds is alk. If the primary suffix tobe addeq to it begins with a consonant, the word root used is alka. Suffix It represents any functional group(s) or multiple bond{s) present in organic compound. They ay, of two types : ~ Primary suffix: The suffix used to represent the saturation or unsaturation ic, single, dou, or triple bond between carbon atoms present in the parent chain is called a primary suff, The basic primary suffixes are given in table. Basic Primary Suffixes Saturated (C—C) Bene Unsaturated, having one double bond ( pe Unsaturated, having one triple bond (C nyne [Alleyne Tf the parent carbon chain contains more than one double or triple bonds, their number i, indicated by numerical prefixes such as di (for two), tri (for three), tetra (for four) etc. before suffix. Some examples are illustrated in table. Numerical Prefixes to Primary Suffixes(i Ifthe secondary suffix (including the numerical prefix if any) begins with a consonant, the ¢ terminal ¢’ of the primary suffix is retained while adding secondary suffix to the primary 8 ry suffix. ‘Some examples illustrating the addition of secondary suffix to the primary suffix are pve" in table. Examples Illustrating the Addition of Secondary Suffix to the Primary Suffix % + Terminal ‘¢ of primary suffix has been dropped in the IUPAC name because the secondary suffix begins with a vowel. suitable prefixes before the word root. ‘substituents present in organic compounds and their prefixes are described below. oups : Alkyl groups are formed by the removal of H-atoms from alkanes. Some common ps, their common names and the prefixes used for them in IUPAC name are given CHy-CHy=CH- | n-propyl 1-propyl wer isopropyl] 2-propyl i (CH, -CH, -CH,-CH2- | n-butyl 1-butyl ae CH,-CH,-CH-CH, | sec-butyl 2butyl CHy=CH-CH,- | gouty wd is CH,~CH—CH cH, gts i oH, -~C-CH, (nbarate) earn t ae 2-methyl-2- = propyl ‘an alkane is replaced by halogen atom it forms haloalkane. Halogens Carbon and 1s Compounds | 253* Hydrocarbons Containing Multiple Bonds For the hydrocarbon containing a double bond, primary suffix -ene is used along with fe, Toot. Therefore in IUPAC system, the name of a hydrocarbon with a double bond wll. as alk + ene i.e,, alkene. In other words, the primary suffix ane present in the name f an a is replaced by the primary suffix -ene when it contains a double bond. Similarly, for 4 hydra ~ Containing a triple bond, primary suffix -yne is used along with the word root. Therefore they, name of a hydrocarbon containing a triple bond would be alkyne, Hydrocarbons containing multiple bonds are named using the following sequence First the longest chain containing the carbon atoms involved in the multiple bone, identified. The longest chain thus identified must contain the multiple bonds, for ean The longest chain containing multiple bonds is regarded as the longest in the structure written above, the longest chain contains six of seven carbon atoms also exists. The numbering of carbon atoms in the longest chain is done from that end which the multiple bond is nearer. If the parent chain contains both the d bonds, preference is given to the double bond, Following examples illus parent chain. Forexame, carbon atoms although a cy Of the chain frog louble and the trig, trate the procedyy ‘and the corresponding word root is found. The primy i Ase steiple bond) is aftached tothe word ot Teifthe parent chain contains bond double and triple bonds together, both the primary suffixes ene and -yne are attached to the word root along with the numbers indicating their posi tions. Following examples illustrate the proced (satel ES igs PS Ee ees 4s CHj-C=C~CH=CH-CH, — CH,=CH-C=s¢—CH, Phexenetyne 1-pentene 00 __ The names and positions of the side chains present in the compound are written exactly the same way as discussed earlier in case of branched chain alkanes. c 4 af 2 1 1 21 ne, 4 5 ¢H,—CH-CH=CH, CHy=C—CH—CH=CH, CH,—CH, Sethyl-2-methyl1, &-pentadiene: =, Gumb—C-Gr=cH, cH, Apion perteneyce heey Watiature of Compounds Containing a Functional Group nomen ‘ase some functional group (other than C=C and Cam) is present in molecule, it is indic ated ts ding secondary suffix after the primary suffix. The terminal ‘e’ of the primary suffix is rally removed before adding the secondary suffix, The terminal ‘e’ of the primary suffix sereoved if itis followed by a suffix beginning with ‘a, ‘i, ‘ou or 'y’ ome functional groups (such as ~OR) are indicated by the prefixes. The various classes of jc compounds, their functional groups, the secondary suffixes (or prefixes) used to indicate them along with their general IUPAC names, are given in table. It may be mentioned here that the groups -NO;, -OR, -F, -Cl, Br and -I are considered as substituents and are indicated by cs and the groups ~CONH,, ~COOR, -NH,,-CN and -OH are considered as functional froups and are indicated by suffixes, by ad Different Functional Groups and Corresponding Suffixes and Prefixes Classof | Functional Group| General pas Ore General IUPAC ‘compounds Structure Formula | sypac secondary name Suffix () {Alcohols -OH R-OH ~ol (s) ‘Alkanol ties [ R-0-® ‘Alkoxy (P) Aikoxy alkane R-C-R’ g Ketones a ~one (s) Alkanone R-NH) Amine (s) Alkanamine L R-X Halo (p) Haloalkane BL R-NO; Nitro (p) Nitroalkane al (s) Alkanal vic acid (s) Alkanoic acid -amide (5) Alkanamide -oylhalide(s)_ | Alkanoyl halide Alby) Alkyl ati yl alkanoate vie Alkanoic anhydride (s) | anhydride nitrile (6) ‘Alkane nitrileAlcohols The rules are given below Rule 1: Longest continuous chain containing the carbon atom linked with the functional grow is selected as S parent chain. anf. en Ch Se cronies cH CH; (Wrong) Rule 2: Numbering of carbon atoms is done such that carbon linked with the functional group get least locant. Rule3: ata te ok ts chal obs bee are same as for alkanes,ee aldehydes “akiehydes are called alkanal, The rules are given below : _ Rule 1: Longest continuous chain containing the carbon present in functional group is selected as parent chain, = Rule 2; Numbering of carbon atoms is done such that carbon within functional group always Jocant 1. - Rule 3: Rules for writing name of side chain and other substituents are same as for alkanes. “Gh GH, Hy Br " & GH RethyhSmethylbutanat 2. Slitomo-Sethy! pentanal ehlowo-2ethy! but2en-1al cH, Hy tg ay 2 ree rl . oH=$ = d= G4~ cro chy GH CH CHO : CH, — CH, chi, Matty penta 2.3.¢anethy penta cH eae Hy — CH CH, Crt, bey, Oy, cHo ethyl ty penal Formaldehyde Acetaldehyde Propionaldehyde Butyraldehyde Iso-butyraldehyde Methylpropanal aMethylbutyraldehyde | 2-Methylbutanal ‘o-Ethylbutyraldehyde 2-Ethylbutanal ‘of carbon atoms is done such that carbon within functional group always Carbon and its Compounds | 265a Rule 3: Rules for writing name of side chain and other substituents are same as for alkanes CH,CH,COCH, The Common and IUPAC names of some aliphatic ketones Formula Common Name TUPAC Name CH,COCH, Dimethyl ketone or acetone | Propanone | CH;COCH,CH, Ethyl methyl ketone Butan-2-one or Butancne 2 Methyl n-propyl ketone _| Pentan-2-one CH, COCH,CH,CH, Dee a o 8 Diethyl ket Pentan-3-one CH, CH, COCH,CH, Seen © Carboxylic Acids Saturated monocarboxylic acids are called alkanoic acids. The rules are given below : - Rulet : Longest continuous chain containing the carbon Present in functional group is selecteg as parent chain. ay ase of carboxylic acids carbon present inthe functional group is arbitra take as first carbon and longest parent chain starts from this carbon. Rule 3: Rules for writing name of side chain and other substituents are same as for alkanes€ An organic compound 'X’is aco tituent Ms blithe) of wine. On heating with acidified potassium is Soap + Glycerol el An alka Gotumatt (An aod of making soap by the hydrolysis of fats and oils with alkalis is called saponification. aponitication, common salt is added to the mixture to precipitate out all the soap from solution as it is more soluble in water as compared to soap. In absence of common » remain dissolved in mixture which is not precipitated on heating, PCa W CORNER Yo study the formation of soap 20 mL of castor oil (or linseed oil or Soya bean «i inabeaker and ada to it 30 ml. of 20% sodium hydroxide xt the mixture with continuous stirring for a few minutes. he oil and water layers merge with each other and the resulting mixture becomes thick. Add 5-10 g of common salt to it, stir the mixture and allow it to cool. Observation : A pale yellow solid cake is formed. It is known as soap. + Conclusion : The same principle is used for making soaps in the soap industry. come other additions like perfumes, disinfectants and medicines are added to soap to give it desired characteristics. structure and Cleansing Action of Soap \ soap molecule is made up of two parts : A long hydrocarbon part (tail) and a short ionic part Hydrophobic chain (tail) Hydrophilic head The long hyedrocarbon chain is hydrophobic (water-repelling) and is insoluble in water but soluble ‘nil and grease. The ionic portion of the soap molecule is hydrophilic (water-attracting) due to the polar nature of water molecules and is soluble in water but insoluble in oil and grease. Hydrocarbon part of the soap molecule is soluble in oil or grease thus attach with oil and grease Particles present on dirty clothes. The short ionic part of the soap molecule is soluble in water, so itcan attach to the water particles (in which the soap is dissolved and dirty cloth is dipped). This ‘ay soap molecules form spherical micelles in which hydrophobic chains are projected inwards and hydrophilic heads are projected outwards. \ spherical aggregate of soap molecules’ in the soap solution in water is called a ‘micelle’ — Aissolve in water, soap molecules ionise and Na* ions are removed from head. Due to this overall charge on surface of micelles is negative. Due to negative charge on outer surface Bi lles repel each other and stabilize to produce a colloidal solution MORTON COURSE | CHEMISTRY =——————————— Carbon ad its Compounds} 275 —‘Thus, when we agitate a dirty soap solution, the oily and greasy particles present on cloth surface are entrapped by soap micelles which get dispersed in water. This results in dirty appearance of soap solution. Micelles attach to cloth (suspended in water present in cloth) are removed by rinsing cloth in clean water a number of times. A soap solution appears cloudy because the soap micelles are larger enough to scatter light. When soap is dissolved in organic solvents like ethanol or chloroform micelles are not formed Soap micelle with dirt particle rapped inside because long hydrocarbon chain is soluble in organic solvents. * Limitations of Soap Major limitation of soap is that it is not suitable for washing clothes with hard water. Itis bec. of two reasons : = Soap does not give lather easily with hard water as a large amount of soap is wasted in; with ions present in hard water to form an insoluble curdy precipitate called scum, befe: is used for washing. In hard water soap first reacts with the calcium and magnesitim ion presey in hard water to form insoluble precipitates of calcium and magnesium salts of fatty ans (scum). This increases the amount of soap required for washing clothes. ~The scum formed, sticks to the clothes and interferes with the cleansing ability of soap. Tix makes the cleaning of clothes difficult. The formation of lather or foam (jhaag) is necessary for removing dirt from clothes during te washing of clothes. Soft water, however, does not contain any calcium ions or magnesium is and, therefore, lathers easily when soap is added. Detergents Detergents are also called ‘soap-less soaps’ because through they act like a soap in having te cleansing properties, they do not have usual soapy touch of ‘soaps’ like sodium stearate, etc. Thy are better cleansing agents because they do not give insoluble calcium and magnesium salts wi hard water, and therefore can be used for washing even with hard water. A detergent is the sodium salt of a long chain benzene sulphonic acid (or the sodium salto! Jong chain alkyl hydrogen sulphate) which has cleansing properties in water. A detergent has a large non-ionic hydrocarbon group and an ionic group like sulphonate 5°? SOs"Na‘, or sulphate group SO,-Na*. Examples of detergents are : Sodium n-dodecy! sulphonate and Sodium n-dodecyl sulphate. These are shown below : CH, —(CH,),, —SONa* CH, —(CH3),;—SOj Na* Sodium n-dodecyl benzene sulphonate Sodium (common detergent) (Another : ad The structure and cleansing action of a detergent is similar to that of soaps. A detergent also consists of two parts: along hydrocarbon chain which is water repelling (hydrophsbis a short ionic part whichis water attracting (hydrophilic), Detergents are prepared from | 1761 Corben 0d 8 C0000qian jydrocarbons obtained during refining of petroleum ol. They are generally used to make washing ders and SBAMPOOS. Major differences between soaps and detergents are: Tree Soaps Detergents “7 Soaps are the sodium salts (or| 1. Detergents are the sodium salts of long | potassium salts) of the long chain | chain benzene sulphonic acids or long | carboxylic acids (fatty acids), The chain alkyl hydrogensulphates. The ionic | jonic group in soaps is —COO-Na’ group in a detergent is | ‘Na® or —SO, Na” are not suitable for washing | 2. Detergents can be used for washing even hard water as they form scum. with hard water. [3 Soaps are biodegradable 3. Some of the detergents are non- = biodegradable. Soaps have relatively weak | 4. Detergents have a strong cleansing action. cleansing action. Detergents have a number of advantages over soaps as washing agents : _ Detergents can be used even with hard water. _ Detergents have a stronger cleansing action. Detergents are more soluble in water. Major disadvantage of detergents over soaps is that many detergents are not biodegradable and cannot be decomposed by micro-organisms like bacteria and thus cause water pollution in lakes and rivers. All the soaps are, however, biodegradable, ~Toillustrate that soap does not + Take about 10 ml of distilled 10mLof hard water (from test tubes. Add 4-5 drops of soap Shake the test tubes vig formed. Observation : More tube containing hard wa Aeavi 1d32NODESSENTIAL POINTS 47% COMPETITIVE EXAms er Nomenclature of Polyfunctional Compounds In a polyfunctional compound the principal chain should be selected in such a Way that i must contain the principal functional group and the maximum number of secondary functiong) groups and multiple bonds. In addition to it, principal functional group get the lowest possi, number followed by double bond, triple bond and substituents Le. Principal functional groups > double bond > triple bond > substituents For example, OH ‘ 3 2 1 = COOH is the principal CH, - CH - CH, - COOH functional group 3-Hydroxybutan-1-oic acid ~ OH is the substituent NH, 5 Se Bede ~ CHO is the principal CH, - CH - CH, - i - CHO functional group. CH, ~NH,,-C,H, are the : substituents. al 4-Amino-2 ethylpentan- . ot Gu, -bH=t- 0H, - CONH, -CONH, isthe principal | functional group. SH ~ SH is the substituent. 3-Mercaptopent-3-en-1-amide CHO CONH, - COOH is the és “eg rine principal functional CH - CH - CH ~- CH - CH, - COOH group. = CHO, -OH, OH -CONH, are the 3-Carbamoyl-5-formyl-4-hydroxyhexar-1-oic acid substituents, CHO terminal - COOH 5 4. gh 1 is the principal HOOC - CH, - C- CH, -COOH functional group. | ~ CHO, -COOH at COOH position 3 are the 3-Carboxy-3-formylpentan-1,5-dioic acid substituents. Bond Line Notations Bond line notation is a simple and convenient method to represent an organic compound. In thet notations, carbon and hydrogen are not shown. Only carbon-carbon bonds are shown. A singe bond is represented by a single line (—). Double and triple bonds are represented by two (=) and three (=) parallel lines respectively. The point at which two lines meet and terminus of line represet! carbon atoms and appropriate number of hydrogen atoms are considered by analysing nvumbe of bonds formed by carbon. For example, 1,3-butadiene can be represented as CH,=CH—CH=CH, oD 1,3-butadiene 1,3-butadiene Similarly, 3-methyl-1-hexene--yne can be represented as canst 280 | Carbom and Its Compounds meee CLASS 10 FOUNDATION COURSE |—CH-CH= ne nomenclature of the compounds represented by bond Ene otatone jee tly in th came way as mentioned earlier. First, the structural formula of the acted me 2 vite with the # the bond line notation and then the compound is named et inte lene described, Following examples illustrate the procedure eg e foe n-pentane S-ethyl-3-methyl-4-isopropyinonane he Se si4:trimethyloctane 3-ethyl-2-methylhexane _5-s-butylnonane or 5-(I-methylpropyl)-nonane Lo Sethyl-l-octene 3-(2-methylpropyl)- 2-methyl-3-heptene -I-heptene Bond line notation | Structural formula TUPAC Name ] CH, \ & b 2-methyl-1-3-butadiene “o nit ne CH OM 2 AYN wry Ny 23,Atrimethyl-1, 4-hexadiene Hy fy | OH fe i Ht my Axl 5-hydroxy-2,3,4+trimethyl-3-hexene- Rootword = Buta Primary Suffix = ene Locant number = 1 Name — Butene-1 1 aie Pent pentane 2emethy even? S-methyl hex Carbon and tts Compounds | 785 uy "fouroation COURSE | CHEMISTRY mmd ‘ " 5 i o 6 Smethy! hexene ——4-fithyl-3-methyl hexene-1 3 4-diethyl hexene-1 siiinagaa oi thes c tH eH, An « —— 3-Chiore24 ae Hy CHy—CHy GM) =CHyCH-CH, CH=CH, CH=CH, CH,Bond lit propyne is —“= carbon-atom is 18 Some more examp! 1 a 10° and not 120°. les of nomenclature of Following rules are «Inthe naming of such com* If the ring contains lesser number of carbon atoms than that of alkyl group attached to it, the. compound is named as derivative of alkane and the ring is considered as a substituent group to the alkane, otherwise it is named as derivative of eycloalkane. For example, 4 CH, = CH CH, oe 2-Propyleyelobutane Butyleyclobutane (derivative of eycloulkane) (derivative of eycloalkane) 4-0, H,C- i‘ - CH, -CH, big t 3-Nitroeyelobut-I-ene 2.Cyclopropylbutane (Double bond get preference over (derivative of alkane) substituent -NO, for numbering) ~ If the side chain contains a multiple bond or a functional group, When alley eas treated as the substituent irrespective of the size of the ring, ¢.8- & éu,-u-cno én, en, -¢ Ae, buatn-¢ > Stor 2-Cyclopentylpropanal 43.Cyclohexylpentan-2-one - If the alicyclic ring contains a multiple bond and the side group, the compound is named as derivative of the side substituent. e.g. 2 én, -Cn-¢Ho 2 4 2Cyl 2p al - If both ring as well as side chain contain the is decided on the basis of principal functional g order of functional groups, e.g. “ on timtn- Coon 33-Nitrocyclopenty!)prop-2-en--oie acid is selected on the basis of number of cat Cyne 4 2-(2-Hydroxypropyl)cyclohexan-1-ol 284 | Carbon and Its Compoundsirrespective of the number of carbon atoms in the ring or chain. eg. [>t 8-8 ~<] Ortn-t) 1.3-icyclopropyipropane yelopropy | 2-dieyclohexylethane ~ If the alicyclic ring is directly attached to the benzene ring, the compound is named as a derivative of benzene. e.g. 5 No, D-© S45 Cyclopentyibenzene SCH, © Sno, 142-Methyleyclohex:2-eo1-y)3,5-ntrobenzene If the alicyclic ring has a functional group along with some substituent on the ring, then appropriate prefixes and suffixes are used to represent such groups and numbering is done in such a way that the functional group gets the lowest possible number. e.g cre 2-Methyleyclopent--en-I-one _3.Amino-2-hydroxyeyclabexan--one OH If an alicyclic ring is directly attached to a carbon containing functional group (or terminal functional group), the carbon-atom of the functional group is not counted for word root rather appropriate suffix are used to represent such groups. For example, Functional group Suffix Prefix ~COOH Carboxylic acid Carboxy -COOR Alkyl... Alkoxy carbonyl or ~» carboxylate carbalkoxy ~CONH, Carboxamide Carbamoyl ~COX Carbonyl halide Halocarbonyl (X =F, Cl Br, 1) -CN Carbonitrile Cyano CHO Carbaldehyde Formyl eg, \H CONH, 6 ky cHO iA ‘ acid 2Formylysloboxanet- Side chain —+> Nucleus If only one hydrogen atom of ring is replaced by some other group, then it is called as monosubstituted derivative. x then their position is mentioned by Arabic numerals ie. 1, 2, 3m. «In respective position of two groups can also be mentioned as follows.> gr a Aromatic Hydrocarbons A few impatil Fpl with their common names (given in bracket) and IUPAC names are given be Fa . case of some aromatic compounds the common names has been adopted py IUPAC system because of the complexity of IUPAC name or popularity of common name. t CH, Hy Hy CH, - CH, 7 CH, oOo of © |1,2-Dimethylbeazene br ene Toluene (o-Xylene) CH, |1,3-Dimethylbenzene —_1,4-Dimethylbenzene _—Bthylbenzene ee (ken) piven) Hy, CH, = CH=CH, Oo Oo, © COGSS CO CH “CH, 2-Proppbenase Antreeoe ences asinine ry tne eo Aryl groups = z cH, oh- He -¢- CH, b ] or CHy © O Phenyl Benz Bewal Bayo Tolylor im-Taly or prTolylor 20H Ssro¥y frais + Halogen Derivatives — Nuclear substituted : These are the compounds in which substitution on benzene ring, with halogen takes place. ¢.g. a H H, 6 cl cl Chombenzene 12-Dichlobemene ——_3-Cloretolvee (C-tichlorobenzene) (nr-clorotoluene) _ Side chain substituted : In these compounds, the side chain of the aromatic compound gets substituted with halogen. e.g. é ee ree tn 2H,-¢-cl bu=éu—-du,ct ‘hatylchloromethane Phenyl dichloromethane Phenyl trichloromethane ‘Deuglcherde)” (BenaaldicNoride)— (Denaourchlorige)_'-Chloro-3-phenylropane 3-Chloro-I-phenylprop-1-ene Selection of parent hydrocarbon out of side chain and benzene ring is based on (more or less) same rules as for the alicyclic compounds. 8 FOUNDATION COURSE | CHEMISTRY —=—— nnn C4700 and Its Compounds | 287+ Hydroxy Derivatives ~ Nuclear substituted : When one or more H-atom of benzene ring get substituted nae group we get nuclear substituted aromatic hydroxy derivatives which are also ns § & 6.9 alee wart st a a ce OH on : a L gt on on io | os" Oo SNiwophenol Nail ese) ve (aNecpeaed (eee (BNaphibod) aa rete ~ Side chai petite : In these compounds one or more H-atom of i SHA Git ge aaoel ta pounds are also called aromatic alcohol. eg, ‘substituted with -OH group. These com CH,OH au - day = - pH, -Gh-O% y= Gy CHOH phenols. 2.Pheay!ethar--al ; an Preey methanol TBool acebe) ——_(fpPheny etylalcoho) ‘+ Aromatic Ethers Hs Hs : 0) oO) Phenoxytenzee ea Ethorybeazene (Diphenyl ether) (paul mcbgiphanlctier) —(Penctoleor hy iheny the «Aldehydes and Ketones - Nuclear substituted> side chain substituted Pe: ty, -2u,-du0 dey ail anes CH, Gr, 0-4, c-Cn- nt, -CHo (Oo) oO esis 4 eet, tam Sea nitro Compounds NO, NO, Oho 1 3-Dinitrobenzene 2.46-Trinivetotuene 1,3S-Trnitbenaene + Amines Nuclear substituted : These are also known as arylamtines. NH, NHCH, CH, oO io OHO Benzenamine 2-Methythensenamine _-N'Phenyfbenzemamine__N-MethyItenzenamine ~ Side-chain substituted : These are also known as aralkylamine. 2 es CH,NH, CH, CH, -NH, uy, 20-44, © AC aaa Poenylmehanamine —>.Phenylethanamine (Benzylamive) ——_(B-Phenyctylamie) 2-Methy/-2-Pheny-N-nethypropanamine + Carboxylic Acids - Nuclear substituted . COOH COOH es Lon, «Aon ye wt Benicacd ——2.tyibenmic acid 2idronybenoi acid Grane (Sabicye aid) COOH COOH q a i q | Chom (heli — OOH 1 2-Rexzencticarborlc sid 1.3 Beamnadiarboryic cid a 4 gt temendeatn wt meron cowase | cut Carbon and ts Compounds | 208~ Side chain substituted ‘2-Phenplcthancic acid 2-Methy--phenytpropan-t-oe wei © Acid Derivatives 5 6s & otte Benzoyl chionde Bemamide —ayhbcnzute Pen etenoate g NH-C-CH, Gace i a er Prhalinide © Phenyece SO G,, ees 1 -Benzene 4-Tolucpesuphonie acid wiponescd quoureea _(pTouenipene bo) © Cyanides and Isocyanides oo Oa beoriie | 2fhmyidnesoie Penlioonae, (Phenyl eyanide) "(benzyl eyanie or Phenyl acetontle) © Sulphonic Acids Chemical Properties of Alkenes * Addition of Halogens Alkenes readily add on the halogens in the presence of an inert solvent to form 1,2 or dihalides, CHK +X, -e-b- Bromine and chlorine are effective electrophiles and react rapidly with alkene. Fluorine reactive to bp cinizeled sng. Jodinedoseio) zeact wihie Ike dinary | erature. Thi ones ob retype creecay, yt By Shs Crt cH, I Br Br 12.Dibromoethane nthe addition reaction of bromine to an alkene, orange red colour of bromine gets readily jischarged due to the formation of colourless dibromoderivative. Hence, this reaction can be ved as a test for unsaturation in an organic compound Electrophilic addition reaction : Reaction of alkenes and alkyne with H* (HCI, HBr, Hi) are example of electrophilic addition reaction. R — CH=CH, +HBr—» R-CH-CH, 1 Br Nucleophilic addition reaction : Reaction of aldehyde and ketone with HCN is an example of nucleophilic addition reaction, CN i RoCm OER p= CGH 1 a R Free radical addition reaction : Reaction of alkene with HBr in presence of peroxide is an example of free radical substitution reaction. Alkene + HBr + Peroxide —> Free radical addition reaction Alkene + HCI— } Alkene + HBr—> Alkene + HI —> Li areelectrophilicaddition reactions Alkene + Br, —> Alkyne +HC1L—>} Aldehyde + HCN Aldehyde + NaHCO, } They arenucleophilicaddition reattions Ketone + HCN, RMgX_ ¢ + Addition of Dihydrogen (H,) (Hydrogenation) Alkenes undergo hydrogenation in presence of catalyst like Ni, Pt, Pd, etc, to form corresponding alkane. (Sabatier and Sanderen’s reduction.) ; CH=CH, H, “+ CH, - CH, Tene Shane R-CH=CH-R +H -———> R-CH,-CH,-R Alia Alkane ~ Catalytic hydrogenation of alkenes yield syn-addition product. ~ Heat of Hydrogenation : Hydrogenation of alkenes is an exothermic reaction. The amount Of heat evolved on hydrogenation of one mole of alkene is known as heat of hydrogenation. It Bives an idea about stability of alkene. Lower the heat of hydrogenation of an alkene, more stable it is. For example, trans-2-butene (AHjys ~ 116 kj mol") is more stable than cis-2-butene (AH,,2 = 120 kJ mot") and 1-butene (4Hj,g = 127 kj mot"). The order of reactivity of various alkenes towards catalytic hydrogenation is FOUNDATION COURSE | CHEMISTRY Carbon and tts Compounds | 291CH, = CH, > RCH =CH, > RCH= CHR > R,C=CHR > R,C=CR, Above order of reactivity can be explained on the basis of steric hinderance in more substitute alkenes ‘Terminal double bond can also be reduced by sodium in liquid ammonia in presence of ap alcohol. This reaction is known as Birch reduction. R-CH= CH, +24 R-CH,CH, GH,OH * Addition of Hydrogen Halide Alkenes react with hydrogen halides or halogen acids to give corresponding alkyl halides, x Dea +HX— stk Alkene ‘Alkyl halide CH, =CH, + HCl—=+ CH; - CH,C! Mechanism : H- x 2228 p+ pLeg te + DEK H In case of symmetrical alkenes having same groups on either side of double bond only one possible product is obtained. é CH, = CH, + HBr —+ CH, ~ CH,Br sich In case of unsymmetrical alkenes having (different groups on either side of double bond) theoretically possible products are obtained. CH, -CH-CH, chip tapane 75%) Propene (Unsymenetrical alkene) CH, - CH, - cHcl 1-Chloropropane 25%) ‘The relative amount of two possible products is explained CH, - CH=CH, + HClexample, cH, CH, - C=CH, + Her Metioumibotts, Cy, ie adation 7 a «garkownikoff’s rule can be explained on the basis of relative stability of carbocation intermediate ‘ved in electrophilic addition reaction. ' Hronc, ° 2 [cH CH-cH, cH, -cH-CH, poe 2° carbocation (more sable) cu, CH=CH, Bo ere a Propene (Markownikotfs product (Unsymmetrial alkene) | Hon, 75%) a ° cH, -CH,-CH, -C1-CH, - CH, -CH, %) 1° carbocation (les stable) . Peroxide Effect or Kharasch Effect Kharasch and Mayo in 1933 observed that addition of HBr to an unsymmetrical alkene in cence of peroxides such as benzoylperoxide gives the product contrary to Markownikoff’s Je. It is known as anti-Markownikoff’s addition. nu ey ~FH-cH, bi CH, - CH= CH HEY (Markownikot adton) (Peroxide Hy, — CH, - CH,Br Anti Markowniotts adation Anti Markownikoff’s addition takes place by free radical mechanism. Peroxide effect is effective only in case of addition of HBr, and not in case of HCI and HI. This can be attributed to the fact that energy factors involved in various steps of free-radical mechanism of peroxide effect favour the addition of HBr spontaneously but in case of HCl and HI, energy factor is not favourable. Ha, + CH,-CH-CH, = CH Peroxide] CH, ~ CH=CH, Markownikoff's addition Lg? CH,-CH,~CH,Br Anti-Markownikoff' addition * Oxidation with Cold Dilute Neutral or Alkaline KMnO, Alkenes on reaction with cold dilute neutral or alkaline KMnO, get hydroxylated to form 1,2 slycols or 1,2-diols. 1H OH ee thins stey Sete rer Soe 5 mpl As, "towonnon course nents Carbon and tts Compounds | 293CH, - CH= CH - CH, H,0 + [0] Pil ett CH, -CH- CH=CH, OH g Butane23-dick {As soon as KMnO, reacts with alkene its pink colour gets discharged and brown Precipins of MnO, is obtained. The reaction is thus used for testing presence of unsaturation. Cold alkaline KMnO, is known as Baeyer’s reagent and the test is known as Baeyer's teg Isomerism The phenomenon due to which two or more organic compounds exists, with different physicg and chemical properties, due to the difference in the arrangement of carbon atoms in they structure, but have same molecular formula, is called isomerism. zi Isomers : Organic compounds having same molecular formula and different structural formulse and hence different physical and chemical properties are called isomers. In the example, n-butane and iso-butane are the isomers of the compound of molecular formu CiHio : Isomerism can be broadly classified into two categories : 1. Structural isomerism 2. Stereoisomerism summarized as below The different types of structural and stereoisomerism are Sterevisomerism Structural isomerism Chain Position Functional _Metamerism Tautomerism Geometrical Optical isomerism isomerism §TOUP isomerism isomerism isomerism ¢ Structural Isomerism In this type of isomerism, arrangement of atoms in their molecules. It such as: chain isomerism, position isomerism, functional isomerism, metamerism and 1. Chain isomerism : In this type of isomerism, the isomers have different skeletons of car atoms. For example, CH,CH,CH,CH,CH, and Cc CH; Pentane 2. (n-Pentane) (iso-Pentane) 2. Position isomerism: In this type of isomerism, the isomers! reve group or multiple bond with same carbon skeleton. For CH;CH=CHCH, — and CH;CH;CH=CH, But-2-enePe unctional isomerism : In this type of isomerism, the isomers have different functional and thus, belong to different families. For example, jar formula CJHy: CH>= CH-CH=CH, and CH=SsC-CH,- CH, But, S-diene F But-l-yne 9 4 ql tL C,H,O: CH3-C-CH)- CH; and CH3-CH,-CH,-C-H But, 2-one Butanal g ° C;H,0,: CH3-CH)-C-OH and CH; -C-OCH, Propanoic acid Methyl ethanoate 4, Metamerism : In this type of isomerism, these isomers differ in structure due to difference tion of carbon atoms about the functional group. For example, CH, - CH, -O- CH, - CH, and CH, - 0 - CH, - CH, - CH, Ethoxyethane 1-methoxypropne CH, - CH, -NH - CH, ~ CH, and CH, - NH'- CH, ~ CH; - CH, N-ethyl ethamine N-methylpropanamine 5, Tautomerism : This is a special type of functional isomerism where isomers exist simultaneously n dynamic equilibrium with each other. For example, acetylacetone exists in two forms as shown below et C-CH, === CH,-C=CH-C-CH, Keto form, nol form These isomers which are present in equilibrium with each other are known as tautomers. We cannot separate tautomers easily. Relative abundance of tautomers depends upon their stability. In the above example, enol form is more stable and hence more abundant. + Stereoisomerism Compounds having same molecular formula and same structural formula but different spatial arrangements ie, arrangement in space of atoms or groups are called stereoisomers and the phenomenon is known as stereoisomerism. = Conformational isomerism : These are the stereoisomers which differ in spatial arrangement of atoms and thus show different properties. These isomers can not be obtained by free rotation around C-C single bond. Configuration isomerism is further of two types : Geometrical and optical. = Geometrical isomerism : Geometrical isomers are the stereoisomers which have different arrangement of groups or atoms around rigid frame work of double bonds. This type of isomerism arises due to restricted rotation around double bond. In double bond, sideways ‘overlapping of sp? hybrid orbitals take place for the formation of p bond which restrict the rotation about carbon-carbon bond. Geometrical isomerism is generally seen in alkenes (C=Ce) and oximes ( >C=NOH). Geometrical isomerism in alkenes (cis-trans isomerism): Isomer in which similar groups ‘OF atoms lie on the same side of double bond are called cis-isomer whereas isomer in which Similar groups or atoms lie on the opposite side of double bond are called trans-isomer. cones 189 —_—_———_—_—_<_$___“arbon and its Compounds | 295A A A B Pe aie poo Ke pen cis trans Necessary conditions for Geometrical isomerism (i) The molecule must have a C - C double bond. (ii) Two atoms or groups attached to doubly bonded carbon atom must be different, alkenes of the type C,, = C,, show geometrical isomerism. If one or both doubly bonded carbon atoms have two similar substituents, geometrical isomerism is not possible. Thay why terminal alkenes CH;= C,, do not show geometrical isomerism. - Optical isomerism : Isomers which differ in only rotation of plane polarised light and same physical and chemical properties are known as optical isomers, whereas the pher is known as optical isomerism. © Plane Polarised Light and Optical Activity The beam of light which vibrate only in one plane is called plane polarised light. ti on passing the plane polarised light through solution of certain substances, a change in of plane polarised light is observed. Such substances which rotate the plane of plane pol light are called optically active substances. ; d light towards right or clockwise is call ‘A substance which rotates the plane of polarise dextrorotatory (dexter = right), whereas a substance which rotates the plane of polarised ligh towards left or anticlockwise is called Laevorotatory (laevus = eft). Dextrorotatory cc are represented as d or by sign (+) and laevorotatory compounds are represented as Lor by sign (-).