Electronic

Devices
and
Circuits

I.J. Nagrath
Electronic Devices and Circuits

I.J. NAGRATH
Adjunct Professor
Former Deputy Director
Birla Institute of Technology & Science
Pilani

New Delhi-110001
2012
ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS
I.J. Nagrath

© 2007 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may
be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from
the publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-3195-2

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Sixth Printing º º º October, 2012

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus,
New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Rajkamal Electric Press, Plot No. 2, Phase IV, HSIDC,
Kundli-131028, Sonepat, Haryana.
 Contents

Preface ix

1. Semiconductors, Diodes and Diode Circuits 1–77

1.1 Introduction to Electronics 1
1.2 Typical Electronic Systems 1
1.3 Classification of Electronic Systems and Devices 3
1.4 The Future 4
1.5 Conduction in Solids 4
1.6 Doped Semiconductors 9
1.7 Junction Diodes 14
1.8 DC Analysis of Diode Circuits 20
1.9 Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator 23
1.10 Diode Circuits with Time-Varying Sources 23
1.11 Transition and Diffusion Capacitances 26
1.12 Switching Characteristics of a Diode 27
1.13 Special Purpose Diodes 28
1.14 Rectifiers and Power Supplies 38
1.15 Filters 48
1.16 Some Diode Wave Shaping Circuits 56
1.17 Additional Examples 61
Problems 72

2. Transistors and Other Devices 78–131

2.1 Introduction 78
2.2 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) 80
2.3 Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET) and Metal Oxide
Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) 94
iii
iv ® Contents

2.4 Manufacturing Integrated Devices and Circuits 107

2.5 Four-Layer Devices—Thyristors 107
2.6 Additional Examples 114
Problems 125

3. Small-Signal Models, Amplification and Biasing 132–208

3.1 Introduction 132
3.2 Small-Signal Transistor Models 133
3.3 Hybrid-p Model 141
3.4 h-Parameter Model 142
3.5 Transistor Biasing 150
3.6 Constant Current and Current Mirror Circuits 163
3.7 Bias Design, AC Gain, Input–Output Impedances 168
3.8 Some Special Circuits 172
3.9 Darlington Pair 180
3.10 Feedback Pair 183
3.11 Emitter Coupled Pair 186
3.12 CMOS Circuits 189
3.13 Additional Examples 191
Problems 203

4. Small-Signal Amplifiers—Frequency Response 209–275

4.1 Introduction 209
4.2 Single-Stage RC-Coupled Amplifier 213
4.3 Frequency Response 218
4.4 Tuned Amplifier 241
4.5 Gain–Bandwidth Product 246
4.6 Multistage Amplifiers 249
4.7 Cascode Amplifier (CE-CB Configuration) 251
4.8 Additional Examples 256
Problems 269

5. Large-Signal Amplifiers 276–319

5.1 Amplifier Classes 276
5.2 Class-A Power Amplifiers 278
5.3 Transformer-Coupled Power Amplifier 287
5.4 Class-B Power Amplifiers 292
5.5 Complementary–Symmetry Circuits 298
5.6 Distortion in Amplifiers 301
5.7 Class-AB Amplifiers 306
5.8 Class-C Power Amplifiers 306
 Contents ® v

5.9 New Power Transistors 309

5.10 Additional Examples 314
Problems 318

6. Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators 320–357

6.1 Feedback Concepts 320
6.2 Types of Feedback Circuits 321
6.3 Block Diagram Representation of Feedback Amplifiers 323
6.4 Effect of Feedback on Impedances 324
6.5 Some Negative Feedback Circuits 326
6.6 Properties of Negative Feedback 330
6.7 Stability in Feedback Amplifiers 334
6.8 Oscillator Operation 334
6.9 Phase Shift Oscillator 335
6.10 Wein Bridge Oscillator 338
6.11 Tuned Oscillators 339
6.12 Crystal Oscillators 342
6.13 Unijunction Oscillator 343
6.14 Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) 348
6.15 Additional Examples 350
Problems 354

7. Operational Amplifiers 358–409

7.1 Introduction 358
7.2 Basic Operational Amplifier 358
7.3 Differential Amplifier 365
7.4 Basic Operational Amplifier Circuit 372
7.5 Applications of OPAMPs 375
7.6 Linear Applications of OPAMPs 376
7.7 OPAMP Filters (Active Filters) 384
7.8 Nonlinear Applications of OPAMPs 391
7.9 Analog Simulation 397
7.10 Additional Examples 400
Problems 405

8. Multivibrators and Switching Regulators 410–444

8.1 Multivibrators 410
8.2 Analog Multivibrators 416
8.3 555 Timer 421
8.4 Power Supplies and Regulators 429
Problems 442
vi ® Contents

9. Integrated Circuits Fabrication 445–473

9.1 Introduction 445
9.2 Pre-Fabrication Stage 446
9.3 IC Fabrication 446
9.4 The Planar Processes 447
9.5 Illustration—A Simple IC Fabrication 453
9.6 Monolithic Transistors—Bipolar 455
9.7 Fabrication of MOSFET 459
9.8 Monolithic Diodes 461
9.9 Integrated Resistors 462
9.10 Integrated Capacitors 465
9.11 Metal–Semiconductor Contact 466
9.12 Characteristics of IC Components 468
9.13 Monolithic Circuit Layout 468
9.14 Levels of Integration 469
Problems 472

10. Circuit Theory 474–520

10.1 Introduction 474
10.2 Voltage and Current Sources 474
10.3 Resistance 476
10.4 The Basic Laws of Electric Circuits 476
10.5 Resistances in Series and Parallel 478
10.6 General Methods of Network Analysis 480
10.7 Network Theorems 484
10.8 Step Response of RC Circuits 487
10.9 Duality of Networks 492
10.10 Sinusoidal Steady-State Circuit Analysis 493
10.11 Resonance 502
10.12 Miller’s Theorem 504
10.13 Two-Port Networks 505
10.14 Frequency Response 512
Problems 516

11. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) 521–534

11.1 Introduction 521
11.2 Cathode Ray Tube 521
11.3 CRO Applications 530
 Contents ® vii

Appendix The Ebers-Moll Model of the BJT 535–539

References 541–542
Answers to Problems 543–548
Index 549–554
 Preface
This book is designed to be course-specific for the undergraduate students pursuing courses in
Electronics and Electrical Engineering and its related disciplines. The topics are presented to
meet the standards and syllabi of various universities.
The background material required for the study of the characteristics and applications of the
electronic devices and circuits is covered in the first chapter. It includes introduction to
semiconductors—both intrinsic and doped (extrinsic)—the concept of electrons and holes, drift
and diffusion currents and pn-junction behaviour. The devices treated in Chapter 2 are diodes
(including special purpose diodes), transistors—BJTs, JFETs, and MOSFETs—and also four-
layered devices, i.e. thyristors. These chapters acquaint the students with theory, characteristics,
and construction of the electronic devices covered. Chapter 3 contains the presentation of small-
signal modelling of transistors, dc biasing of transistors, and some special circuits.
The circuitry and analysis of small signal amplifiers, power amplifiers, feedback amplifiers,
and oscillators are covered in Chapters 4–6. The circuits of both types of transistors are treated
together in each of these chapters. Operational amplifiers and their parameters, differential
amplifiers, and their linear and nonlinear applications form the contents of Chapter 7.
Special circuits (multivibrators and switching regulators) and compound configurations of
various kinds find a detailed treatment in Chapter 8. Chapter 9 is devoted to IC fabrication
technology. A short but comprehensive presentation on circuit theory is offered in Chapter 10,
primarily for quick reference or for teaching purposes where it forms part of the courseware.
Finally, the concluding Chapter 11 offers a brief treatment of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope, so
often required for practical measurements.
The treatment of the topics throughout is succinct, to the point, yet well-explained and
rigorous.
The author acknowledges with thanks the efforts of the editorial and production teams of
Prentice-Hall of India towards bringing out this book in excellent form.
The feedback from the readers towards improvement of the book will be gratefully
acknowledged by the author.
I.J. NAGRATH
ix
 1
Semiconductors, Diodes
and Diode Circuits

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS

Electronics is a very wide field embracing almost all walks of human endeavour. In a way,
electronics is the branch of electrical engineering which employs devices in which current flow
is due to the controlled flow of charge carriers in a gas, in vacuum or in semiconductors.
Electronic devices came into existence in the beginning of twentieth century. These devices used
gaseous or vacuum medium for the flow of negatively charged particles, electrons. These devices
were widely used for communications, controls and computers.
A major breakthrough was achieved in the field of electronics when it became possible to
use semiconductors such as silicon and germanium for making electronic devices. The
semiconductor devices are smaller, cheaper, more reliable and consume less power than the
vacuum or the gaseous devices. Further developments in the semiconductor technology made it
possible to integrate a large number of devices in a small silicon chip, known as Integrated
Circuit (IC). Today, the number of devices on a chip has gone well beyond ten million. The
integrated circuits have revolutionized the field of electronics and it will not be unrealistic to call
the present age as the “electronics age”. The impact of developments in electronics can be
gauged from the availability of personal computers, which have tremendous capabilities as
compared to computers in 1950s and 1960s, which occupied large space, consumed large power
and costed millions of dollars. The major areas of application of electronics are communication,
controls and computers, although it has invaded almost every field in our modern living.

1.2 TYPICAL ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS

As human beings, we are interested in communicating with people around us. If the persons with
whom we want to have communication are closeby, such as in a small classroom, we can
1
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