THE PHYSICS o SOLAR CELLS Jenny Nelson snp as 1ee ttre ss he Ba Ly. inn os 6 7.28 00 gr Cale ‘tierce gang bn yam) ‘Chat Cen, non Ds Ber HANDS USA operon ory rt pas nv Peameten roa Prd Sgcy MeidPr P at Preface (Over the ttn yeas, photvltai basenergd a become an apletion ‘escola otra dhe tracted theatre of ineresing nambers fstadens and researchers. The purpose f this book is to provide an intro Seti to, an oer ofthe phys ofthe photovaa cll. T should be slab for undergradane pyc and engineer wha ae intersted in ‘his aplication of seeondueor pls and to owspecialst grades ‘doers ha reqs talon the physical pine fla cla ‘he fru on the bse senicnuctor pie rlevant to phetorla, plas mol of photorleai dven and hw thew rel tothe dein ed faction of practical devs Ieshould cable he wader to understand how solar cals Work, to undertand the coneps nd odes of ela all fevce phy, und to orate asl eect pial probs, A ‘hough practical motels aa davicodegas wt wed a3 examples, che book sat intended ae» comprohenriv review of photonic materials sd deve, nor ofthe lat development in photovoltaics esearch ‘Chaper 1 ntzodaces the solar call as a suple cute: generator a Aefsar the peclrmancechracaritir whith neo to dseribe un eo pare solr ell Chapter 2 deeibs in geet tems how Light ebergy Is nero int els comparing the patsolse eonrcter with ther ‘ystens aad evlanting the Lite to elceny. Chapters 3 and cover the ‘use physic ofthe nmleondctr, the smzoadurtarteanpor uations ‘sd the process of ght abortion al erie rennet, Chagte foes onthe concep of the seymmeti junction, apd deta the di ‘erent typ of Justin which are expla In phetovlas, Chapter 6 ‘pple the theory of eater chapter juneton the cli del asl call Chapters and ae concuoid wih the range of photo ‘okaie mates and device designs. Chapter 7 dels wth monocysalie rm juneion deve, lating toe mol of Chapter 6 to pacts devine,vung entalne silicon and gall arvenie lls as example. Chapter 8 Gels with thin fin photorltae materials, dscusing physical procaes ‘and dg inc leant to hi ln and focaning on the ways in whch ‘th stad ode mt be adapted fr tia Bim devi. Chapter 9 eae wth vvions tches for sanaging Igbt in order to maximise perfor Inne, and Chapter 10 ores a ange of sppanci, mainly theoretical, to laecesng the fiiney’of clr ells above te mit fo singe bad ap photocanetar Tam grtefal tal fhe people who ave helped me pepe this bok ptr, to Kath Barbar or paing the oil propo rom Ir pedal Colege Prem i ny dition to Leon Pre and David Ind for [ving me Ue opportunity to tsk the physics af solar ol Yo Ses ‘eat at Loxehborough, and wo eta the bate course fom which hs brook developed; ta all tho seeach stadt in photvaale wt Ipeca College fr tling so many interesting qutons,espeilly Jenny Brae, “James Connoyand Benjamin Klligeto Ralph Gotaolg, Tom Mosk ‘at and Peter Wher! for beip with qesons related to material a ts brooks to Ned Eli Dau ond Jane Nebon for that spf comments ‘on thet; to Cle Neon forthe caver tration and Yo aller a Tongs who ve bnlped in ay edenvons to understand bow these tgs work, in pata to Richard Corks, Jes Daan, Michel Gite, rin Green, Chriana Honsberg, Sean Kettazn and Ellen Moots Tam grat tothe Gregprace Eavirouuetal Trot fr funding me 10 ‘sy cr nl Before they wee pope an tothe UK Engineering and ‘Psi cence Rewarch Coul end fran Advanced Research Folow= ship which allmed me to spend my Saturday afternoon writing chapter Tasted of tecture Finally Tam grateful to John Nova fr bi encoaegee set toatrt on his projet ad a LaentCharsiade nd hi ota a IC Pres ad to Lalahn!Narayen and colleagues ot Worl Stati, or the help in ing hour ‘hiebook dented tothe memory of Stophan Rebinan and MLV. MeCoughn, Jenny Naloa Tandon, Apa 202 Contents Place (Chapter 1 Introduetos 11 Photons Ia Bleeuons Out: Th Photovoltaic Beet 12, Bilt History ofthe Selae Cl 13. Photvoltse Cela and Power Genurtion 181, Photvltal cll, dle and syste 132, Some important defatioas 1A. Gharactrae ofthe Photorotaie Cll A Sunmary TAL Photocrent and qunstun eicency 142, Dar eweat and open deus wltage 143. EMfleny 144, Parsi ristanes YAS, Nowideal dnd behaviour 18, Sumuary Rebenee (Chapter 2 Photons Ia, Electrons Out: Basic Principles of PV 21, Introduction 22, The Solar Resource 28. Typeset Solar Enegy Conerter 24. Detaled Balance 242. Te agullaun, 2.42, Under flnioaion 25, Weck Ava rm # Photovelae Deve 283, Photocurat pee252, Dakeareat 263. Limiting eceey 254. Eller of band wp 256. Bf of spectrum a eficlensy 26, Raqurenent forthe Hs Photoart 27. Summary Releenee Chapter 8. Blectrone and Holes in Semiconductors Si ntoduction 52 Buse Concepts REL. Bonde ad bands egetle 322. Bhotrons, ole and conduct 39, Bhcteon Stator in Semiconductor SRL Band autre 882, Conduction and SBR. Valance bend S54. Diet and inde band expe 885. Dont of tates 86. Eltron distribution inti 237, Bleiranatd hole cares ‘84 Semlcondue in Bquitiam ‘RL, Fem Dine tate 4142 Blctron and bole dene negli 243, Bolsmanneppeeination 3A Bletron ad le cuenta equllriam 85. Impure and Doping 4B. Inn emicondtors 352. niypedpng 58. p ope doping 425A Biocteof heey doping 55. Lmperlac snd meeps rials 46, Sonoondutor unr Bias Sei. Quad thermal equi 5062 Blctton and Boe deoritne dor bin 363, Cysrest dentin under Hae 43, Dal and Dison 4274, Curent equations a tarme of it wd difison 32:2 Vat of the dei-iusion equations 27, Guent oqations for on-erytline oide 28, Sommary Chapter 4 Generation and Recombination {1 Inteoduction: Semiconductor Tenspert Equations 412, Genatton a Recombination 463, Quootum Mechanical Densiption of Tansion Rates 451. Fermi Golden Rule 4122, Opel proces ina two lel a 44 Phetageneation| 441." Photogenmration rate 442. Thermaleation 443. Micrreopedecription f abortion 444 Diet gap semiconductors 445. Inder gap somionducace 446, Other types of beaviue 447. Beamplee and date 45, Recombination ASL Type of eeombinaton 452 Radiative scbinatin 455. Shupied expresoas for radativeecombiniton 454, Auge recombination 455, Shockley Read Wall recmbnation (458, Suace and grea boundary recombizalon 4152, Traps weres recombination center 445, Formlaton of the Transport Problem 481, Comment on the tranmertprblen 462, Transport equation ins cyte 42, Sommary Reeenee Chapter § Functions 51 Intodvatioe 52. Origin of Photvolre Aston 53, Wook Punton snd Type of unetion 54. Metal Semiconductor lncion SA Eatablaag «fed 542, Behan in the lit ‘843, Betevou inthe dark us 15TT 544. Obmlc contacts 8, Linittions of the Scotty base Seton 45. Sends Snlondictr Teco 852 pre huetin $53. pn hewojmcticn 86, Bitrocmie neon Bit. Dancoe in Orga ici 8 Suc ad Itarce Stator ERI Suhr ses on is sue 382. Bit flare ater on nto 50, Sammy Batam Chapter 6 Analyse of the pn Junctlon Ot inection 62. Thepndincon €21, " Fomaten ofp union $22. Outaect appa 63. Depletion Aprximaton O31 Callan elton dh 64 Caledon Carer nd Geet Desis G41 Guenter deat In he west 6.42, Duress aie Sai a he pce up nen 48, Taal een deaty 4 Geol ttn or JV) 166. pon Suton nthe Dark Sox Ategutan 62 Under pp ine 6%. pen ection der iain fra an ae 82. Phosocet sid QE in pc eve G74. pn luntin ora photon ol 4, Bins on pn Santon Charscteiin 68:1. Bets of parte esistanss 682. Eft of radiation G53. Bil of temperature 10 12 et rf 130 0 us Ms M6 ur wo 10 182 12 re peeveavene 09, G84, Otter device stevcuce G85, Villy ofthe approximations Sunny Refreaces Chapter 7 Monocrystallin Solar Calls ta 7 1 16. beroduton: Proper of Cll Dosa Matai and Design Ts 721. Matera dependent ttre 722. Design actors 723. Goneal dagn fatre fp junction cle Sion Material Properte 781. Bao structure and opal aberption 72. Doping TAM Recombination FAA Carer nape, ‘Sieon Solar Cal Design TAL Bai soon slr cll TAL. Call fbrieaton TAS Optinisatioa of inn slr cll dein TAS Strategies to enhance abortion TAS, Suateia to rede nile rrombinasion TA, Saati to reduce sree esitance TA. Brolin of lon solar ol design TAS, Pala Gietion in sco ll design TAS, Alettatives olin IMI Semiondustor Mate Propetise 151 MLV semiconducns band stare an opti sorption 752. Galinm ankle 758. Doping 754. Recombination 188. Carer waneport 756. Redes (GuAs Solar Call Desi 162. Base Gade slr col 162 Optinistion of GaAs rl design 768. Strategist radio font sto eonbioton 7A, Strategies vo adc rie eines rtfo 168, Steal to reduce subse cost Sumac Rete Chapter & Thin Film Solar Celis ret 8 fa 4 86, an, Thsrodution "Thin Fm Photowstse Materials 821, Reqstenent for auable Amorphous Seon 8S. Matovals popes 832, Defects in amorphous material 833, Absorption ata 8846 Doping 835, Tramport 836 Stailty 837, Reatt alge Amorphous Seon Solar Cll Dasga SLL Amorphous slleo pn stevtnee 842. prtmsoler ell device pain 43, Fubvition of Stace ol 8.64. Steataples to improve oS ed pecormance Defoe in Pageretaline Thin Plt Miter 51, Gran boundaien 52, Efe of gin boundaries on rnsport 453, Dinlesin sptosimaton mod! fr grain bouncy 854, Majority care transport 555, Dicer of iluminaion 56. Minot eer transport 85.1, Bifects eain boundary recombination 9 sl call peermeace (Clneg Tit Pi Sole Cols RAL.” Matai properties 862. Hoerjuneions in he in slr el des R63. CalnGasey solr cll dein (Cie Tin Fm Solar Calle Ar. Matra rope 812, Ce aoar ol design ‘Thin Film Sion Solar Celle. 0 au au a a3 88:3, Matin ropes 882. Mocrysalln acon vols cl doin a. Summary Referees Chapter 9 Managing Light Dt Intodortion 92, Photon Pla A Review aad Overview of Light Manage 92. Rovte to ghar photon fe 93, Mniasing Retecion DAL. Optical proper of simitondsetore 932. Antndecsen comings 94, Canentition BAL Lint to concentration 8442, Practica eonemtrators 95, Efe of Cnseteaton on Devise Pysice 95:1. Low injection 952. High ineton 953, Limits to ffclency under coosentation 954 Tanpertue 955, Sees eitance 9.58. Convener cl den 9.57. Conentestar cl materi 26. Light Confcement ‘961. Light pate and ay tracing 962. Minor 968. Randoming euraee Bik, Tetard soos DS. Prat shames DIG. Lipke condning structure: etictl ecepiance ‘sent ad external xvii 967, Bets of light tapping on Sevie phic 92. Photon Reeling 974, Theory of photon rrylng 972, Protea cher 28. Summary ebetenoe 8 20 2 50| SESS [Chapter 10 Over the Limits Strategies for High Bficleney 260 104. Tntoductin 10.2, How Mach Out Thee? Thermodyansi Lint 0 iieny 10, Dea Balance Lint to Bielncy, Reviewed 1, Motiple Band Gape 105, Tanda Cals 106.1 Principle of tandem cle a2, Anais 1053, Praca onde seme termediate Bod at Multiple Band Celt GL Prins of terest and maltiple bad calls 1082, Condens 1083, Prec sestegee 10.7. Tneoing the Werk Per Phat sng Hot’ Cates 10.74. Prinipes of coting and bot caro 1072. Analy ofthe ot crn clr ell 1078. Prac eratepee 108 Impact lontion Salar Cale OAL. Aral of bapa Soni nar el 109. Summary eferenee Breretes 106. Solutions to the Bxorlses Index 280 mo om 26 gegegges aie ge ‘Pundamental constants Phas’ const hak’ coneast/20 Aietic permitvy of espace ‘Site's contest. ped oft is vacoum ‘Botasson's const fie eleton ase ‘Shange othe lecton sgacger Syibole sed i tho toxt ce abeorptloncoeticient 3 spect photon fx deny per ult oid angle co deren ally ‘Ay Ge Ferm eve separation o ebelel pani fight Savy ¢e probebily of photon eision f—dihetle privy of wexioaductor © polriation vector of bet Seta potential & wore tinesan fe ely level 1 omer conversion eiciny rs laary prt freee inde of semiconductor XN wanlength of it heal peal fn elena roby; bee mobility oe ngency of il cel angle optic! nara fnglaswiho the san ‘hare density ox resets conductty tse ‘sen etme ole eine nga rgueney flit fold ange seefanstion {ad operator wit pect to potion trad operator with respect o waveretorrer--,- T Tan ade probably of photon abortion tol cee ‘pect photon fax dnsicy noma 0 surtce teefi r iolealas caer by tap of dete ole ofc of bimslecaa adv recombination ‘iin cooled “ition cafe of elton ftom oe! of ble ‘decsormgnetl eld tenet Fer eenry ot Fem lee tleton at Freeney lel Ble qua Fer ee band gp snarey of ea tte ‘egy of anor tad edge ‘roy of condaction band ge Inte ergy vel cui ene el deere eld : fore probably ruption function fo betroni tate at Foe Dirac probit sewpatin fenction entre factor redating nora to angulas photon fx Ally for emission fat: abit ly sun coaceatatad A ater spectral photgieration ate per uit volume ‘generation raze per unit volume ‘Geir gern rte pet unit Yelume . lnk generation at pee tat wome lento toni state pe ult nary pe nit rata ‘hme Fantasia oprstor inden ih nny $ cent density e ‘ost sel tent. dasty ‘ack current dene Setran eurant density; hole csr desiy peas 7 x L bs * M é epotal etre crreat density; spectral bole ute dnaley cal wareoctor ifeion length o eagth of ext saple ‘ison length of leton;difaron neh fb ‘inde elit fator tendon bad elective mass ‘alee bad frie ast ‘pole matric danent ley of heteons per ult vlune ‘utr eleeen density intial carr desty restive indo of elondzor ley of sector impurity stone density of anor imparty sama ‘Eetivecondaton band density fstaee ‘ifetvevloos band deny fen ‘haga ackground doping in nine laye easy of trp tates 0} than under svete bie (V <0) The rcilyingbakavoa is 1 Tesure of platovolitedeviow, ssc an arymmeti ontion ened to achlee charge sara, Foran al doe the dirk caren deity oun) vais ke Jaaa(¥) = e877 =) as) Where Jp i constan, Ay is Bolzmsan's constant and temperature in dogres Kalvin ‘The overall curent volage pons of he xl ts carent-alape chat eter ean be appro’ he su the sor eit ptacaret od the dark eure (Pig, 18). Thi step knowa asthe serpin ap roxinein. Although the reves cet whieh Lows in rponce to veltage {an luminol elle ot fray equal to the corzet which Sows in te At, the appeoinatin i remonable for many photovolae aera edse Pane = tile care Bias tage. ig 16 Comma ala ei of a nk he i ad i, ‘et epson tesa aed ing ho epi ac ‘ttn bys cantante a tonnes psa Toe wil be wed forte presen dicuslon, The ig convention for eure and Veltageinploovatlesch that he pbosocarrat I postive. This is {ho epost to the url ceaveaton fr eletonie eves. With ths sen onveiton the nt curest tity inthe a i JV) = Ja ~ Suen a whl become, fo an el diode, Jae 2fe"7 =), 09 ‘seh died caper ‘fans i ip tesa ot ipa ht ecm been SESS ost eo te Series venta ees) ans a cia tty PoC i sn an Nev Tih a hwnd nt eaten th tcl b tment ent ve 2 SMEITET iar emanate osm 0 J, Pe 37. yc el hotocuret which i abe depend bt bias independent. At V > Vee, {be dives again connanes power This the eons wher pit eltieg ines operate. We wil oe ltr that i areata the dk arent i souipanied by the emion oft ‘Blea the oa ol le eutalen ta curt generator ia psi uh sm aryminetic son Ines ritve latest. ce,» ide (Me 1.7) ‘When Dunst, the eal el produse« potociten propetenal to the ib intensity. Pat photcuren divided betwee te veil esi tates of tho dodo andthe na, i a aio whch epeadeon the essence ofthe led andthe eve of lumination, Fr high esate, more of te lotocarent flows though the dod, resting in a bigher potential der nce betwen the cl ternal bate sale crn hohe loa Th ‘Bode ho pred the photovatage, Wht te did, hel wocia ‘te eve the photoset tough the lo, 148, ficiency ‘Te operating rep ofthe ola cl the rage of bits, om 0 to Vaya hl he cal divers power The cl poe dusty sven boy Paw. cH a sina hl opting stot manna ee Fons Thi carat se woltage Vg with cotangent dea shown in Pig 1S. Tho pn lad he arse ance BV. The fil json eed ah eo 8)i os Ih omy eet re ett ee ty hy ha en of soa octane Th oer range "Th effincy of the cal the poe density deer at operating point ov ction of the incident ight powee dey, Py Iain ot a9, Dilney erect 0 and Yu ang FF IaeghE au y= EieEE tg) “Thee four quate: J Vay PF and ae the ley pslrmaacs chat stair of «solar call Al fate sold be dete for partial Tamination conditions. The Saadard Tat Codon (STC) for aca ele 15 te Alr Mase 1.5 spectrum, an cent power deny of 1000 W eo sl temperature of 25°C. (Sandard and ober nar spect are lcs ‘n Chaptar 2) The pvformanc charstrats fr the ost common sole ‘ll materia or ited in Tle 1 ‘Tale shows thet sole cll mates with bebe Jc tod to have lower Vix. Ths a consequence of the material med, and pote of ‘Bile harman fe ye PY el een 20) Calne Ae eat) Van in Alea) PP Ee Suwcw 49 tm ts cs boat R $2 es zol moye a ra bs ge Veal 39, Po eit Va thc ited nT 1.1 Mri the band gap ofthe micondctr. In Chapter 2 we wil stat there it fundamental compromise betwee photcurtet aed vltageiayotvelte seray conversion, Figure 1 states the cortelation bewoen Jc 30 ‘Vo for the alia Table 11, together with the rains foe a cell | oxime. LMA, Parasite resitences Ia real elle pom is diipatnd trough the rsitanne of he contacts asd tHvough leakage curtento around he side of Ue device, Tha efits aevee he Pe of Solr Cat sg 140. Bet cit eigen st sa, 138, fo ein at an ° )rlsing pa rans Tn See Gee eth tc SESSILIS tna oe oe oe on euvtetelatizlly to oo psi ‘Ha (Re) whe ell (Fig 110). "The see rrtane ass fom corre tow, partial through the feat x essences ina (fy) anda pa the estos ofthe el mate facet the cond, ad Ferre vtamtacts Seti rstanc 6 patel problem et Bch coer dente, hn restnce Ue edge ofthe dove sd betwee ‘oe lvtance under conseated iit. The pals few fom lenge of erent shongh the cell, ound acta of ferent poly. Te 8 robles a poor zecifyng devine ‘Sere ane paale ean ‘erat ofc cll We want posible ‘We para sy Jat feta) aredce the lator shown ig, 1 “pet teas eal ad My to be a see 2 ance are inled the ede equation bese WedaR Gat) in a5, Nonidea diode behaviowr ‘thn del dade behaviou of E15 i sldu see, Ts common for che © Tecaret to depend more wally on bis, The actual dependence on V reat by an lel factor, nd he carent-ylage caret os by the noida dnd equation, { Jaen Slevin =) ay) ‘typ os between 1 aid 2. The eons for none bebssour wil © Redemed i ater upter 18. Sommary | A photon cl const fight aborbing material which connect fon evtereal drei iva esymanotie manoe. Calg aris ae eae | adn to ately the sterption of photons of lish, and ae dives acd neo oter ofthe contact bythe bull spatial agymatey. This ight driven charge spaton ertabishen = photovalage at open erat, ld generator potocrrnt of srt cee When od is cnneted to thence, the cl produce both cares and vliage and can do otal wok, "The tae of he cares geet by the call in shor eit depend spon the ntnty andthe ence) spetu ofthe eldat igh. Photocu © fet ie reltd oSnient pct by the quantum eiconcy ofthe eal, ih the potable of generating an tron per fclen photon fant of hoon ey. When a lad preset a pte erence is {tuted btwn tho terion ofthe ll ad he diver a carzet wally fale the dark ures, nthe opposite direion to the photoeurent. As ‘he a rotans Innes, the pen diference erences and he ‘tomo poet bela Vz i eeached, the cuent-voltage pret by mas us Thee the maximum power prt and thecal shuld be operated _ WL lond estate which oreponds to hsp. ‘Tele al cao Yo mola ww cote: generator in paal wth an "Waldo, ad te curen-vltage characte ven by the ea lode | Suton, Eq 15. Tara lth Bebavou le dapraded by the premnce” ae Paper of ob ae References 1. Andon, Cla Bact fom Ptr wn MD, Arde at RD. Tit (code ingeal Calego Pree, 30), MA, Guam Photnkee Coming of 25, Conf Rear et BE Pht ‘ete Seats Con, 17 Gi), term Star Ey: gern of Pherae Stems (Pree, ‘09. 1 Mara Sle cri (Wi, 720. ITN Se, Somioradctor Deon (Van Nesan, 188. Gh. Vac, Moser Belton (Arb, 1957) SCM ie enpnn flare, Proc 25h Paver Smee Sim olin 192 in Slr Cal oC. Bc (ERE Prey, 00). Chapter 2 Photons In, Electrons Out: Basic Principles of PV ‘24, Introduction Tn Chapter 1 the oar el wae todo ond its peformance character ‘nc won to applied bin and igh, were deine, Ta the cper te eres tne of the thertodypamsieasporte of phatvalte slr «a: ‘Sy contri, The chepter cepa a lowe: ret the radiant power ‘sual rm the su defi the potorlae alls dtingusbd rom ‘ther type fel eaegy converte an the qui of bow ach elas cel worecan be extract in addrned the pencipn of tao belaoe is intoduced aad wd to cause the perirmance characteristic of eal potvitaic energy converter. We sale hat ciency depends on the bad gp ofthe bur bing tei and the nde! spectra: Fal, te properties which are derable for high efiieney Ln real phooveltle 2.2, ‘The Solar Resource "The nun eit ight with range of wavelength, panning the evi, ‘abe aad nied eeeions of the eecteomagaatie specu, Figure 2.1 hows the amour of redial energy cl from the sun per it ea [er unt tine — the cla iradianse ~~ ava function of wateengh ot «| Point ouside the Earths atch, Slr adanc ie grstn at wile Wereeng, 300-60 an, peaking in the Blue-green, “Thi oerateretial specewn resemble he spectrum of « ack body S960 K.A black body omits quate of ration — potane — with & Aisrbation of energies determin by ie ehuactonstie temperature, Ty ‘At pli sn the sure ofthe Bsc Hoy the number of photons wich nergy in the range Bo E+ a8 emited though sl ten po wit onlhe Pon of Slr Cale tangle pe ul a, the spt photon fs (80,6) be by Ls ) ase ea) Aen o.guindsdl = 525 ete 8 the eet of sufie aren around sand he it of sald tous around the deton of emlson ofthe light (,¢) The fx sed inal tothe suface geen byte component of A isegrated ove old sage and ssa alone &8, (8 s)aSAb = [oes 6,9) conan aSaE 3 (; Ee) asa 2) whee Fi & gomstscl fcr which arses fom Integrating oer the {elvan engl range, Just at the surface ofthe black body thi ange iba heme and A= Avay fom the esac, the angus rans i edad std Bnet One ea) here a iste al age subtended ly the caning boy to the pat ‘ice the Baas mousned orto sen rr ha earth 8 = 0.2520 Thaw Rte ecu bya factor 463108 202.16 10x. Ifthe temperate ‘Stal pois 04 th wufce ofthe blk body i the sume, thes tbe Srgument can be dropped fom, and Bg, 2.2 canbe wetter ea Tn he remaining mations of thie chapter wo will ob and, vee sent the sper poton Hx and geomtrcal facto for thes, ‘rotons, Btens Ont Ba rs of ox 2.1, The angular tesed photon Ax deny, 8 ie the number of| shots of given energy pstng though ut ars inn ine, pr ait bold aoe Tes dened sn clement of erase ae, and dection {defined by the angle o the ele noel 8 anda sith ang, 9, pojeuad on the pace ofthe src lamest. Ie stractars with pasar foment ono the pot deat eolved alone the onal Lo the sustaon bP obtaiod by integrating the components of 8 onal t hese over slid male. ‘Teta sony fl dnt or radiance, L(B), erated to Ue itn dx densi through 1) = BNE) ea Itepating Ba. 24 over B giver the total ented power dency, 647s, where op Stan's otal, oe oa [At the e's race tise power dey of 2 MW m-®, Ata poi ju ota the Barta stpomphere the solar fx ode (on acount of he redued angular ange he wun) and the solar power dey rou 1850 W mr In Pig, 2. thn exetarotnl slr spc compared seth the spectra of «S80 K blak body ode bythe ator 48 108 ‘The higher 7, the Bigher the average eoweey of the enitad ration, 1X bla body at the temperatre ofthe Earth, Ty = 300K, omits most ogy a he fa ited wn radiation cannot be aes. For the un, ‘ih T; = STEDK the emasion intenget a Viable wovelengths. A botee ‘un woud ent Light that appece eto, with «apace cited to Sorter waveonghs on Fig. 21, ond a sole sn would spper ee ‘On pasring hough the tnoepete, lp abmorbnd and aoatace by ssi oer conti oat the spectrum rearing the Bart's» he Py of Str Cae Irradiance /W mv? nm / Wo RERER EERE REET EERE Vtevolnath/m ee hn hay pecan uty the ae 6 "08 (gs) a ‘fev erie 5) pcan le eH surf io beh ttmanted and changdin shape. Ligh of wavelengths es has $00 un lord ou by atomic and molec cnygen ote ad trogen, Wate and COs sorb many in he neared an repent forthe dipe inthe abortion spctzutn at 9, 1100, 1400 ed 1000 | (10) aod 1800 and 2600 nm (C03). Atzeunton bythe atinoxphee i ‘tno’ bythe Air Maz! factor, ayaa dened a ome optical path length to Sun sm directly everhead es) where ithe angle of slevalon ofthe aun, at shown in Pig, 22. Th Alt ‘Mase maton spect Seah estate solar spectrum etemsted| ‘by mainan choos ef an Earth sone of standard thes ed ‘he standard epectrun for temperate ltd le Ate Mans 16, oF AMILS, conespending to the sun being at an ange of elevation of ‘The atmenpbri then abood atten the or apecrum toate Inada of ereund 000 Wig-?, However, for conven, the standard teeta aslar spestrum i deine an the AMIS spot normale 50 that the ltagrated irae a 1000 Wen Acta radon clay uty on acnunt of seta ant daly variations i the postin ofthe sn od osistation of th Earth and codon of the sy. Averaged lal tadince ay from than 100 W ma ih atitade to over 300 W ‘nv? inthe unas pacs (cally, deer arn contin nti), 8 howe io ig. 22, (Solas radiation sod opetal aration ae dsc by (Getisehals, 001.)2 he Pa of Soler Cota Fr ficient sla elleton the sola collector shoud be dicely fang ‘he oun Hower, ition nthe poeiton ofthe un man tat any at pte clltor in fe peton wl fac tho sun only pact of the te, "Backing ystems ca be ot flow th run but Case nts he cost. Scaling of itty the stmeaphere means a faction of the Lht bs fee ey ines fom ll angi rther ian set fom the sun. Tis Fraton i ound 18% on average, but lage at higher lates, ad in fevlns where tice elgeaneamoust of Goud ever. Dive ht resets dite challenge for photvaltae eonvrson. Since the hts [not paral dey cauot be ected or eoncnnteted, Maia wh ouch snes ae telately beter sited for dfs iit than perfectly fiat oustace and acer cite to movement of he, 23, ‘Types of Solar Energy Converter "The ohotowlse device should be datingsed fom both ae themal ‘od tte! energy contre, lar thea eneegy conversion nits tom th heat exchange itmeen abot body (de aut) anda cod oe (dhe ela thecal dois). Photachemial conversion i he photovlale “onvcson, 2 queium energy onvalon pocem bu ae wc rele ernest increase aca potntil rater tha detec poe. To - ng thee diferent typ slr energy converter, me need o cones the ieen ses of energy taser fm te st. "The rad eongythorbed by’ even can tbe increas he Knee egy ofthe tomes lect Inthe sboring teal (he etal ‘nego It ca inetease th potential exergy of tho electrons. Which of ‘howe happens depends upon th material aad how te comacted tthe ‘ute wold In slg thermal converter the radia enrgy absorbed i ‘ouvert nny ae internal energy and rao the temperature of the ‘ll The difrencs i tnperatre relative to the abn eos that the Sole ennverter ean operate a arene end do work for lstance by ‘ving steam urine to geere letrc power. Sole ter converters ‘ile the fll ange of solar wsveengts,oeloding the infrared, and ae ‘esignd toon apes. Thay ee thermally inated fom the ambien? to male the working temperate ference as largo as posible ‘A photoralaie converte, on th ofr hand, a denigned to convert the Laide lar eongy many into elettochomesl potential energy. ‘Aoortin of pv in tate neste promotion a an cco to & ‘eae ohighe soney (on cane ste) or te eta letoni ney to tos Bio ut Base Prine of PY = te catincn th xsi tte sul be separated frm he gros sate tyr anenergy gap whle sg compared to, wre kis Bolen! ‘oatat. Therefore the taal sold contin two ot more energy Ive, bands, which ae separated by more than ky. Tn Chopter 3 ea Se les vomenductor te very good example of sucha est. The portion of hn energy bad or hand gop, server mata th etd ‘estsounatthe higher energy along ine compared tothe theta rls fon te tha hey mayb colosted. lectrons in each of tho fret Thode relae efor lal evel equi, ol os thermal on with a eesti potato, ques Fat elt «to od open, the crn i actrchenicl potential nergy gen by the Gibefe energy Vy, whee the amber of lezen pected tnd Ap the difrence nthe cemieal pote bates the exc pors- Intin td the ground tate population Th diferencia which evulte ffom the aborption of ht sometimes eld the dale! potential of| taultion In equi, =, Enraton of elcrochemieal poten ‘Shreya git a hie east lative wha tho ground tate alk [ally and the excited tate bey ‘Ute th sole thermal conver, the poteeltale converter xia colar energy ly fom thaw photons wich energy fit to bd tbe Tend grr. Since thse mainly isto te electrochemical poten eo cy the ier i nero exergy 3 much ha. Ty pct, inernsed temperature san decrease the een of photawlae conversion a plotovatal nll are rslly dei fo bein good termal enact te ambien. ‘To compl the photovlas comversion posts, the exited elotone| tbe enrested and cles, This rages tesaaion fr char ep ‘rtm Sone inti asmmGty needed to dee tho exc ros ‘Sry om ther point of cstion (In ener, hare separation inves poate es enor los ox well ax lectaom, We dese te poco {ers of etn or ply) Thi ea be povided by metve aracte tc ha cacti wih aed (nated ata) ae calletd ab ane contact ‘snd those with low (ground state) a the oer The diferencia chem ‘al potential beeen the otacts, Ap, hen provides a potential diference town he teria ofthe eal Once separated, the charge hou be Allowed to eave wt ln oan eeral cre nd de ell work, Photivolae sonra esr to photacbemial ergy conversion (eg in plotnyetoas) in tant radian soegy produ sa aeewse tletoeiepoesial ener, het Inthe a of poteaybese” Phe Py of Solr Cale Sete po => Pe 24, Becta are aston, Arne done rnold ti cy ly tsp pon tee on pa ny a Eat my a nf Sempron iin {he ected lctronpopation diver chemical ection, the comtersionof| (00, and water no carbolyrato, ater tha diving an etic curren Bt neither cass the alr energy reat in sot fx of eteoni poze ‘oengy constituting work. Toe difrent moder of we energy eaves ‘cecphined in detail by de Ve de Vas, 1982, Tn the fllowing ecto w wll clits te amount of work able foo phntwoeae device, 24, Detailed Balance (ae the date phyla limitations onthe perfrance oa photo: ‘ital sol aro ftom te principle of detaled alae As wells abeoring| tole radiation the soar energy convert exchanges ermal atin with It srronding. Both thy ool and the urvoundngemzoament tds ling wavelength hema, photons on stout oftheir fais terperetre ‘The rte of emison of photon by tol mat be matched by te rte of photon abecrpin, oo at in tested ste he concertina etons In he mata renin contact. 2.4. In equilibrium ice we conde the ilin he dato tharmal quia with ea ot. Assi that the abit radiate «ack body a tmpertute 1, thn, scoedig o Ba, 2.1, proces spectral photon fax ata point 10m the era ofthe aoa ell ig. 8H = 32 Pos by son Ou Bae Pine of PY eee Peer eee mee 60-28 (wl) Ea ee ee eee Se car a eee er Fh) = alt RUE) EPAE) en where o(B} the probability of sborton of a photon of ene Band TRUE) the probity of photon sebactn, js(E) hn letaon eurent city eqvalent to Uo worted photon Bae i each photon of ene BS generates one sro. o(6) town a he absrbanr or aborts, Sol ie dirt ty the abortion cone ofthe material and by the ‘peal path lng tzoagh the devi "To attain tne tla eulalentcutent fr photon abrion Bq, 27 shou be liteprated car the sare of the lr calor, Tho result “pends on te interlace st the eer euros fhe ra surface contacts the al, thn both sides cosets equally, and he equa curent is DdyAdt — RUE}}a(EY(B) fr calactorof ten AL he rae wurace isin coast with «material of higher rtactiveLndex, ny te rate of| platon abortion it enkance by nf ove this rfc, and the ret is H+ H8)A(2~ RLE))aLE)(E) In the case of w perce refetor (wich ‘capable of etlesting thermal photns) tthe ear suc, te equivalent furrent fc abworbed teal pons only ¢4(2 ~ RCE)oCE)a(E). Ta {is eae the aes for tema poten aed slr photon abortion are the amo, sd the device fiir th gets. the lowing analy We ‘Sure that he he cae ‘A well as abeorbing tec photons, the lene thermal plans ty sponte ein, Spontaneous enisnion i the conversion nto & Photon ofthe potatialeorgy tad when an exste electron rl Feground tae (Pg 2.5) (Stimalatd eminsion cacussed in Cher ean Tn nelool since the ler ell peas na lint where the excite sabe alineat ep) This minson Ia poomery to maaan a steady cate ‘Ae in thermal eit wet Ko suonnding, Le, eodving 20 radiation oser than fom the abn, has eperatre Ty aides there ‘al aise characte ofthat terpertie, If sth ents (or probability of waasion of « photon of eoeey £) the ell cutest® Pee Pio Solr Cl —| ts sorption sponancous omission Fe 25. Atwnptioe al oan einen tnt min, on ‘Setttmaminion Seiten om saan oe emit for photo elon through the src ofthe cl ves bo ina(B) = at RUE EEDA es) In oder a maintain a tendy te, to ourent densities ny (Ba 2.7) 200 Sia (B28) mt balance and erlore B= KB) e) "This sa eof ete Ylane: En quantum mechan vr resus fro the ft thas Che atc element fr opin nats from ground ‘messed sae and om etd to ground sate st be Hen 2.4.2. Under dlumination ‘Unde lvmiotion by asl boton Bx y(E) (Ba. 22), ce eal absorb solr photon of energy Bat arte (By oCeKCE) 2 nat er ey se shy a sn Renin Jae) 20 stein (s+ (8 hte the outfit of by i troduced to allow for te fiction ofthe ‘cde nts fx wih hs boon replace by ala edition, "Art cet of mination, part of the election poplation bas ras toto potential ene, and the ayeem develops a chemical po- {ental Ay > 0. fn thee conditions spostaneous onlin b nerd aed svn ncn . | the rate of asin depends upon Ay. Tis makes sent ote when ware ‘etrons ae a aed energy relation eens are more aquest. Assn tng to a enealied form of Plate radiation lw, the spectral photon Bi “ied fom body of temperature Te aad cham potential Oy ato a ned of retctve nde given by eB ore.) = 2 am per wit euface ase ad sll angle [Wher 1982; de Vox 1962 Ine. {ating oer th range of aid angle through which photos esn escape (0 5050.) me cbs the plow fax emi normal othe erase (B.OH) ea) whee (23) a wl) ay Sal's ow, whet the ete dex of he surrounding medium, ew ‘ot tat thi to isthe ame whether the Integration is taken over ‘sternal or eteal sold angle interaly, my mast be retained But the Agua tange miedo 8, whe extmally ng = 1 Bue the angular ‘ange c= boner Nov if nthe probably of phot enon, the equlalent coment Asai fr photon einai Saal) ~ a(t ~ RUB) EIALE, A) eas) Tein ey to ae that Eg. 235 sews to Bg 28 or hcl ia glu, whee =e and Gy 0. Te ent iediatly cleus how a(S) slates {SE} fx the ell ith By > 0- Homer, i has ben sown eleowhese (dau, 1904) fom « poet dete Blane epunen that Eq, 2holds, provided that is constant through the dee. That eu til be wad bw witout peoot "Tene equlnt cures density, fom Ege. 2.10 and 218 by lB) ~ ht) natn (ses (1 6-8) “ais maybe divided ito contbutons fm nat absorption (i exces 10 that ategullium), ana =a0-mEnte (0e~ fie) “ean sd the mit mason, of adatie ambition cutest dnssy Sant) = 1 REED aE (EAH) —B(E09), 18) toting that h(E) = (B,0)-Talesdlatie recombination i a uraoid- te le whi teas tha aborbed salar radiant eneray can eve be {ily wind bythe ole al. Radiv esombinton i diced Father fa Chapter 2.5, Work Avallable from a Photoveltate Device ow we hnveencagh infrmation to cleats the about initing sseney ofa potovlat converter. We wil consider a wo band ete for which the ground stat (ver band) italy fall and the exited ae (upper baud) ep The bande are exparted by a bend yop, Ey, to thot light with <2 aot abocbed (oe Fig 26) We wil same Ut electone each ban bein gia shermal aquirium eth ambient Temperature Ty andthe chemi poveti for that ban, 2.64. Photocurrent Photacuret is doe 1 the net absorbed Aux due to the un, Ba. 2.17 Since the angular range of thesis o soll commpared tothe amb, he second tern in Bg. 217 i ually neglected I each oscton bas 2 proba, (2), of bing elles, we ebtain the photearent dant be = pound sae iio ed sn Psion ih 2 ob a econ sy nr et tear ea the eeAmh ‘sun wit Bf, ase te sanern ora sion wh B= By ern cosoe (ether pon hanno on mer Sey ik dermis fist: Ol he Srna ee an 8 Sort rca by integrating jan ove photon energie sear[fnoa-meienite, aan ‘Tas I dial to Ba, 1.1 withthe quantum eiceney QE(E) sien by tho prods ofthe cation and eborption een tena ontonisne ww or theca ofthe mot ficient solar all we wil pone hat we have perlctiy aborbing,anrefocting steria tha tat al lee poe tons of energy E > Ey ae absrbed to promote exactly one electron tothe Upper band: We further oppo ptt charge spars ao tht al es "Note which survive radiative scobnation ae elected by the negative terminal of thecal an delivered to the extemal eeu (ie. n(E) = 0 "Tin gine the maximum photocrrent er that band gap, suming that ule care generation — the promotion afore tha one lection by~ ‘re Phen of So Cal an absorbed photon — doe ot happen. Then asm eun-() 225 oan z= sve fue em ‘Photocrreat is then «fonction only ofthe band gap aod the melden reer Canty, the ower By, the eter wl be J, eas cet fom eedar aati enecomary to define the spectrum be aby statenet of titre. 252. Dork current ‘ask erent ithe curenttht flows hough the potovaiae deve when, eared inthe dark We wil uppon that in tho el ell mato See aeiee re eet trough nor-aditve recombination, or example Ee lec min the atari The only Ise proces coonidered i the un- aes redlative relation of elnrans through apontaneoun ersion, eed howe. The dack cute density def this proces i ven by areata ve over povon sag aod fora at plate ell wih perfect ear efector given by sata) [= REYMENOE AN “MEO, 0 nin ht ot ot a el i SES a ca a a ama eye oly Cr eo Np Ta coma coe saree yo ibn Hi) tetas swe obai for the tel current denis, yee 0- RDM) BEAN - BODE. 2) pt Be se? 5 pepe ste spin tn 2, naa [[Oe-W6e-Keons, —e20 \JV) i ony Bie dope though the exponential to ie Bg 2.2 Se hae the sppecmate form a) hele 3) -ntre Jo (teperatte dependent) content for the particular materia ‘Tie rol the el dds Be "The net econ cute i thie Sue to the diference between the two photon fx densities dhe aborted Bx, which edneibted oer a ide Frnge of photon energies above the tretald Zp, aad the ented Sux, Sc te concetrted om photon erie nar By. At V increases, the ted fo nceses and he ont cores decrease A the opts eet ‘Stags Vor the ttl ented ax eal Balan the foal abenrbad Bux hd ie net curet fe aeo, IF Ve incendie, the ied fx excels the aborted athe cll begs to tik a ight enltng even Git oe pt in tn rh el lotta net Note tat Var nut sways be lee han He. Tho spectra fxs leading to hone eis ae ntentel sn Fg 2:7(, we P27) strates he recltng J(V) curves. 2.58, Dimiting efiiency "To cleat the pomerconetlon elncy me eal exes the i Cet and exescnd power Rom the photon Axes. The incest power ‘Eovty obtained spy by ltgrting the incest dice (84.24) ‘ome photon ene, [ences am Fr the ovsput poner we aed to knw the etre potenti egy of the aticed potialetrnn Pr thee photocenere es asuned ‘ht no poeta et though ete anjwhere inte eal Tete fice clad oetrona shold have Ay of dete poten energy ad lve Av of we ote xtra eait Snce Ay weave thea he Pa of Str Clo oe oe 3 Son Photon Energy /eV o ‘current density /A Power denally /W mi? eeeebe. geese tiiency Fe 22. (9 Atma (eid ua) ad ( are sorbed but diver only DBa(e eV) of elect eneey tothe load, 0 only A/2 oftheir power is vase, The figure shows lw tia ston all at inrenec. Boe tt B= By only afecton By/By ofthe nent power wvaable, since Wa Fe 2.55. Rifect of spectrum on aficieney ‘To el the ituenor of spectrum on Imting efceey, i convenient to ea blak body spect 7, athe llninatng ute. The pecan ‘of 700K blak boty withthe angular wish of he uni pod model ot theenteateretial (Air Maas) epetrm and pred ening tency ‘around 315% a band gp of 1.3 By abeorbe + that each absorbed phat gests exsly one eeton-bole paleee ‘he Py of Sor Cl thas exited carts do ot rooming except radlatvely, a required by dete blancs, 4 Sat exit cas ate completly sxpaatc TINE Gge os conported tothe eter ait without fo ‘at's examine what thus amaptions een for real phys sates nergy o9P iy a and car materi th cont fh seta fr cotta edt partsty Seta ata ap ange 08 3 siete abe Seiler enh ad apes ty ns be CGRLDSN I cxapund sonore ella aie (GaAs) cutest iP het gp Se ote optima (1420 OTe Mom 0) vn eh oat thc we pop rel son, bs os eoaale EDS Eo Rm ey 02) ot ody od aa ee ie IV muta, Ot compound wnt So ima tee (2) aod per um al de ee toscate) are bang doe! rhs Hpi Re. ees crsnlucng molar match ee Seem we pomig aaa oon ey oer ee igh bern gh shox of iw E> Bw atv 6 ahi Te ee tena fc lating mer ners ote Cea ee ceric alms pert smn on ai ee oes or hot of ran he Hwee St fg pel pt and pve bre cla,e Syl dened tra gy. (Charge seperation Foe s caren to be delivered, the mata shox be comtacte n och {nay thet the promoted eetone experience a sata) erat, which ‘ies them away fom she pit of promatin, This canbe an eles el fore pdt in dectrn dest ‘This arymmery canbe prided by paparag x junction sorbent ‘he surface Te unction ay be an eters bean two lsicncaly de Feat materi or beens ges oft sue neil etd in dif nyse normaly Inge i sea ts masimioe te aoa of sla en 1 laterepad Pr ofuntphotavlak conser the junction quay ‘sof cna inportanoe ice elatone bolt lve as lea posible of ‘hal electrical potential ney while beng plled wan pete repr ing ths lnege an junction aocnanfilly aod without lent ta teil ‘palin chaleoge aad ls the aur of table meter, Lossless tronsport ‘To conduct the chnage to the exteral rca che material should be a good docical eomductor Perot conection mea that aris mt ot recombine wih dfcts or npurit,and koa no! ve up wat fo the salu, The shoald be no resistive ls 00s esbtance) or cace leakage (parle resistance). The material around the junction shld be ight conducting and make good Obie cont othe eternal alt: Mechanisms fr excitation, charge epsaton ad taser can be po ad ty the seniconnctor pr jute, which ie the samiel modelo = ‘lar cal Io chiseystanchargeseparation raced ty acharged junction betwen ies of sicondusor of diflreat electronic propria the ving fro which pasts che chara lectcataie The r unetion al be weted in detain Chapter 6 Optima load resistance Faull the led rstance shoud be cone to math te petting pin ofthe ell As we have sem show, invidualaolar elle tnds to oer photowlags offs than ne nt which ae fen to al to be we. For must applications, wage Is Lceasd by connecting several celle i vere into’ meus and smetine by connecting mo i ein ant ar ot larger array: I practi the load rite oad be atch ‘ts the maximo power pot ofthe ary, other San oe el ‘Ase consequence ofthe duane the materia, only a ery eal suber of materi, ll of them inorgani emiondctt, hare teen de- ‘eloped for potovotis, Onl fw ofthe many poten eal erin have th aszary techolopal Naty, ‘The fvouites are tho evelped forthe microtek industry ~ wc, gallu arene,moepoesaicon, some I-VI apd other IY compounds, only re roy that materia ave bt deaopad primer fr tr apletion in poole Tn tera of be above dacs, the mala reasons why sel slr calle ho tation paoranoe ae the «+ Taconpete aberpton ofthe incident ght. Photos ae refed rom the font suis ox fos the contact cepa through the ell without Teng absorb. This reduce the photocurrent. + Nonradlativeesmbination of photogenerated cris, Bt charger fe tapped det sie ad abeequetyrocombine before blag oo Inctd. Phi ean ooo at th sures where he delet deny higher, rer itsaees with another teil or oa the junction, Resa oti eds bot the photocurrent, hraugh the probed of cts ‘lection, and the vltage, by increasing te dav ore 1+ Nang drop die to aries retance betneen the pot of photgen- ‘otin andthe enteral ect Tha ceduoe the salable power ‘Gece in Chater Te als aes tht ys g¥ Ti flowing say bl show ar diferent design end materi set the dead of tho ea photola converte, 2:7, Summary ‘Touts radiant ergy over a ange of wovelengts, peaking in he ‘ible Ts pacram eit hat of black body a 780K, although ies infuencnd by wtanepberieabeorpica aed the poston ofthe ex, ‘The sanded whe spectrum for potoataiecabration ls the AM 13 etna ‘A pools soar enarey conrar absorbs photons of rate tray tone ection tow higher enerey lel where tay have increased ‘eto potential energy. In nde forthe exited elton tobe ‘teaced a lcrcal poet hernia mst pos an eee GaP F ‘band gup. To cauata the sbeolte tng acloney of a photovlai coegyeoavrter, we ue hs principle of dtd blac. This bows for th fact that any body whch abaese Lg must aso eit ight. Apo ‘ovat deve wil nit ore light when opal extol on account of he entra dertrocbnmeal potential ney ofthe esters. Tis radiative combation i he ncaolatn which imately ite the fcr of «| otvoia el. The eure lived by the ken potoconverer is due Plt Bons Ont: Bates Pring of PY » tothe ference betwee the Bs of oto babe fom thon and the fx of photos emitad by the exited devin, we he voltage fd to the eletrocemical pont] energy ofthe excited ltrs. Pom ths we cles the cuset-sltage carats ah Wel slat ll The mad ‘um eficieney depends upon the nda ses and the bandgap ao for s standard solar spectrum tie around 2% ta hand gop of eV. Fat seal device to epoch the iting eens should have an opt, xeray wep, strong light absorption, eficieat charge sopacatio and charge ‘wansprt andthe lad essence sould be opin References GL Aajomd A Bat, Able ning nc pha ny ‘mtr, Soar Bary Mauls Sr Ca 3,2 4 ai Berri tof lr Boy cen On Gated, The Seer rece and the Panera f Raton or sets By Spt Sse, Onaa, ot seen Be mr nt tn hal aa i ny tee "aed Spl Pye S00 stelle aed) Quay, Dead tls a enyermne- pi sil da Ply 98, ia (8) i "The ces peel oat Phys, C25, 3 (8Chapter 8 Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors 241, Introduetion Jn Chapter 2 we considered the requirement for pholoelaeenray ea verson Wo cule tata autble photovtae material shuld aber) ‘nl igk, pomtea » band gap between the intial occupied stan and {he al unoceuped stats which are involved npn absnetin and be sie to transport charges eficieatiy. The gap i ees inorder to make the extra pte energy which elections gala foun photon abeorpton ‘sable asleep. Al ssondacing and altng sb poe sos an energy gep but ely semiconductors ar suitable for phtorlae, because the gap of insular sto lrg to pormitsbsoration of nble light. Most melecslar slide pom an soegy ga, but with the ‘owption of ome conjugated molar materi the charge eapar is ‘he nein to be wal ele cl "The band gap important because enables exited elcronsto ema in higher eer lvl for long enough tobe exploited, 1 lestrone mere ply romcted rough contsuum of energy lel a e's etal, or ‘cample, they would wary quickly dey bas down to thr ground sate ‘rough a sre of clermediate el, The abuance of eapty levee at Intermciae eergy mens thatthe probability of an exces electron being estore toa ower energy stat wn the Cal eer f the oil level high. At rom tnigerture th thermalaton’ of crit the nnd edge ocr in Fateseoade, Whan cn dete excl sts © and esp, eel decays to th lest nonlable energy sae in the conduction Ld (he conduction ba edge) but the ext lage — decoy ‘crosthe band gap toe vacate nthe lene band — Is ow, o shown inPe 3,od oe rg 31, Prato ete om lst enon al 8 be EX Shinn eid spe oa oni Sh ern tn prc the erent majority of experience wth photovlale mater: sss bse ona all snber of smicoaducor teil In this chepter ‘od he at we il xine mn tne elif wn Cnduclors. We wil focus op the lactone and opal proper of e= aioe moter We wil show bow the opti! abd elcteone properties esl om th etal rete Tn thi caper we Introduce the concn (of dentity of ates, enctron dtsibutin antio, doping, ques thereat uli ed te Sno acto doers In Chae Stew tet the pote of charge carr geseratin and recmbiatoe rmicondoctae tnd show bow to tt up the samicondtor transport unions hich ae ay to te pyc of platoolaic devi, 3.2, Basie Concepts 82.1,, Bonds and tonds in crystals ‘When « pir of alana ae tough togeber ato o molecule thle atom Citas combie to fo pi of lela ital aeeoged igh higher {diy ower in nergy than och oil eve. We ay that che enety Teel have sls When a very lage mbet of sts come trates in {soi each sonic orbital pit isto a very age maber f lee 0 ‘oe tgeter in bey that they elt form ocnuum, of Band of ‘lowed lvl, The bn dt dfret laa bias oy or may ‘reap. Te sneaydtebuton of the Bands depends upon the electronic ropartie oth sons andthe tenet f th bending between the, 1 ‘iM + ‘i nt psi vray eng og tar Sad nh at al ‘Sts rely a) al nomen bp) te gre» | ‘todas ropa ‘Bands are occupied oF sot depending upon wht te orga meee ‘iar orbital were covupnd The highest ouped band, which cota the Valeos elton, snotty ello the ealeno ond (VB), The est un ccupied band it calle the conduction tard (CB). IF tha valence band rill rif oveage a eneey with the lowe cupid bed, the folds @ meta. Tn a metal the avaabty of empty state st siren ‘Get mals icy for « vance econ to heel ot senterentos Iighbourng ate Thee elossons ca realy act a tanepoters of ba cr care, ed so the slid conducts het ad elec carren ee lense band comely fll and apart fo the at bad ‘yan energy gap, tes the sd i secendactor ora instr. The tlectons in he valence baad areal completly fvoved in booing a snot be ely semeved. Thy requle an eestyequalent fo th bax ‘2p tobe removed to tbe sre ralable weap el, Thee materiale haere donot aondet bea or eet easily, Saicondocos are dtingused,rovghly, athe group of steals ‘ch band api the range 05 t 14V,Seondtors hare el uci in the davk Dente oa asl numberof valence tens ll ave enough Kinetic epeay a? toon temperature to be exited eon the ‘rad gap a room temperature. This intr ony decrenes with Inca band gap. Tneltore ae ws bad gap maerle wheat coe ‘ctv is oglieat room temperate. Matra of Band gap <0 6 ave a reasonably high conductivity aad are wally ow a seninetl ‘Wes te sol fom ele crystal then the energie othe bands ot he fonder can be preted exactly. Exactly whch eyes“ {ePaper Ca, solid wil adopt depend upon the numberof vn lector end oer factors Bl profs a coniguation that mininses the total ney. A aad api ily to are na eystal ractare wher al lence elects ‘ce wel in bonding For example, the alo ator possess four valence ‘etronsin it terme Sean 3p stam orbital Ifthe aa buh fom tends with four lghbous each ening one leton, hen al valence letra would be orien bonding In eretalin sco hin inacieed ty the hybridisation ef the 3 td Jp orbitals ino at of fur deganeate sp eit, which are etd in space wit tetabadealsymetr, a ‘low he formason of four Wetel leon sion bonds with elghoarng ‘ome (Fig 13). When the eretalie slid fame, the op obits pl to for poi of bands. The lower, bonding bund ls completly ied by the wlece electrons and the upper, atibonding er conduction band, i completely empty ine peret crystal at abslate aro. Some cls can fist inden phases, For inane, cazbon can frm her the highly ‘aelating, wide bas gap, damond esta srurue whee ll ur valence lotions xe sed wp in eoalesebonde with neighbouring carkon atoms, ‘he encarta tute where only the valence elton ae Inooled in ditected onde with eghboureg tome while the remaining tleton is cel involved in bonding wth another pane of easbon stems ‘od vlatvely moi, 82.2, Blctrons holes and conductivity AL abolte sara temperature, a pure senicanuctr ie unble vo conduct est orelacry sine ll of ts eletrone a involved in Bodine. Re the temperatures eed the lactone ain oe ic energy fo ibations Qr ofthe lice and smn are abe to break fe. The od edatrone hate boss ‘Scoted no the conduction band and are able to rae and transporte charge Sheers. Mearwh, the venue whch thay ave eft bei ae able 1 move, and ea ls conde ose Boe 2). The bighr the epee, the restr the mnber of dectrons aad aks which re mobiled, and the bigher the condo “Bas 3.4. Blecrons ond totes ‘When an siactron seme from a Hood bec ates, «pail hanged vaca) remains, Ths vacancy canbe filed by enother ecto, Ino only by electonn which are ovale in neighbouring bord IF Cie {i eos baal We op) on cs re ere ook ‘i panic wen tonne oan) apa ee ‘i onia hat by mon nthe opt ust v0 sto Th tw ttn SEO opt oe nee‘he Poof Slr Cale uppens, te wstsy mow othe sghbouring bend. The ration of hla ‘the vlens and renin pans whey chorge ca be tested the pemnte ofa ltr ald, « bonding, ot slene, elstron can repond to the Fld by moving ita the hole. Te vcaeey whic I Jn blind be filed by snatervlene eto, ards on. The net nove of the vlenncteoe agains the fad equlest tothe move of sitll uber of pte ols in the destin ofthe Bld. Since there ae ‘uty fever slots les tan electron ie mck ore convenient othe fn terme ofthe mio of ble through the vanes tnd Tews ptive Des canbe characte witha mobility sod an elactve mas, ute consti letrone. A soisondutor canbe made to conduct nother ways the mata ‘exposed wo ight of energy gleter Un the baad gap » photo cas be sbsobod bya rleesloston to fe tron: Keats eon to {he codon band. Tha oestes «vacancy i the vlene band. The ee letron and ole crete ln this way ae elable to conduc ect ‘Tas ected phtoconductty, the phenemenan which et drew attention te plore atrial (ne Chapter 1), ‘Alteroatily,inpurte wit diferent numbers of lence ectons ot ie bord scents can be add to the material Elecrore or bles ‘may be reed ore ul trom theo Inpro an fom tbe ative oan, "tty nsreasing te amber of ares normaly lable er eondion somparal Io the pare secenducor. Delbert adn of inputs ve Incense cust this way elle. doping. Both ofthese proces ~photocandctivey and doping — wil be dete ater. Inthe next ston we wil conser what controle the neste arrange ‘ment andthe dyin ofthe cetrne and bole in umicondacte. 138, Electron States in Semiconductors 8.94, Band structure "To locate the esergy lees ofan stom ora lac, we aed to ale Sehrdagr's equtlon. In old we do the same ehing, exept tat 0% | sve need total acount ofan inate ara of tale potent, ad ot Jost the few whieh suako up our oleae Tn crysaline aerial we ae hl to tke advange of he fact tha! the alae potentials ae arranged ‘on an Inte pace Iie The peridity of the lace moans that er the probably dcubuton af the aceon a lob padi, There is bo pisical reason why an eaeton sould ocupy «patel st within ‘he sit al aber than within any othe, Decne the ates inf, the ecto abou form deloalied ates which extend throughout the frp jat Hira elacton ine pec. ‘Tho sot of wuefuntion wih ‘Snes thee condos bs the Bloch wavluntion tthe product of padi pst wg) which posse the pedi of the latin and Plas wate parts Tho periodic prt related to one of he atm oils evolved inthe cytal strata and ines is symmetry Th pane wave rodlates the wavefunction ad Is aalogas to the wavencion of ‘cton in oe pace ach Dloch sat ths characte by «cys hand and wovevecarK, ‘k.0) = wale ny Jn quantum mechaszal terms, i 8 good quantum nuzbee. For ea ginal comic ob thre ontisuou st of lations with decent {Kphich makeup the wavefaneton inthe ith expt band, he a) od tlgeeneries E(k) aa general, fund by sling he ckringt cane tin foreach band for each Ke The map of ees Eagle waveretor eel the eel land arate (ce Bax 5:2). The () ae ally rapidly varying with distance and eal dependent on ke la canely ‘ed eprentin, called the efetve mae apponimation, the k depth dence of the ua(f) Is eget. Then al of the duc iformation Sx ‘tsi inthe plane wave part ofthe waveunctin, sad the wf) ome In ehough cio parameters or 32 Band wractere aprons 5k) i arsally pote aga fk fo he too these os portant s/o, the emery ‘postr patel Thi i bec in pero truce wit pci ‘waver which dif by mall of n/a cannot be dings« he Pa of Slr Cals 1.25, hat band tsa et pst For mot crystal for < Oe funtion £0) ential to B(—L) ice Hates with postive end native kare degenerate. Tecelore all he er ‘uation abott Bk 2 cotaond isthe rage 0 =f < 2/0, ad only his fection ads to be ported. The pint k= r/a calle te Blouin sme Toundary At thee pont, the wave fncton I a tanding wave and the diet of (k) vain, Whnter the energy rucher a maximums oF {umm depends onthe symety ofthe bn We re imarerte isthe minimum and maxlaum cote of he crystal ats, snce thee ditenmine the band ga, and inthe fre of EY) near te thse stationary pats 2.2.2. Conduction band Fr the cndton bd, the minima of the energy Be) may occur at k=O or another vale fk eoreponding an tmpertont detent he crystal Neu to minioum of energy at k= Kg it often convent 10 ‘expand the £(k) ia power of (ky) en epprninace Bk) by 82) where Fup = Bl), m4 parameter withthe dimensions of mass and {sdefioed fom the hand structure by 2-32 a Gr cent sd Hk Sion “ ‘This ithe poral hand opresiatin Th efetie asm isanslogos tothe meat of ie aoton mo, but die rm me trough the diferent {ovo expec by alco win ryan canbe oat ot les thas; lange ves of m imply that the conetion eletrone Se strongly eluaoed by the slomie potenti me devetiee haw the ‘nono P conduction satan respon oan spb force, F Pome os ‘The valu cm determine bythe stomic potenti, Th ict as ‘nu way i nicht (7) te tote ston dye inti op reminatin Inger shoul! bea tenor dependent onthe dectva heap fc aod the dts othe awa acu Honve, dar tothe band mlm tho band strate ben top end can be ‘oprximatet ty «conta "Te wo tr B39 ope th plants eee of sconucton band detton wit ever I canbe Ue dei Ue sare vet, o9 (a) 33.3. Valence bond In the valence band, we roe an pression forthe exergy’ ofthe hole arto the aleoce bad mmm Since ble eps the awe of fn electeon, and eletons prefer to have elite enerey as pole, #6 ‘mort table stanton fora hale where the sco enema ‘Therefore hls are most Ul to ext at to «valence band naan, sd hve etic energy which inereen as £0) edced. Fr ale eat (VB masimum a Ko, he orgy cat be spprosinsted by PP bal 21) = Ba Ee en where B= Bl) rig 8 ol eso aah es)” The Pot Sor Cae sed wonton pewe-bo) oo heh Bt mead enh --A2Re a so that th mass i nomally postive. In gece, ch efisive mas of ‘lectooe and bee in the some veicondotor ae diferent, boca the orate ofthe condition snd valeos bands ae diferent, 834. Direct and indirect band gop ‘The minim amount of energy which wil prone an elton fom the ‘sleae band into the conduction band eld th uadamental band gap, EE. Ifthe CB risimaam and VB masimum occur at the soe vl cf E, then a photon of energy Fy slot to rst a stone al typeof eemlonductor called x dec bond gop materi ‘Nom, ithe CB man and VB ia occur at ijt vluce of ye photon with enetay By i not on its own sutient to eae a0 ‘tec ole pale Promoting eleton from the VB maxim to he {CB minimom would nuse« change in ts meoestun, of 90h — ko) Moneatum har to be conserved in a expt, but snc photons pres ‘iran vo momeatam, tat ete womentun tbe ele by some ‘hing le. Uuallyitis uppity a phonon — a atic vibration ofthe cera: monsetum. The phos ve up te azar to the laton the moment of photon alsorpilon so cat Both energy ao moment ae ensarved. This type of sualondactar ell as arc nd gp mate al Cle, photon aborption can only happenin inet gap ates if here ae enough phonons avaliable withthe raged value of Thi ‘meas that opal abortion is generally kor fr dite: than det {hp materiale and Uti = ore howl dependent on temperate. The Akependenee of absorption on photon energy ls alo moze gradual, ew be ‘ncued in Chapter 4 or deve piyses parposs, wsually only the CB minum end VB mann energy are represented in an enegy-dtance bad ding och (2 Fig. 3.7. Th gies eno information on the dap of te band rut, 0d doe ot tut wheter the band gap ret or incre. Sites omen Tien teal yap 37, ey bd aga a mitt 83.5, Density of states According to the Paul exon pine, each quantum sat ean support only wo ecto of diferent spin. Since each quantum state ln a eal 5 defined ty a nique mle of (kis od quart ramber), there oul be two sletrone per vain. A ental of volume Ex LL oa) oppot(L/2e) fret value of, obd eae there ace (1/25) ifeentre tates per wit crystal volun, This follows fom the segment tat [Lar man be an ntege fra wavefunction cone i elon of wth Ee Tncleding ein dageerscy, the dana oflction sates pr nit crea whune (8) = 2 dite gig ey 1 asm eat the action lvl are clase eg the integral over kta bea goed approximation tothe om fk state. Tels geerally nach more weil to now the dant of ates (DOS) a tenn of egy, cathe than wavercioe, We we the band arctare E(k) to convert te Inara over warevetr spac in By 3.1 ino'an integral over energy. the hand stractre antrope abot the Ine sien, ‘Soumed ore to be at k= 0, we can waite fai = of) x ae aaa) whee ay (BME = ft) «ant? x as, as) (bn nina th 0 snpy eg abot (kha) Te ‘nuk fr (the ann) Soating be 2 ert r ae prone oy 1 the purabae band approximation, B(8) for an econ in the CB i ‘ina by Ba 32. Pom this we btn 2g ea Se Be) (15) Digerentiting Ba, 3.15 tofiad $5 cud substituting a 3.14 wed the DOS forte cB, a8) = gs (25) "(E- Ba” 19) ma ay we tals th alee yf 1 amy mo-B()" em oun r “The parabolic bad sprorinstion fn only ited vat for ral mae tasks At ental far fom the pineal and tne (or nasi) ‘Showon steer a olbae mymrtry poita i che band stuctare must be filed, datorting the DOS tom the fr ln Bas 16 and 37, Whore {he paebols aa proximation realy nappropeate we oud we te for of YR) in Ba. 3.1 Becton So far ws hate rated the lactose ae saesldopendety We have tnt conierd interactions betwen charge cares wich may tfuence the deity of states An important lee the Coulombic interaction ‘remem leceons and bos, whieh gies rit to bound state called tone Eeitone tater re uit wp rom cabatans af deo ebd ale states ofthe nme Pipl they may bo statonny (= 0) er mbile Wiis the eral. The exciton eerie maybe ealeulstd by consdenng {be Caslmbi nteacion sea perturbation ofthe independent pari ‘ye potential Abas state of the ore a ik oul) then stn ydrogeni lective mas equation a wae Fo Teale 7 Bo where 4 the seduced effective mate ofthe eator-holo pay the Selec petty of te senconductor and ~Byy is the nding energy sentra Deter ah ct eee Ne iereenegemeni ceeeeee er se th etn Seater ronan car whee 1,25,« The Paco Sor Cal srinime end nina a inportas in theoptcl properties fr semen ‘store, peli ow densa structure, In molest tel, ‘sstoni tater ae ery Inport and dominate ov Used tte ott tis perturbation aprosch bi not appropiate or 99 Low dimensional tes ‘Toe store trostment of density of states bal ot a nae eatem ith otropc symmetry and wonld be nai for tighly ron trople ye ens, One important wach clae ae low dimensional srctres whee ear crs are conf one, to or tae denon by the preseee of aa erature sock ws quantum wel quanta wes sd quam do, Tn thee ass the decteos moti e aoagly quant in the coined rection fcreasing he iain eotgy above the mau which pio in the bulk Propgsting stats can only ext inthe unvonied ise os ad 2 the um over stan fo B84 sat be a ia one ‘or zrodtcion ater than thre. Te eta the och of (2) ie ‘hanged, Fortwo dimensional str, the DOS, tow pe ait sey the sep aneton sutt)= ($$) en) cas where 6(8} ic tho Heaviside function and. eprveat the wom, ie, ‘oinsoum eaegy ste Tp one dimensional apna me have the DOS pet ‘at length nuit) 2 (MR) ear, an ‘hose conigutons ee rele some of he sol photovotale mate le and dvie designs, which wl be cuted a Chapter 16 3.6. Blectron dietribution fonstion To caluate th dest of deta and hols ror the easy of tte, we oot to know how the sates ae file. Lats dite a dtebation fe Uo, fe) aaah that fb he probably that atop he slecten, ‘tate of wavevetor kt ocepie. "Thon he deny of lta ia meal sola Ph around i hen by ninatk = ote ek sod the total electron dealt In te enuction bad by the sam over we Sins hole an moceupedcletton state, the probability of «hale state Ting oped abmpiy = () Th the dey of oe isthe valence “ im we) 3:37. Hlectron end hole currents. at boleh om) LHe, 620) Ta the fictive mae approximation trereprensta by probability dstuton of plan wavs To Bd the le tress ole creat, we mie to weight ech probity car dees Uytsgroap elo Non by nalgy with the rer foe fee elctcon,te ipoup bay of an elton of eeeve mass mg in state Kis 2, The re Scteon cure eit inthe condaton bund should Werle be gia ly th nm of entibtons ovr kta, a knee 22) 6) sd the hole current dest nthe conduction band by so-8 fo, wheze we she ae of the fact that cuneate pall to hole Bow, and Sigal to eeton Bo ‘oy n one to calolte the deptes and yale of elections and Intern ouraemionditor me need ta knot Sstrbatio fonction J) ‘ul ante DOS. In general, fi positon dependent aad eles upon (extra factors with my ay whi the maa For the seca eae la sstem is thermal ogi, However, this datzbaton i epatily Tevariant abd deibed hy Farm Die waitin. Thine ental in te kno 6 ene 25= The Pye of Sar Cale 8.4. Semloonductor in Equilibrium 4.1. Rermné Dire satiation At atslue go the eatons have no ct arergy and abaya occupy the lowes aval lve ling up the avaliable states in dar of Inervsng, seg. Te energy upto whl teraz led ele the Perm ener [Bp At fate temperate the setrons have some Mincle een, abd some of them ae eat into sates above ving some states below Bp woecpe. ‘Thermal piri means that thee ae no nt exchange of pasties or energy between diferect plats inthe semiconducor of betwee se ‘emicondctor and te wrroundings. very pont in te sconce i tthe ambient temperature, 7, so that alle ave the same serge ‘netic or inferal nergy of $y? where hp Bolts consist. The ‘inrbation of prtls has sted o that that there ze vo net paste ‘owsaed Ey the suet all pola Ta thew equlbviun cdtens, Fra Dim statics deere the mt sate energie dntbation of sete which content with Shee internal ergy (kT) and tte tata potential ergy (E) ‘or thir space, i dependent upon waveretor oly lnplly ‘tough the election energy nd ls ndopeadent of poston, 10k) = BW), Be.7) aan) wre f(E, Bp) is the Feri Dine dttbtion function, ging thew tage probity that sn elroy state as enerey Bw be cored tome temperature, FAB P= 25) 34.2. Bloctrom and Role densities én equltriam ‘Th catron ale deste can be deived smn Eas. 8:21-1:29 ting fp. Provide tha the dean of tats canbe exes tre of ene, ita sealy more navies! todo the culations overseen states In ‘ecm of eury. Thea the mber denty (6) of elstona with enaray ia the ange Ea B+ 28 ia a aya with ty of tte (8) ge by MEME = (BYE, Ey PME 29 Fr and he otal deny of lcteons in ¢ conduction band of ms energy Eby . [steed Bere @2n wit ope teh ora Reena es oe . p= [Tate mb.enma. ay ee tthe energy dntibation of eletrone and bo ln w seconds wit rowshly parable bands “© o——_} 2 me) 9 : © 4 4 ‘ * Be 36 Duty tate ntin 5) of asennad Fe ‘os ero ctf) al egy ro, m3) of ron hat oa) FS ond ae tcp® Phe Pg of Sole Cale 8.4.3. Boltzmann approzsmation era womizonductor at abot ao, he valence band is completly fled sud the candustion band completely empty. Ta means thatthe Fermi level must le somewhere i the bend sup. Now, if Fpl far enough fom bots had edge, fy oan be well apprsinated bythe Masel Botzman| form, Inthe conduction band when E> Er, fo pT) 8B oan sin the valence band where B «Er, HBB. TeeONMT Bey (B) ‘Toes appacimations simplify the integrals th exreson form and 1p above (Ege: 3.27 and 328). In the parable and apprinstion, wing ‘318 and 3.17 fr g(E}, mand pcan be elated easly. We fad or th desron dest, ne Noopl(Bs ~ Balter) 3) whore the constant Nei eal the wcie conduton bad dec of tates a i given by gar" (a) os Sesh ety p= Me — Baa sy th hie nbn yt na2(282) ow uations 381 and 3.33; very simply, hat theeleeron and bole denier ‘ey expouertally with the poston ofthe Farm! ltl i the band ge. oreo, they tall ws that for any gen maar ogee temperate ‘he produet np i coostan, mp Nene, 39) rr ‘his lationship wt to deine «costa property ofthe mate, the Satie case density nB anya NeMyer tat 9) ‘eeu athe desty of elestone which are teem exlad into the {CB ofa pure semiooaduter ia thermal equlisiam, and cacy len ful to the somber of oes which ve been ae bind tis sometie convenient to weer and pia terms an anita teil enery B, n= meanl(Ee ~ B)/heT) (sn) = men(Ei~ Be)/AxT) 38) tess = }te-+)-re() = +6) harn(3) am i an carey clone to the conte ofthe band gap, ad al to the a lee of be pte seconds a agua, ‘Another physically important quarty ls the electton ally of the second, ki the lent amount of eoerayreuied fo reove at ‘leon fom the od. ek wesred fot the condition tad edge to the vmewum lee Big. Eye tho ety 20 wich an alotron sat be tale tobe feof laren or hes. Any apt aston in Be rede to eetontati li The eonduton and sence bad edge ad Se eran arin, Seaton 5 ey cj etrT ® he Phyto Slr Cae ‘the Feil ean be rlte to Bye a llon Bo Bux Validity of Boltzmann eppresimation ‘Th above approimatons or man p held a long ao EBs a wd Be-B tafe, ondons whlch ae ually ve fo semicndctor in elisa, Mtb Damo band approxinatin i ot apprpslate, then te fon of Ne and ‘el diferent, but tag dapandone of an p wil the ame ‘6 shove. mand p dvr from the snp expaneatil form in conditions ‘here the Fen les appeoaces to lost CB or hight VB lee. This ‘an Inppen ifthe smkconactor i Sighiy doped (se below) or hee i 1 high density of dct state in the and gop, Then the smionductr Ue eld to be dane nd the fll frm of the Fermi Dias diteoation, iq 824, mut be wed to eelute x nd p. 2.44. Blectron and hale currents én equilib "To Sad Jy an Jp im eats, we nod Wo eluate Bo. 3:2 and 828, vith lex) = (E(k) Bes T), Hoe the integral most be dove owe Ke atest kocere ex lath negrand, However we cat ae vaotagy of what ne Boom aboot the dependence of on Sine in the Farsbolc tasd apprinaton, ls a even funtion of, gE) and {EBT ate ao wren fenctione of. That manne tet th inte ‘Band, KB) (E14), Bp, 7) wl be aa odd faction of ky and go oho Integral when talon oer al aes wl vanish, ‘hrf Jy = Jp = 0 ‘ey nome current Bowe in the semiconductor a equi, That b sey wae we moult exer. re From the above agumeat we an alo 6 tat (kt) tsk be ay smote la kif the election and bole utente are pot tov 35. Impurtin and Doping 35.1, Intrinsic semiconductors ‘Toe semicondctor decid mo far i intrnle — i is «per crystal ‘utaling no inputs. Te cay ebay lel permit ae th lees of ‘well defn k whic se fom the vel of he stor bia ato rye {sl bans, desribd abe. The proper ofthe buds dezrnine the sion ofthe Frm lee in uibrtm,E, and the deat of eats ‘hich have enough teem enerzy tera he Baad ga and conduct c. Lay. They ao determine sondactnty ale the inne semleondactor bas electrons and m hale salable fr sondton a caus s sven by = ann + gp (ay ‘shore and pe the mates ofthe lctons an hls, respectively, {yb the electric are Tn equ, ad pate replaced wi ny na 31, [A oom tenperatne the cndutviy of atic emisondaeor i owcaly very anal Fr example tits slicon n= 02% 10" em and o = 3% 10-* Oba? om, at 0 K. Conductivity incrnse With Ineeaing temperature, and wih decreasing band gap sce my var 0 e806, For example geranium with a band gap of 074 eV hae = feonductivity of 10-F Oba em! white gain ene wth band 99 of 142 eV las conductivity of 10° Ohae™ em, many des of ‘mugltde alle. ‘Now suppose thatthe retain aly ctodacng a Input stom | or stucarl det The inpucty or df nodes bonds of diferet Strength to thas which mabe wp the perfect ey and thee ehenges ‘hela dstebuton of eens energy eee The altered energy ves reload nls th density of dete very beh), lle the extend Kstats which make up the inti conduit ad vlece ban states, ete inputy energy level occur within the band gxp they can ae the letronie ropertia ofthe smiconductr, eendacng occ pe sty Ives shove £ incense th Fema lee, we tse the denaty electrons relative oor a equ (0 ea fom Bap, 337 and el2.38). In the sume way snocrapad lve below F reduce th Fu el ‘an incense th drat of ise lative to electrons Th deri and the ate ofthe crite in he smzondartor an thi be cntolle by adding ‘efinite aoa of purities wi ney levels ore tothe conduction ot valence bat ee. This ie ale doping ‘A semeouductor whieh bas been doped to increase the deity of ler ‘rons else to hola is eal n type (ho pepe charge eaces are negative) Occupled lev between) and Bare inode by replacing fee ofthe stom inthe creel tie with purty ators Which omens (oe co many akc dlctron fo he numberof rytal bond Suh Duris ar called dinar atoms becuse ey doste az ext eleton fhe Iatce An example would be an stro phosphors, which has fe ‘dancin, a th teva alco ate. The era leon at ‘eed in the song directional eralet bonds which hold each tom 0 Se four nalghoar. Thrlore ite much ls wal Bound than the othar ‘lence electrons, nit intend hid rather Joely in Coulombic bout tat ith the phosphors ator. The donor eas be arin elativey easy, leaving the extra leton fe a move andthe fod donor ata polively charged. For typi danor, he ication anergy, Vani some meV ott fof meV. Asuning ehjrogeni bound sta, the \tlatlaneaerey is a rotated by type doping Me rest wae 6 nae dst cust of th mae and pd the Fd emg, 1.60 For palpate semieandctors sat nde of 10 an ha oe, aasiag Vw be dane by 2 ater 10 capa to th Rbere. Proved ta he ina we 0 ‘Oat Va anal eough, way all the oo ate wl be el Tn the band pcr, Ue daar elcrcs ateYen rotd f 4 lel nthe band a, Vow to th conduct band. Se the door tts rol ed at =O, te Ren el tome Been {be dee rl and ‘Te dnt of cai can be cnt by vying the deny of depart Ng > aad the doers ae ay ed Re r 2 os) inc p= fat equilium, The ecto dest snow greatly incengad ‘rer ite equilib valu, while the hole dena ag edced he sletuonsarebaecalled the majorly ces and th oles he minora tie: othe tia cue, the etl deat fcr encod, ‘ds there i the conduit. Conduction in nto seleonductors, ‘mainly by dectons, 35.3. p type doping ‘A seicoductr mich doped to incre the density of pctv charge ‘carvers relative to egstiveis called p ype. ei prodco! ty replacing sme ofthe tons inthe crystal with ctpor imply atoms, mich contribute ‘oofew mln electons rte bonds hey aed to form An expe would bw the tae lament bran in ion. Tw acer become nied by removing vlece eect fn soother bed to compat te bende Utena Is four neighbours. This rate ole nto the valence“ The Poe of Slr Cal | il 8 | 3 l ©: tod gsm Warranty pip thebod (t)adat ) are The pono a ety com nie yng {tote crn songhoung or The ated eons moe bond {Cena tral eal sm Po end niw l t i 0==0: Ei i i i i tnd, The nergy of thane sate be hgh, by «all acount of nray Vp, tan the bigest energy af «valence Hand lect, a 9 the ‘ceptor nary level appans Inthe baad gap cls to the Ylence bad ‘ge The Perm level nom ine between the ezeptor level and By. ‘Thee ypesumicondurtorscataa an exces of pole cares, ble, ora doping dost of My minal acepors, we find pam oa) nant, eas) ‘Agtnthe toa crtr deny and hence the conductivity getty i resed, but ow conduction mainly by bok, which ee the ajoity ‘cares thin cae Notice ftom Ba 3ST, 338 and 842-24 how the changes inn and 1p ae content ith the changes inthe Fem ee. In an iti (ce, fr) semiconductor Bp Iss roughly in cho middle of the baud gap. The ‘eto dping sto sit he Fei lee ay frm the cent of he band ‘9p, tardsB, nw ype miter, oud towards By isp We materi ‘Note aso tat, lite heating and mination, doping a wa of ‘resng th conductivity of th siconductor at equa without ‘ing coostant spt fener. ‘oes band ope Stade ogo nat ln lt tp ceszean” nen an S54. Bifecte of heavy doping ny doping cases mpefctins inthe ey srstace which eppone ‘Sots in the bad gap daw tothe CB and VB slgs Theos sates have the efecto ang a tall vo the CB and VB dent of states fantom, so ete reducing the band np The inti cri dealy wl Ince, ease thermal excision ara he Baad gap ease, and his Ine consquenes for anlar ell perfomance, Hesry doping oo ely to increase the deny of delet stat which act tt cetie for catet, ‘metbination or taping. 855. Imperfoct and amorphous eryetale ‘Asal extn impurities, saondctrs oy conan tne defo vehi intodac owls inca the band exp and tol the lactone prop. fics. Even ie e pecker menorytline senicondico, conlguratena Aides fom broken bonde and sructalearangeeat a surface, loapovestalinsemiondncor, made ap of grains ofthe stn cyt coos oriestatlons, dlc acer at gain bedi, Thee deeds ay tse anoterve nc material to bene slighty op tye bya oping. ‘Ther can alo be responsible for charged boundary ges He to ‘etic grin boutdates in dlbeatel doped mates, wich impede There is another Important group of semiconductor aes, er Pou semiconductors, Thee have a ene wtrstae ta tees on the shor rang, but hav no long range order. For Insta in amen a ‘on, while ac son atom bond our agthour wit apronPo The Pa of Slr Ca teteabedral syste (jt ao xytaline toe) the arangemet of jon alta four o ve bond lags evayeppeat almest random, The ul dvitons ia bood Iogth and eintton give rar to © epead ‘reay lls 0 hat the denny of sates ner te eonduction Ba mii {a alence Bal suximum tend o decay with ener into the bend {hp iat Urbch ta ater than etng off beuply. Atprphovs se ‘odors ze ala very daly to eentain defor du oes and broken tends Ieee dfs ond amarphour semiconductors wil be discuss in Capta . "A vey igh doy of deft inte band supe une, base ted natn conten cage ection (we Chapt 4 alo give ‘sto an es cals Fri lv! pinning, where the dent of na Dene {ap saan oo bigh or al the eats tb lone a room temperstare, deo the Fe vel fd among then. Thi makati to dope {he seondietor nthe alway. Ferm el pang can bee prblem interferon ia Chapt 36, Semloonductor under Bias So far we bare considered the selondtar & sqlivinh. One fate ‘he cat at equlrum i that no cucet fm. To understand the ‘opiration of solar el, we ned to understand what happens to tho sea ‘ooducoe when i dpe fom equim by exponie to piace ‘tre fw inthe operating salar eal, by defaltion the device cannot be regula OA. Quest thermal opi Suppose the sondoetor i atrbel om eqllbium by some ntunce| ‘rin ange the population aflaonn end le. Thi oa be expos Tolht a enngy B > By which ince the dena of bots ltt ad es above their egal vel, of eld the ential injection flotons and boas hough an apd det bis. I other ee ad have ben disturbed so that they ete ma longer deeb bythe Pera Dire ailbcim daibution Seton and np = m2 no lng re "Teleco deribuon ie now govt bythe gone Station function fk iatodueed in Eq 320 sbore- Moreover diferent dsb on fanetione, fie) and (2), sould apply fo letons non ‘Sn and valnco bands fe and fy should be peaiondependeat,becse tll pists in the semiconductor are no loage in egullbum, and also k ‘epee beens the applied tine tay be drctional and may favor ‘repaton of some k stato rather than othr ofthe ate. ‘Now —anierecomesone ofthe gest smglientins of sesieonductar lgsies— the dirrbano otto ees, ast canglag to quik, fhe population of ecrone and holes each relat to achieve at f qu thermal eultrvn, Wat that vane tht the population of eetone ‘rl the conduction band itibatethemalvs as togh they were ot Taulibin, with coon Fer love and temperate, aad the bles ‘Thin the valsnce bane arange thames o hough they shared another, (iene Fem vel and pool diferent emperstze. Tp gs thems ‘altstun, Lillo) £46. Be.) Silke) = (EBT) ‘The nw apparent Fern eee for decors elle thelecton sd bal gust Porm level, Ep, cod Ey respecte “The approximation ie poste sno elation within each band i se mach fster than elation Ieoen the bands (Crt el wt ‘th bands mainly br seating fom the tig with the eiasion ad ab- ton af ponots This ontevon ste sel of 10°1 30-5 Batons Trane, earns rela oniy by intersting with anor cars, with che sernsion of pboton or wih a dayp tap. Reaction ove hae aera ‘auch ese aly because ofthe srl ofhigh nergy photons and picks ‘der normal eonditons, and ine sale ac nae, tpicaly10"*-10" =) Wis pal fos disturbance — sucha optical generation — tobe aston the timezale of relsationbewoen bands that fe continuous iar: ‘heyotem ram quiet, bul lw onthe nel of raza witha nde ‘Cosierng oly the conduction band forte moment hy) eannot ‘completly deere by the qual eral eibri ditibton bom er oc, ab we bave seen above, ft symunte a kipling eat ‘cure ows. To del with tis, a small additonal tem, fa, which s ntigrneti ia ki ade to fo Th appenimation write, Lille) = Es Be Ta) + fll? eao Te Plate of Sa Cl tere SEE Ta : an FETT con be found by etting up aod onving a bookaeping auton for F ES oe Bateman Tapert equation (ee Box 4). Note tat because (Fete wl defined party of fa fy onl fo consbutes tothe expressions Seem andj while oly {4 conte on ad Jp 8.6.2. Blectro and hole densities under bias Awning quasi ern squirm, Ue lon and Hoke deities in a ‘enomdetr under bie ao given, sng Ege 8.7 aed 338, by sane a9 set pe neltPate os) ov, i er ofthe eodution and wlence bend ones wsng Bas. 331 snd 334, by (os) ad apa, os) wee Ts and the det dhl fective teperture apis Tae ol yay belt om thn abn tamperatceF Ete tis Trecho clateom and ase sto whee he “inter us eat tnt nr om sone etic et Home, the Sri vng te oh cattsdo not aul apy nitrile ‘Peta col bench we wl sae ht Ty = Zy= 7 (Me coe facts tt cone in Chapter 10) Ts mune fey 948-351 tat TE ha end Byp > fg, tat oltznann sacs wp ‘epsn Ds and 89 ar bere a ap 3.7 an 38 exept ha Ben ag # Bp Wesay tht she eal ls ze ol ne Fg 3.9), ‘The temo in gt Fen eve pene ‘p= Br,— Bre es) rT « Ene, ete difeence in ceric potenti refuel to ia Chapter 2, and the tte tng dpe ent ten te “The electron hole product is now given by aaa panic as 1s el dB ae tis of pti ; ot pen As any pot wii sesso pets en en en ‘Siren dasa qa Fon es 8.63, Current densities ander bis ‘of an Jy we edo fan epproniation rhe ays otto J.T done oy comaaag in dil ieee on fo eb Bonn Tyr pation a ton in pai In this ba we dvs 4 fran for fu bse Jy based on 8 cildrtin of the rouse by whch carey ae remot fom any parte kstate Since fe isa function of, atthe ate of change off ven by ede lk oy Oh $F ve Mote h as) ‘The tome i thie equation topreent the wasious ways ln whieh fe a0 ange Te the flowig we wil ae the dios ol vel 5, ooPhe Poi of Slr Ca ad free a pant (50) "To ind the drives off with erp toad ke il appro f ‘by fe and ele the eletoneneey tothe conduction band ge, Bab + Bes) esr (Giz we have sasumed, fo lly tht the conduction bad minum i {fo = 0. Th rl these frp #0) Then if (3.83 Vole —fBVB~ Ben) (es9) ood fo af ae Van = fame = — fey ox ‘wha we have wed he deton o group veo (We have lo assured ‘hat there eno gradient intemperate a dcused above Ta the mast gars cae VT # 0 andthe resulting apron freien contains ® term driven hy temperate greets) Subutiutg back to By 3.54 He otia he 2. Ho Se ve eR Ee a of. ) ~ Ee vo L eo) ce we have slated WB to the foxy on the election Yo cancel ot the Fre and thie orm ‘To salve this fr fe need to make two essoption® about the pro- ener which hangs fe. One, relation events wihins band within Bad ‘stow more equ than exhange of ates beeen bands. As en Sond above, ration vers within band are wally cline wi he Tate ada fst beau ofthe abundats of photogs, Teteloe 8h Bh ‘wo the dntlbetion rales exponentially tomrde the gus! equbriam Feoson wth» character tne conan 10th ta 24. & es ‘This the rlazstion de aprosiation. Phen we ean te Bg, 3.80 in tho sea tate vo eae ene) om ee axa os singe iB 3% et 2s (alesse (BH) meee} xTEr, os9 nally, veplocing the core in rockss by pn, whee el the election roby and dtd ffm fo above, (Bq. 3:21) we have os 0th ebetron caret proprtonal othe gradient in tho eetron qua enn lve ‘A amilas tesunt forthe valeos tnd dtibaton faneton fy pro- cn the hole curs desty 3 Henoth we wll wee V to mean Vs slog the Bottnann Thusspct equation to ste for the now egalibcium dibatins fonction (ee Box 34), we obtain the fling ‘ations fr tho elation and le creat dentin oucondvta ter bie ae snp, (64.360) Jae) = apoB, (e3092 ‘The Pot of Sor Cay that ithe current nae st any pot proportional tothe lant ‘ster density andthe gradient ofthe rlevar quasi Fel lel Wo ay the caren drive by the grade in the que Fea lee Ta » mote ‘even cae, Boe. 46S ad 368 would contain tetas in VT and VT and, th sents would be ven abo by tmporature radiant ‘At any pont rth at corte gies by the Sum ofthe tron and ode caret a the pi: Ie) = Ile) +0). as 2.7. Drift and Ditton 8.7.. Current equations im terme of drift and diusion Tuto 345 a 6 ae te most compact ff J, Jp How Erte plea pean af gn Reed Ie deny bo Sth nee te el ll iin the Baoan opr ver, (6B Kren) + vn ny wo ve, we survnn)-Mr, aay (Tice canbe obtained by diferetnting Eat 2.9 and 3.3) The gaint lath conduction valence band edges provide by the detonate ald F an the cradiente nthe dectron alt x nd band gep, By VEL=4P-Vx. 70) sd VE, =P —0y-VEy any ‘hs hae ed Bq, 40 andthe dfn of eletortatl eld e am Substituting fr VEp, end VE, like Bas 245 and 3.6 we have Inf) = qDaVin+ wang Ub PVInN). 78) wd Jnl) =—0D,¥ + y0lQF ~Vx- VE + kaT VN). (818) ‘ps the siinate inthe elaton ality, band gap and eet bad ool tates provide an addons eesti eet Bld to the el teste eld F Tr composonaly lsat atrial only the esectatic Geld Pis reat and so Jie) = Da gm om ot Rt) = aap + ab (7) owe we have usd th Bnstaa” relations which relate moi tothe iio sneer either ae ae Dy om ono y= Be om ony a0 Jp ech eave nt wo contin: «drt cane ome tds called gratia) where ari ae driven by en cet el and @ “fsioncvrct whore they ae dive by «consonant Te the {in cae the cavers rove soa to ioe cir ectcrtatie potenti nurs and in tho soon o iis el catia! poets enery dare als under low eld onions —- + et Ca oan a ars fl nr mt ct Frodocng caren th desise ofthe fa” Fae Pg of Soler Cay | ASS commons — cecroncarent fete cere —e ipucba seinem tana age enone Tn the presence fa dit eld oly, the eal eran 3 am In Jp =a 0) here the coef of Fe the conductivity ofthe eemiconducer, a8 {Bren in Bq S41 Note that the eld drives elatrons ad holes ia opposite ‘reins Ts the presnce of ebacentaton gradient only we bate, ‘n= aD.Vn~ DV) the eect and le gradients are ina, at maybe the case ader| Mhminaton, the electron eod Bole diftson extents tend to camel exch ther oat Ane difrion care! uel ain only was the dco a ote caer grediuts eee very Aion. This ean be achieved in cctain oven confguratons, sich ae pm fusctin. Is tha ese, cents ae em 7 e tar Sent = inset by minty erie fion This wll be discal ia dtl Chapter 7, Veliity ofthe drift-diffuion equations "The division cucent equations i th fern 3.7% ead 9.70 ee very ‘Gnmonly uid forthe electon std bee earrents in device pic, How. er thy depend pon several sumptions. I i worth sven these poe and coderng some exceptions ‘supose 1 leton sd bole populates each form & qua ern ein vith harcternie Fern lel wad emperete ‘Tie none ofthe fundamental ent of esto phic, I would ote ab ifr instance, te bande wee to arom, ole together, of [there wa oo high a density of inte and gp ate In thovecendiions ‘me mit not cally have saioadacoc!, ston and hole tampeearwee te always the sam ae the Iie vempestve ‘This fas n emtion where ston of ole gin entra inte en soa; fr example, though aeletion through age est Ble Then ‘he ot elazions ond bots aed tobe debe by spay varying te raze Ty and Ty and term proportional othe ampere gradient ppt athe econ and Bol oer Suc high Els ave ot ually ‘icoustered in photovoltaic devs, Hower, iti totaly penble that bt ence fects ayers though quam ondnement now ‘mesinal strutaren Thi wl eee in Cheptr 1D + Changes in tse occupancy are much mor ikl tobe duet etierng collins witia «band then to eneationeesombioton or tapping ‘ents whch ore eure fom tat ba The the lation sine sporonatoe, ‘Tie may fl in materi contain & high density of dete, where tepolng detrpping and resonbiation events are oan. Then the retain tne appranation not ald. Ate spel cae cos a sheptRoundary betwen wo feet senicondactors (a heroine,7” ‘The Pon of Sr Cat ’ peso Hen Soins 7 1 Bhecton and hole tte can he deesibed by «quatre suber ‘This ise nthe definition of telecon ad le csents avy, {afr non eystallne atria, with the cosaquens tht caro abi. ie cane! be lgroly defined fromthe expectation val ofthe mate ing time. Novectele, analogous expressions for dlctson aod oe currents at be wed in ators and dabesve material, but wih ampeel ex reson forthe mbites «+ Botumann spprexintion (Ex ~ Ee, > kB, ~By 2 he) “Thin was tne in obtaining the 2 difuion forme fom the quit ‘uni level eden. In degnerate eiconducos (ohare the Balzar spprocimation fe) che detains in tems of Farol lel grits ere ffl vad aod shoud be wad + Compzsitiona invariance ‘hie was made in eplacing the bad age gradlen wth F. Bor acon postonalyverving mater contributions to the caret wil also are Fm any vino a he eleccon afi, band gap ad fltive cen, fan eat be ince by sing Eqs. 3.73 and 2.74, 373. Current equations for non-erptaline solids ‘Tae det dfusion pct a leely wot vd ie the eon of dete eye tall of arorphods rte when the ens of tsa inthe bad ea Ie high. Then the allowing eflote may appl + te suber deity of etre and ols nay be dierent sna to tempertoe, eet eld an illminain: 1 Uae moby tay be temperate, eld ad err danlty dependent; 1 tere may bes osteitton to the crzent whic comes rm conde betwen oaled ssa nth bad ssp. ‘Thee ates numberof diferet ways of dsebing the creat in dlactivo materials. through desertion is beyond the spe ofthis chapter. TE Ieotenenated thatthe caren dv to electrons aod hele ovog (8 Anocland wate nthe conduction and weleae ands ca be dena by ‘he Batman tempor theory, det diulenequtins wp. The taay be an adtiega earrat dne fo eactron (or ble) mation between pe tte in the band gn, ae fan) tis land sate caceat can bo described with the aif of a8 ergy ‘Pheasant, (Ei anaogy tothe defatonofeureat insert shoe Da= Loewe a) c(i th density fai state and (Ei he (ally ari- Ds) iarbution nto, Te frm of (depends on be aca it tvender betwee cali state. or example, for theroaly assed bpp it shoud bo tharmalyaetated ‘aleased eoaductin or vlc ba tte can be dtngsthd fom ea, intr bandgap sete by emai edge In practi, thi the (Gong whic the mlitybeconns enpeate ated The wl be “Geom in ore dnt in Chaar 8 28. Summary Secondary eeu oats fr photovotieon acount of the fend gap etween ocsupnd and wonceupied bande wich can be beige tyra vile phot, abd the ens of charge tanepot through the ryt ‘ands Tnottlnesuivondactor, etrocs promoted tothe conduction Fenda be tented say es pts with a well ded waseecte tan eetive mast which reflect he ec of he atic stom Aca ‘osteo the aleoce tae ae haowa oboe and canbe ota ae etl chged pales wth an efetive mae determined by the ve Inns band starr. Electron a eles can be tested epproiataly as independant patie,‘ band street rina between he tery ofthe scion and He wave, Te most poraae pote ae the sao bad xin and condueon band minim. The oa of the ta stractare ie deter By he eyetal seus Dt I appro Iimatelyparabele near to thus eral pons Taguines ae fled by lero acordig oth Fermi Dive sseribtionfuneton In «pte smicondeetor the Fern! eve les win Uherbaad gap andthe elseon and hole denies depend exponentially spon Ep. Doplg with lapses of diferent aac acco he density= Pre Peo Slr Cala of econo halen in the stalondactar at equim aad moves Bp towards te bands, Hear doping es the deny of the domlnaat ce. |Mteulibsum, elton and oles cates ce always sre "The snicondacior can be datrbod om oust by the action ef Ueht or an abl lsc bia. Ary fom ogra the aitbation| fiction i unged but ca be apprainated Uy e Fol Diss function ‘ith spurte, spsally varying Far! level called guna Pernt levels fo {he lsron snd ole, fa gneral, ifort eleva and hole tempers ‘ney pply but in paca endtone the alent taperstre ie rully ale “Applialon of bias produces aectzoa and le carets tn contons where seating events win Da big faster than rations between ‘hands (the ntti tne approinatioa), the cvteat ete prepoticoal ‘the gadontsin the repetie qual ott and to the erpecive tobe, The quash Fert ive! grade nay be considered es dit ing force for cnduton. By eo} ing te ust Fen lee gradient ata totais potential and carrier density gradients, he czent ca be Dpremed as a ssh of fll driven nif erreat and x sail driven “ana? caren In awry mater the sume conepo of qual Frm level and mobltty ca be applied, but the efeive mobility may be cexeay dependant, (Chapter 4 Generation and Recombination 4.1, Introduction: Semiconductor Transport Equations ‘The santa fanoion of solar ells the genoration of photocurrent. The (uti delereoed by a bnlance betwen ght ecrtin, cea gee fation end charge recombination. Carat dv t deco ad hols i Seendactre were dncumed ia Chapter 3, and Chapter 8 wl deal with the mechs of cargo septation which drive the photoerrent. Thi ‘gta is concrnd with the process of charge cartier generation at teramblaton, We ietoduea the theoreti! foals for etn at tions in semiconductors and thist driv the rae of ptogeeratin fl the principal recombiatenmectanane. We wil derive some othe ‘monly wed formulae or reambinatios rates, a ett to sbow bow {he ates ate dependent upon the electronic structure materiale propesee sol operting cndions, Th delaled derations Wil uot be velo to sllrouers, at arncided to ze how he Saban can be adapt {ode with oer nol plovovate matevale and strut: “The busi equations of device phys, the semicondactor transport equations are based on xo siple people Chat the number of ear (tof cock type mit be conserved aod that the cectrstte potential Aue to the ars charge obeys Poison's equstion Fors semiconductor ‘entaning electrons and hoe, consarstio of elton number roqier tat Ly, +Gy-Ue ay for destrooe and woa — 0) eee) carved ‘ict chy i Raa Tate es for hla, whore Gap tho volun ate of georation of eatoas (les) sl Uy the valine ate of ecambiaton, Poon’ nation Sn the iret fem i Wee Somat ro) ere ie the elastic potential the dite pitty of the feaioonctr ab pan the local dey of Exel charge "Toe continuity Ber 41 and 2 can be understood by constering & stvall ole 6 ~ 64 5 within the sumicnndcter (Pig. 43), nt time, 6” Gy lctrons are goaeatd within tho volume end BY Uy lectaos ae reed. leone may alo be ietaduced or ‘moved by enrents fowl nt and ot ofthe valine. Conair eny the = Component of te carrent In sit time LJy(=4 82)5A elton la te ‘lnme though the ght hand boundary while Na(s) 84 enter ra the Je, causing et change of Ze x inthe mtbr of electrons. Adding the Ure entbations we have fr the rat of ehange of leet day er unt velume, thse dimensions thi generals quite edly to he frm given a (41) shows, gations (4.1) and (4.2) ace completely general Once we know how the J). and U depend on mp dy al oter ater orevionnert etetes, we have & st st of coupled diferent tons whieh fan be sled for he chive uname. Phe parila frn of J. @ and ‘lepe cn she material nd enone a Chapter re ocd a bo [J andn ate deed fra erystaline emicondtr- Inti cheer we wi ioc at the machina wich deterine Wand 42. Generation and Recombination ‘Gegeration i an eaten eitation went which incretes the nuniber| of fe caies eve to erry charge. Recanbiaton Ina Wnroie telson evet which redoves the numberof fe acer. Generation te ‘ers sn Input of energy while recombnatios rear ees. The ney {nput can be provided by the whratonleogy ofthe lattice (phonons) lake (photons) or the Kile energy of another cars, Tho Ilesnd em. stay i tale up by thane amie mosharlans, Pr evty geeration process ‘ha isan equlvlntrecmbinatonprocas. Thi i de to meoucopie roverslty and is an Important places undetanding the funtion of photovoltaic devi. (Generation maybe the promotion of a dlston fom alm to com duction ban, which rates a lactone bad inte ® loclid state Inthe ba gap, which gewrtes oly ol, o fon Iocan sae int the conduction bad, which generic ony en lction, Forthe lar el the mos import farm of generation ote e, W the absorption «photon, Recombination the law ofan electron o Hole though the decay of| an letron toler energy sa, Agu they be fen band fob, hstoying a electron hae par, o may bo fom conduction baad to toap ste or fom tap sate co valence bad, cemeving ony an ston ora bol, respectively: The energy reno can be gta up ae photon (reiative recombination) aa het taough phonan emiasien (nok radiator ‘Reemblnstin) or ae Kim nary to another fe ete (Ager recom ination Thermal generation and recombination Acabsolute a inthe abeens of ny external as, ects cecuy ll ot ‘he eer lees evalable up to the Perm lvl an no recombination or {eoeraion proses oes. Aa the tierce ead, ellie gat ‘brtina netic energy and wre of thi maybe gen oa atoto promot to a higher energy lve. The promotion of an olen actos the bad gop called thormal gratin At the sare tne, else in ‘eed tte an Flax dows to wean lowe nergy sats a ie up the ‘ay difrenc e vibrational eorgy othe te. The os of «aoe ‘Streit wap ie thermal recombination. Like anyother gettin: onmbinabion proctis, these Yel posse can intl bad to bd {tonalthons apd loa state to band tasaiions. At Ste temperate thse proces occur continually at arte which nese with iereasing tenpertie In thermal equim, the rate of eer Cal generation rows ie niche exactly Wy the tte of healt them aoa tion overex Ths the thermal generation GMs Delanced by the eq bv eembintion rate US, ay =u aod or we ‘She we altered in the litarhnce ofthe popalation rom equi Tm, we end cnoter oly the exces rectblnatin ad gestion rate InBa (4a) be, ves upt op as e-em ‘Te haa gesrton i ot eluded exp aa contebaton vo TForbendtoband generation and recombintin process the rates are eal fr electors an bes and Ton tpaw we aot G=6,=6) 1 thi chaptr we wl tense bow acto anion ats maybe ‘weated mrosnplcaly using Fee's Goldon Rela Se. 43. Tn See ss wll addres he pros of photogsneaton and show bow the aor ton concent oft eenicondor la drive. In See 4. we ctor he “inet ypee of roounation: radiative, Auger, nonradiative Vs eps, Yr arto ont Bbition ® au stice recombination, and show how the recombination rats ae se ied te material peoertt. Seouon 48 addrenes the smleoncter tiypot equations agin and inciextes sone spi case, 443. Quantum Mechanical Description of Translton Rates Fermi's Golden Rae I may cscs cata transits can be denn by Ferns Golden ole This an approximating, band ou es onder pretation theory, ‘befall unt maa tanston rate, Asording 2 Fee's Glan ile thetracn probly pr ni ne fom an nial ed state fi ‘energy Bt a ol ecpy state [fof nergy Ey whi rs scarey Bander tho aston of sme pertarbing Haltonan BY is gwen by 4a Ryaatnrasi-me) as “The term in esl [Ql © matrix clement coupling intial and fal Tate Te dectibes the se ofthe inerstion betwen the 0 Cates fer th sve petubaton Wray represent the fect of Tight Geld, of lonen interetions, or cavier-eaite aerction, The deta fntion Fes conservation of ene A aati sign apps x excitation events, och as sbeortin where By > By and quanto of energy Bs removed fom he pertusbig eld, and postive se for elacatin vents, eh as eeemblaton, whore Be Banda guna tent Bar 41, Dertwiin of Pris Golde Rule ‘Tp obtain the tanto rate wo need 10 mukply by th probebilia iat Chena soe, f= fi) abd that he Ral tte rable fj ~~ El), whe f(E) th eletonieoseopaton fection Toes the ae of raatone¢~ J gen by ee eee wore Hy i shorthand fr the mate lamest. (In Bq 4 a0 lca Promotion event (Ex > By aaumed. Tae ali apps equal the thee B< jin whih am E tales the oppose) Prod hat the tension # — fh energy comeing, then the aie perturbing Bel ea le the riers tranaition fi (Stilehe Pye of Str Cte ‘ison in sl ea example of thie) As coon os state fs pasty ‘ecuped and sate ie parinlly emp, there isn fite pect that ‘hi eure tation wl oon By the pete of quantum mechanis the transtion f=» goveraed by the ge matic element Hy, ad i ete = Minar 6 - BA as ‘The netratectrantions| fs therefore pve bythe dfs between the to tes wena Rapa BBM fs 9 For all uch transitions involving a quatam of soergy Ewe sould same ‘ove all pats of lal and Sal rats which der by B. Fora cal, ‘there ates ae datingithed by wovevector, we can comer the sm ove (Tecete sates r(B) = Sgr ina nega veal ii oat and final sates ly which de In encegy by B, by intodring the deny of tan fans (ke) 20 le) Sr te elerant etal bands (E931) "Then we hee forthe teaulon rate par ult etal volume, re) = % ff matte 6 ~ Bupa) Ee) xan h (oo) ‘Te for of depends upon the natre of he nterecton, For astance, foroptie tension the matic delve the eondton tt k= the matt eemeat then depends oaly on B. thee depenoon 5 ot tended exit (le tstance, if tbe ban structure i tetepis) then the iegrl can bo expressed tn tee of ‘rae, neo [ers 16+ BB+ BAB, 49 Ta a ec an eal ae Sige el ase chiar Gx fbn (aaa) Copia trations may tale addons! photons, oF phonons ash (Gos the fiat coder approimason given by Ferme Goon Rule Ss (et ics nooraary to ezpand the quan michanlltapaton ate 1 figier oder At portant example the ane of optical tesons na inrec ard pep semzonductor, which ivobeaphatn nd phonon. The Higher ares ata olin eres eomrgy dependence of the bmerpton| ‘efile for ndzot and det gap asters which i cused below ‘The higher oder pprenmations are beyond the aeope of hl book 48.2. Optical processes in a to level system Feze we onside th simple cot sad tt ight ald intersting with {te evel eter, Th wo fvel mol lows ue to deve the distuutinn fanction for photons, which wl be used late. The photon eney i tal to the difecace in euetgoa By ad. Sinee the ight Wan th ster, ‘the to lee will ot ein thermal eqlibiu, but we wl ase that thoy ar act in qua hora eqittum with quai Fem lees of Fe, tnd Zp, respectively He Won, 150) "The flaw ever can occ: 1 pot can be aioe to promete an dete rom By 20 Fe { inehotroncen rat, rom E, whe amiting poten (spntaneous coin st poton can stimulate the slaation ofan lcton fom t2 By fom FB ogtier with the onion of «sone photos (atinuated emi} Fe 43) “Tit and hid of tase procs are lly related. They can be einguih oly by th relative ception probable ofthe two lel ‘dot by the strength of the photo Bld any photon ean enue the ‘peo eet. Tharare me wl cmbin them et he ne bsorpion wath teen by von = UMP Uf) a) where fe the (Fer Die) probably that there an leteon I he tate Bs, ww* The Pg of Sor Cay eat at — © it fat — ® — 5 | 3 @ hg 62.) Atmepin of tan wae a date.) Raat oan ‘ieee aad nano nin 0) Aspen a 9 4 thn probably that there te in ate By 1 i x (as) 1 peoballity that tha ica photon, and Hy i the optical matic Spontaneous enison procade a a ate c= Bae a9 | ft eet nd Rcotiation fe “ty sae ens lot controls sberlin cd spotanco emiioa [renin of itesopt reveal: atoigh he ntl ad al tate a Feonfe Golden Rls have bom exchanged, the value of 3, remains te Th the steady saa the ees fal re prose must balance, Sting Pas F (aan) void that I aw an) ‘where we Dave wed he defistion of Ay Au Be, Er, a) eis ler fom Bq 19 that mote intense light Bl lease a greater puri i qa Pr love Forti eso, ue sree elred tous the chee potenti of rdton’ [We 1982 “fie the qusierubriem ocespation function for photons. Thus the nur desi of photons of energy Bin a cheralealteian gen w alE) = Eel) (a) ec sp( te density of photon states Awa omega gE] willbe desi’ by the stength ofthe eetromaguti eli ‘Eqn 417 ako giver the weal elt that Lb =f) =F Ge $0 any 44. Photogeneration Photogeertca bs by fr the not portant generation proee in pho- torts devi. By phtayenrton we mean the geeration of ob ‘lesrons adie through the sbmoption of ight the sanlonductoe. ‘ter generation proces of eleva ta potovotao are top sssted ‘sod Anger gertion, which wil be mextonal in Chapears 8 and 10, "Though nest eelevnt for photovatan, thi snot the only optical proces whith oceny in seofuctors, Photons may alternatively Be uorbed to laceus the Hinwic energy of motile cates (ee erie‘tearpton) oft generate phonans, oct promote electrons bets lo- Calne sae, op they say be setated, Te fst oso often are ‘Sly inpowact sal at phatonepegiee mach aller chan the band sep (100 meV) and the iat only ot high carci deositns. Near the bod {np bad to bad and loalie state to band transitions are dina. Seutering, patel by iatraes and by lnbmegeness in non nie edi, removes gt fom the ncdent bean wihout generating tos and 20 i undesirable or photoes, Hower, It may be se ‘lt in soar al ucts which redesign tap the ight and {snp the photon Fld This wil be cused in Cher 8 441. Photopeneration rate ‘Tesco eborption alsent describes ow the igh inten le atented on paming through the teal.) may be considered as the nue of te esorpion cers scone por uni velume af materi fr the various optical precaee Suppose bom of photons of eruy and lntamlty o noraliy indent ona lab of shoring mater Acton 0(B) de ofthe plone of energy Eeatrage slab of thickness dz wll te aaorbed and the light inteesty[) wil be attenuated by foe eo ence a a. Integrating Ba, 412 fr nate of on-trade fe} ven by al. an) 1a) = 10)e7 Bo (en) ‘bere 10) is he otensy ust eae te cafe (eater aecoting Sor Felten). or unm o, thie edie #o the simple Deer Lambert aw Te) = 1(}e-> (Pg 43). lean be shows tha rated tothe ima aay part the refactiveladex In) tough a = "°K where Ais the vvelength of ight defied this way mayne contain contsibutions om ‘ratterngtoweve, thew ate not covered nthe micronopi derivation tow sca enue tat al photons ace aor to gsnerat ee caries hen the rate of ears penerton, per it ole, ats depth = below he surface even by 8.2) = 4B, 2)l53) 420) (LR), expan) fo (Lo ae ie om cd tu mre Seslen tye ek ne Poss ety stan these whet i the phot fu at =, Notice hat it edhe suber seid not che ergy ofthe photon wich detains the photogneaton rte. To rate tote incident x we ned to allow lo tection of patent he ure fed attenuation with the maar Thon s1E,2)= = REALE Ho ean) ihc) et ont Sa nd RE) e the eft ofthe marae Uo nol inden pk of energy E. This the spc porognaraton rate To Ba the total generation rato atx we sum owt photon ewes ae) = J ot5. 248. (426) ‘The integral sould be extend ely ove eanin wher photon abcrptin primary ree in eset geertian. 442, Thermatiation Photogmaration ds not depend wpon the enray ofthe abcrbed pho ton, exept tn tha the energy excl the bal gap, When higher eneey hokons reabsorbed, they generate cari wth higher knee energy, tit tha anergy gli et ad only Ey of potato energy remains 1 be celled as shown in Fig. 4. The important quan she mune Fer of exstation events and nt the amount f ener abearbed Ths i cnc ofthe mos important concepts a understanding poral devsPhe Pio Slr Cala ron ~~ Pg 44. Plott fan deco nd el ac dl ‘es ne then oth opt eae Tes othe esentildierence between phototaleasl heeal "The photogenerated corse oe any ext kitic enigy by thermal tation oF colng. Microscopie, this mens that they scene repent ‘Slisions wh the ate, ving up some of hl Kine energy to pode {phan wi they deny itoa ower eoety te ule ate nthe ‘ua equlibvim wth the arbi. Phoons ae the mat by which ene ‘scarind atray othe outside worl. This cooling happens very ft, ot he order of peseoonds pati becae ofthe high diy of aa tats which sre sralale at lower htt energy. Costing i sternal bt the ot luvense generation prosomes Tn extptonccimtantes, fr exemple ot ‘high opted tense or fr electoni structs with vied dese ty of avalable taza, chen te ctl may not be able tole eee) fast eovugh an consequently reba’. This wil be dca in dtl fn Caper 10, 443. Mlcroroopie description of absorption ‘Sine photogenteation i the promotion of en eetron rn a wlence to ‘cuuctin band energy lee, the eneray dependence of mit be ey ‘elated to the density of alene and endtion band ates an tector fo the band sretar of the material Hare we wil 6 ow wing Pea’ Golden Rae artes deals the mleoscopi opt! proprio eam conductors are gt daewhere [esas 175; Sar, 196%, Woes 1982, Bastard 1086 E eto tintin ® Fors Ba. 4.10, the met rte of nso front anal tte inthe solece band) = [ky to & El atate i the conduction band [f) [e) tough an interval B= Bk) ~ Ey(hy) 1 sien by % ff irs. Bupb))~ 148.) 6) xodkadalk kee can No, fran lecteomspnet lof tenth Ey, polsttion vector a tngtlr frequency w, bere she wavelength of ight ls long computed to interaoaie ditene, tbe perturbation Hl gves in the ple spor iB Ben wn soe sytem De wn ESE [uzun -enntst)- 19 ae wm an sees ws inca the dlple mate eenent ‘Sinoer(B) copes the net staf photo ebaortion the eeeteomag. ete Ele geng up energy to Ue cicada ot te oe m ‘er i tne, where Ue the ney dy of the radiation, Now, we we tin tc tha, a plate wave the ele averaged rate a which the besa Toe nee wih te al he Ete t whch the beta oe intensity kh dita, -BxH8) (ea) as ‘fs te drei of propagation, From Bg 42 tn sbeorptio coca lave by aa Phe Py Slr Cay ’ eto nd Babin a Novy since the iatrityof radon in a odiun of vactve inde my ot’ to Uy through vee te 439) cad, tom bse letsomagati tery, vee SE sy we lyon ro uss) Sabttating ra), om Bg, 428, obtain (ey = As ff mabe ~ 8, — BN (Eh) JB) lees (a9 ve low enough exttatos levels the valence bad fet fl (f 1) and the conden band empty (f. 0, 0 toa good ppresmaton (y= Ae ff gece. Be Brake, (439 ‘The macroscopic terptin sec ay tert be seeds som ofcotintons Hom ll alee) ocean (fan trations sbi ir in ey by (8) = Donte x0) shee oul) = Azanges ~ B\~ B) (aac) In thi preety the ety of kstatn inch hough the ‘eon ov diferent ‘uc expeestin for a wl simply whan we eat tha matrix alent At tha sage te wrth diingushing dec abd lade gap teil 444, Direct gop semiconductors 1 cept etron en oe statr canbe writen, wag the Bch the fom, the product of s plane wave ands rapidly arin stm pat Te le) maine aay Jos = tee Now sting on [with the ferential epertor “eV, whee the ‘nementateperstor a been wien at INV, aad weting the mate ‘Nema in integral pcation we obtls forth mote eaent anim frou vacate) Ping eg yi = nts a Sheehan dane tae Tevet anaes Sa Send te entation SSS See a Senna "Tecnu tis Tres denen Evga ep tt compe re stance Lea cce ee er tee Towne en ne ageing (6) = Sane, [ate + BoD, (449) ‘Te quantity goes bythe integral know ste joint desy of ate (€DOS). Inthe coe ofthe parade band epprosimation (troduced a Chapter 3), where 9B) vies Bho (Eso ~ 2)" and g(B) vais Ue at srlghlrward to show tat (6) = (BEY oan where a tanta dependent constant, ad By = ee — Bo Thus te ‘sorptien coin elect th shape of the ical estos of atten In gueral he JDOS ofa rect gap mater wil lok Uke the prot of ‘he conduction bad and lane band deny of sats (DOS)fuetos“ Phe Phan of Sr Ca 4.45. Indirect gap semiconductors In ndrot gap materia, this nt the cae, Eauaton 442 showed shat ‘plc watins canna ocear ule k’ = k-= 0. Therefore an slag ‘tanot be etd from the valence bud mina tothe onde bad ‘anon an net gap matralsigly bythe absorption of photon ‘Wat can happen, bower thot the electron ean be ened sian: mol wit the einrpien or emison of phonon. the ft as round sate sa compesie state of detroit vleace aad ple ‘Phonon, and the al state comple of nese inthe codton band ad no phonon: = fokiap I= tekio} whee the phonon bas energy By = apd ME Mk. Conservation energy requires tht By = BIW) ~ Be) — no (eas) ‘ralatnn ofthe mati ment dave the cotton du o moment conservation that k= =O. Teaston from the vale band na imum tothe eauduetion band minimum a allowed fa phonon of ela cis avaiable (Pg. 48), Th sur over ll inl aad lsat nt om involv the proebilty denatyof phonons of ney Ey and wavevertor ‘y(t wal sth JDOS of conduction snd alesis, We wll eainate the absorption coeticest fr an indict teu with phonon absorption, See alsa (Pankoe, 1971). The transition tte xT Oe ws, mn Sp tat te eens upon the availability of «phonon of table ser, the deasty Peroni vee band sates and of usosupel conduction bad tata dng to Hoe intela states the probability of Song a phonon of ‘Bart By even by ere If the vroue mate eames are energy ‘Gesjeden, the conto Cadi tally empty and the lence bad {lth the tan ae eis He reggie [olG+es mite La tego ow neat se nee ey was ma dos mh ames an ates Bio maee a peerarinaea BB mond yp ne an, en tn sept cre art cartson hn elf sr ton as ay ohn cats oe ak sresdntai oe eine 8-5 one Gram ‘eset cei! tv of ns fo eh Thos, Nn cer vah no tn Ey a Soe ‘ten bene ne lepine hee ex (€-B,y. (an ‘The ateorption cone f an Sndect material has very diferent be- avlou to's diet gap material aad dow not rele tho DOS at pho ton ence clone 10th tab ag, o(E) i poorly smaller abd ce move smoothly from the band edge than in diet gap meatal. Simi le babar is ooerved ln highly doped semicon where ecto sesaing, nthe than phonon emion aed absorption, st the opti "At higher photon ene, eect epic uaueions ae alowed in the lotnet gp material. ‘The cuttin ofthese cet tations shuld Réact the JDOS without any phason eaxebutons uso ise moceaply. memeencen Bp . ‘wth energy tha the nds entibuslns. The dest contbutons ws “ly appear aso change in curate in (E). 440, In practi, the (B~ Bp"? behaviour rece by Ba, 44 ldo se, [Atevrges abore Bi the DOS funeon diverge on th ptabolis approx imation, wile ot energies jst blow Ey extn nfese the aberptio, “The parabolic baud approximation i onl good eas othe apd ee seca, play within 100 meV. At wae of far om tho band extzema the Be) carve begin o aten ox, apd becomes satoary at oe igh frncetey ver of ke Thi leads to loal maxis and ther fexures in I the DOS, which can often be Masti fom pie ithe absorption ‘hea better approximation to (6) thn (B~ By), praetor ney be derived fo gross of emiconductere shat alr crystal sve- tive. Tse wl depend evpicaly upon the ears ofthe importa eyt- Inctay penis, bod gape ad dipole matric lemon, Vales modes axe Other types of bchesiour Mattiple sep photogensration Ar wal ag diet band to band potoeneratioy, ee change artis my be eoraed net wbore the photon ie bsoebed to create an exited tate Stich sobeomcal noite orl op ote Be ences. Ea ples ae aber by exons and by sess Buttons se Coalombi wound tte of lstzon ole pat, and were Intec in Chapter 8. An tron cen be created Wy a photon of eneey sale than By. Tbe di ference between tho exon energy andthe baad gop cal the exciton ‘ining energy # usally lee than kyT and so oe exons dseacae st room tmperatire, Homever, the Dndingeneegy wil be strong i eases Ithere the photogenerated elton and hole wavefnction eo loads, {in the cae of low dimensional semiconductor etrctres and moles [is eemincodtre, fo hoe cto the ealtone are important fares of ‘he room temperate abortion Tbe magatude ofthe exonleesoe> tion. s cro trengty is goetally Tags for more streney bout ‘exctonn Note that only stationary (k=) excitons can be generated pals, ‘Te important point fo appleton to potovlak eat extn tortion dees not astomateally generate mail cits, The exon rods dimes rt ait ay recon ble tet happens. Tete {bre in tndling device besrior we soul ue for the et pont rat fee cars em enlton generation and deco, ond ot iy the opti extiatin ate Sovsivers are alogous to exten end ate sully dtberaey ine trode! wn optical tbeorbns. The scans may bes toler epee igh as w dye leas, or eal eld state parte in eauart ith feioaductor src. Sach eetoms ao widely use io potngaphy. The atn croton excited tal, which aay then diwointe iat» charged ir, lowing the souence Sthy as ost oe ‘wre 8, S° and S* eprocot the ground sate, eld tates iin fate of he sense. The fal sage inelesinhction ofthe fee case Int the semicondacrr.Sensitnre at htarajunetons may ict charg cops ign nto the two deen edi orig the Junction Bg, Tnthe caso aborpio by excitons or senior the optical generation sat hl be replaced by (8.2) = (1~ RE) naa Blt) E)e re nn) the quantum eliciency fo dodo, ce, the probability {hat one aaorbed picon of energy wl generate ee care, Amorphous materiale a orp (sor exytalins) material the ac flog range rder ane that erytal memento sd oot be eoserved nan ep tansison. The and gap i alia nee. Absorption event are therere more ily than in the equtlet eye meted for example, the sbsorpton ‘oat i lage in amorphous than in exytlion sco, The frm of (2) i dominated ty the JDOS without coteevatin retin, Thi Wl be diseune for the et of amare sea in Chapter &7 he Ph of Slr Cala photon Energy/eV voce smptmonnameremtmnc it See ee nec pea pomnascaa 44.7. Beamples and data Fare 46 sows the abortion secce of « auber of ements aie ie aan or pots, Noto how te abortion ao Te ee pap oemmonuctore Goda InP, shapes ea the i a gap otras, and german. Nose how the eae da ne pak In ond AlxGoy- Ane sari due (D6 Sima ryt sree a om gl of photovoltaic atrial so wall qu: ee eer ne dtnce eh of» portinlarwaength mas atl Fa tte atemunted by factor eas ent 3 At Vie a at ban gap satials Gas and TAP have sry TEZSD en ene mlton- Th eas tht cay «mcs of deat Ronda to eben etal ll of the Light, x contrasts te aa eral Sam an absorption Ing of tens of microns, © ran or buds of mk are neded fox goo ebecetion ee con bezn sented expebly in th ection, Fo ee te) tn 30-s tise wevlngt, ad 906 mein The ne eiciy of saeco ere er eran ection cating or surfs testring swe re eua ta Chapter 8 4s Recombination “4s. Types of recombination by rowmbinaton we eto the sc mt acoso eb ay By femoral mec Us geertion, wher one means Smet, sol diferent recombination mechani ze portant or Theriot deve. ‘He ould dstigash wo enegre: ynavidble ecmbitian pox ese wih ae et th eet pial proces inthe teins a cae) God eouale process whic rears dus to imps teil i at the unawidble vocotbantion proces ae the proseee “ein fom opal geesstion, pontneres and timated emission TesSee 42), For potovaae se mont ingest of thee poston (fn, which alo known a adv recombination “the ober inprtastwnaoldableproous isthe intercon of a elo non ble with a scond sma cae, esting Inthe decay of one ‘ie ass the tnd gop ad the ncese inthe kinetic ney of he ar es by an amouot etl to the Loud gp. Ths called Ager etbisaton ese severe of «rare oneraton pres where cic tant ergy erates than the band gp i able to eve wp some of TRAN copy to ete on eleten cross the gap (incused in Chap revo Anges Eennbnation ptr inlaw band yp mae with ich curt dons, whee caterer interaction are 00g. ‘foudherrombintin poceaes Usa vole relaxation Dy wa of ead tea sate The trap tater are do to imprest rst (tldbra inthe etal teste These ae oe knawa a nadine tbat: poco (lsh Asge alo noma) and are ste ‘iy the domiaaut merhainms, Recombination in szonduetor is wall Cone! by Landsberg [landsbag, 1980] and many gominedactor sex ‘ok such a Shr [Shr, 100 or Tyo Fras, 10 452 Ratio ewmbination ‘Ber 4 Devotion ofthe vatve rcombination rte Flee we ae gong 0 derive a expen fo the eae of iatve re contiaten wing oor raul fo absnrpsom eof. rom Solve we Kao tha the tte of spootaneus elation vr na nial ate }) = [ ef energy Bet Rial aiy) of eer Bi en by to EH fe (=f) (412) wie tet tof bromo vane = FRAY Ute 0) ™ (2.416) whee fi the probability that Ura photon of eeeay B= (B—By)- At quae theese th two caer atch and we obtain By 418 for f-We wl call ti u(E). may fom equi neon e s ror fe "Now, under an incident Fld the probity that there isaphoton of ene 1B ict othe (acelin) saber density of patos iy DF a) a «a on where gp i tbe density af photon tate inthe energy range Bo E+ dB. Ia optealyhotopic medium of reactive ado ergs? ote = S2 ws mand os he Poe of Salar Ce ton nd Recomianton ue | | | | Now we ca lat the spetantous emission rt othe eborption cov Sint ing By 4.35 0 relic ray 0, et ee Seeing od fo we ve ny = Sh _ ENE? 5s ro id gectat as) ‘Thies the volume rat of zadaivercrbintion, taken one ll angles f emision. For appleatoas i deve wy are ost often lee ta {be restination resolved eloug pareslar dieson In that eae the fomatele ato ie given by rater tha a he resenbination ete Predsed hyfator 1/4 ng = 2h aAENE "= gt oT oT ‘Thieato canbe expen in tars of he ton Bx fom (isl) ck ds HE) (ase) sp = bt B AaB) 35) nt # a aS shown n Bg 2.14, whee F = for ison normal tothe el eure sina ‘We obtain the total radiative recomblantion rate by iterating 45 come photon eves: vstt= [dens anee de de ei nin mt siete a cs shat van [Ptewitsanet [oEME. Sytia wcatiosin the recombination rate ester hr spl vations © (2 eo aso Wael [eral 196] ad Stern Stem, 1863),45.8. Simplified expressions Jor radiative recombination Inorder to the esombinton rte ito the srapors sonst woul te an toe bl to expos Ura otra of th cts densities. Ina ve Megecrtesemiondntiog, 2 ya ha forall oes at which those, By 43 woogie. The, ta good sproximation, pee onnenet alg the ration for wwemieomductr under bike Bg, 353, mn entTah, we can wet Ba 4.58 8 Waa = Baten) sn) where saan de [ease toner, “The rdatve wwombiationctefllet By aries Fadepedent sod ie» property of the material ‘The corre Smpifiefatber for doped mats. 1 the dest of pctogenrted seettons and Hole read equal to On, then i » Pe Spacer ih» doping dealt May (op =n) = (00+ Aiipo +n) mapa = Me ‘where np adj ze the lected Hoe dows in eli, gen Wp ag/N and Mapes Tie nuns tat Ura proportional the ‘ows any erie dest, Ug = B= as) vee toma” BR (ae) nthe minority eri radiate Aftme. A sar sss sows that in ‘htop ater doping dasity Ma as | : ‘Abwotbance ‘emision/ au ontgay ——Brergy eV Se eee nat Eee crates a aa) ‘The aati iinet b measred ra the time sso spontaneous asso fllowig lvantanncan opel excitation ofthe semicoetor {Gallet photolumineceneo¢foorescnc). By cua be determine exper metal fom the vation of ra th doping Tegation 458 shows dt lage fr mail with high bop tin concen, nd thetfre dative eombintion fre import Circ ted gop matin, Te exponential tera moans tht, rive £2 ‘Sootption, conebtins fom energy lees certo che band len ake fnuch more importnt. alent that eadtive recombination fom o> the bad to ipurity sats ise the baud gap can be very parent, td cen dominate ove band toband event "cuz whee the chem potential uo, the rte eon sin ate ean be der elated to Bas Ty) = g¥” throughout the Imaal too, wing By 457, Vat Bian? = 2) say ‘ihre Ua 8 mata ependent constant/ penccense WE ge Radiative recombination le untportant for praca cll at operating pith then of pce ater ft mocha whch ie ie, Bex 4. Binlealar wconbination "The detailed twestnet of radiative secomtinaton above shows how the rae of ecombinain ie proportional the dene of both tee af {eves I fat it usaf band torbendrenmitaton proce Wich {fot depend om the penne of thi quantity to way lke yu where ina mats ad proces dependent constant. We sow bere hat ‘hi conan with Fens olden Fale Tor wanstoae fein mleuee Yo condoction bed, we may replace (fo = fe) wth (= ff in Ba. 42. Slee under noel cots the endl tad ssn empty while the valence band mally fl, ‘the Fei Dt unetiooe vary expanasily wih nergy over the evant ange of Ey and By The factors Je ae f re therefore iy toe the Tow opi varying fio the mate lena ls only ably depen leat onl an ial tte anes, can be taken outs the tea inthe expen for tation rte nad he naprsions ve the o0- dbeton aad valence Sande spurte fa the ese where the and setae init ura Rmge [0 sBowlBnets[° 4B. 489 "The twolatgrals in Ba, 4.64 ace ct the doniy of ole i he valence ‘and and lertcorin the condvaton band. Thu, the tation rte peo porto vo the product of he ew eae dna, Uae mp Rete that th ternal rcombiniion rate mast be subuected to obtain the at ‘eenmblaaion rat!) or rans coneton bad os loads oom clo sls to wlnce ban, we replace the condaeton er valence) baad DOS funtion wih the DOS fer the ale tate and (or) wih She density ‘flectens ot olen thelacalsed ets, For conduction band ta eal tate enone we be Bnli(1= 8) as) | | | st Nhe deny of ei ean fhe pay hat localised state is occupied. ne Tat ren atacand cadet mor coped ime ofl tate tne a al ep peer al en ‘Beteson apd on te ely of hd ey Shey Reed Hal snot vi op sate ne bd ap co angle ea tulisop pce Aug econtnnton, ere! mean ee Sever roe 4s Auger recombination In Auger ecombinatos, alson between to slr cei ei in ‘he extation of oe cai Io higher Knee energy, ante comb ton ofthe other aco the band gap witha ener af opps polarity “The eougy which eles cough zembination ge up hile ergy the other carrier. Ulimaaly tha extn ergy wl be at as beat 2 the ented cao last the band ge Fe bend toband Avge recombination, an ection ad two hale or 3 ole and two eletous ae iovelved. By a arate to that wed hon, the rate is proportional to the dente fal three cir 0 ta the net rate vse Taag App —nbe) for woes colons and aug = Aa? — nest) (600) lor bros colsins. Auger process are most inprtant where erie rosie at bh, fr stance inlaw bed expan doped materi ot ot liph tenperature. Te dependence on doping density te tong. In pp oped mater the lezen itime fr bad baod Auge estintion eee wm Saal the Hole tine la -ype aes mane ch ee NFia 5 Dee Pap of oer cay | AX Tig aunty mort ein Au atin he a nt av Seat use pote der ocr et SEA itp gee tons ar Ase ry a ae ie Srsiecr i ndactun cute nlm opy te praesent ‘Avgrsocmbination ct ao osu waa tap state An elatonealing wit an ooaped tap sat lon othe coodithon bad can malate the ‘combination of the electron ia the trap tate witha valence band hl, it gnning lial energy Smarty « ol ealdag wth en mp tap Tine to the valence bad ca slate Agee recombination Te these ass ‘he mineriy case Lens ary Bee yy 8 Auger stents conerve neta a well as eaay: An elcon With cveray B aad someatatnK ca rrombine with hale of nary B~ 8 fd imniebatn Kk provided that there aleiton stato avaiable at (B+) ke W (exe Bg 42), Ths means that Auger recombination con fcr in det band pap materials, al radiative rcomination which ie supped. Aagercenubiaton i thereore much more portant fa indies han de band rp ater, adhe dominant ls chasis In very pe con and germaalum, 455. Shockey Reed Hall recombination iy fr the a portant osmbination processes areal semiconductors ‘80 thove which invelve det or tap ata the bend gap. See «oD ‘tava patil Iolo whit the free leva a le lease, we fan think ofthe fe ear a ing cepted bythe te. The erie ca ‘bongo he tleanod by thermal actin. Alerts ithe tcp ‘plea ccs te cppite platy before the ast cari elase then the tapas ben pte gain andthe two cai Bae in eet reoomblned. This strated ia Pig 4.4, Locale ates wich sere lly to capéure and release only one typeof crn ate uray called trop, Thos wich ape both types of cone ae called reason ates Usually combination conte deeper lato fhe band ea thas as 44 Devin ofthe Shockley Red Hal (SRE) veombntion rate Consider vemiconducorooataning a deny My tap satis at energy, nthe band gap. Bpty traps can capture dscns fen the ‘auction ban and Dd raps con capture lef the valence ba ‘Theraect which dlecteoarar cape inthis iseleslar pros given by Ba. 405 Ue = Bind 40) sere fo the probebilty thatthe rap is ote The confit can be peceed on B= (ass) oe mp the mean themed veal af the sleton, and the captare ros section ofthe tap for elatons wil aloo be wl to dei 8 tine for elestoneapate by the ese (ao) ‘The rate at which elotons ere elased from the tap depend on the ccxpation of the top and ca be writen Nf Gye = Bile (a0) where he ruse tee determine by te condi that Up = negli. Then llaws that ne = Bari any ies ni tbe vale ofthe electron density when the elaton Fe vel ‘azn to the ap level ee nebo fomoe ‘he Phe of Sor ay Ie slar wi, Hoke are copouted at arate Upc Deol (any was (ary) po (am) sd reed a a ate Gee = Bul ~ 8) (479) ‘where 9 6 the value of the hole density when Br, = B, pe mdt-Biet (an 1 gencal he rates of capture and ease for lites and le wll be Aires, depending on the fi ofthe tap fo elton or hoes a "span in the band gp. Homer, inthe andy ott, the nt cate of ‘ketion capture by the taps Un ~ Ce ms be equa othe net raze of Tole capre Up ~ Cha since cree cannot be alloted to bald wp he teape, This coon fae the vue of fj, Ban Bape Bata BTR) ‘can then be elininoted fom th exprasions for U—C. Fgally we fad fo the net recombination ate be (48) ERAT seam here we have ud th ition fsa stn This ithe Shockley ead Hal expreson for connatin trough seal trap tate Vane (49) For doped ealeonductor, Vay engl. Tap ype mater, provided at aN > ean > pe, ana becomes propordonl to the exces carci dent (n=m) Baqu 22 (aan) inn pe mat oan) (aay ower when ny and pa, c€ when raat 88 ryan derby ede of paid, the nits forme may not spp ‘na shy fll expression sot be ad, SRE ecmbiuton le trongest when ap ae sas naga. By exaining Ba. 479 can an tha ora id gap top wth ex cape tiv, U hss ts minum when n= p. (Se Pig 410) The wens ht Sn doped repos, wheren and p may be sila, SAH ecombLatons moze {portant alate to radiative recitation, (Equatien 4.57 shows tat ‘tive recombination depends only on the np product, which constant far oeloem O42) Tals depandece on the n/p cai fofances the Bin Apetence of the SRH recombination rae, We lle in Chapter & SRI ection varies i ein doped material bt lit e240 Inthe ‘plete layer bebman two detent doped natal. Teal sanionuctors, Une maybe several tap lvls in he band exp dears may roombine by mete than ake step, However, the get ontsution om rape which are ost le th et of he ad to. or np. 8 fr bulk material with «uniform densi of traps, the ‘procnition ewualy made tat renebantionteough one partial {Gn lovee dtlant, Mullevel ronan dns by Landsberg (Landers, 1950), ‘SRH recombination rate feu)Pa ‘he Phi of Str Cty 4.5.6, Surface and groin boundary recombination. Acconing wo Ba 479, spatial variation in Ug ea be caused by vie tous iam and por by apatilvsiatons inte natu or numer dens ft dont tap. A Bigher density of tap stats shortens the elton ‘od le capture tes, [neal mates defcs avo much more Tay 9 ‘ceva ees anda the iearfcas between diferent crystal goin ‘iulrystaline or heteorewctared ntti, Locale ste src fad inet incide both ntl debts dae ta broken bonds, and et Tac impuritie which are deposited fom the taal envion, ot whlch are coneatatd at interac daring growth In nc aes the rp ‘tata aponbl for recombination are concentra nee dimension fates than thee-diesional space and i i mach more meaning xe pres be recombination interme of the trap deity per wat era of te ifs oinerfae thas per ut wun The rls oat wl bea Teeomblastion Sr the numberof cri roc a he intertace Dor nit reaper ei ine, rater Un volun combination ato nace a deaty tape per uni aren thn within a vey ‘hin lnjer asd the ure the surface ecrblnton ox wll be Fatale a por uni ts, when my ae te electron and hole deni tthe cue, $y ithe srfce recombination elo or beens, did by, Ut Son Ba «s) snd; the surface rosoinaton veloc fr tale, p= Bel 39) ns dfintion, both Sand pace etal towards the srl os he tale Top type mata, By. 482 rogues to Use = Sale “Thin ealage of soy cers o the sufce sls fn 8 surface rom Seaton caren. The mage of the eure can be obtained ra the zon comity equation. athe dak, st steady stat, Bq, 41 require What Wd = alton this crn te interac ner we Bd hat the lesen curent deat bs changed by aves (node) 1 (ak te iatarfe ie mvc, then ths condition dermis the crteat ely af the sarlace al aS ne) 4s) sat the change in le cure deny tan trace a ne me tari given by [oie od the caren deity tthe aura by ae 8854 — Pes Jy) = 9500 Po) 436) 457. Trope versus recombination centres ‘When sci capa By tp may then be rls rt may be somated by the eptre ofthe opoaie type ef are, Wheo the ine for eect ree by thea ciation 2 Byler le much shorter than the ime fa eapare of ale he state cane consol an eatron tap eather tha a seeambistion tenia. Ts may bappen ifthe states close In enrgy to the conduction hd we otf he cos etion for eeton capture much large a fer ole caper, african, fora poivelyplnised dfs. Sila Ine staten whch te cle to the rleoe tat or which Have ighet ‘ton action for bol ape acta le tps Tape stv t lw own {he anspor of eves but they donot enove then.m The Pa of or Cay r pment Rnb a © » © Fg 411) Baton tapping an taping (0) detrei (Shh tagged dace 1, Fortnulation of the Transport Problema Fioaly wo can posed to slve the cto equations fern, pand # at out In the teodactin nthe chapter. Is one dimension, On _1ade BoE vay ty as ve 1 sou, us) wt £8 20 mal t-9) as For Gy aud G, we provide the photogoerten rate a that pont Fo ‘andtotband generation, O = Gy = Gp i gia by Ey 29 and 425. Phoogeoeraic the oly generation proves normaly onadered expe Inly for we ells thermal gneraton of exer ital Sto aceon tach ofthe expemions for teembinton, Tp ealate G(2) we teed (0 ow th abortion coacent (2), the rfectvity RB), ad th it cident photon fox deny 5) For Uy of Up We soul, gnu, provide the sum ofl he rom ination pronatr — radia, Ang, ad tap stad — ata funtion fof mp, ® and Bor eadiaive ssombintion tv ley rod to Kao the outient Bu (Bes 57 aod 4.38), For Auger cobiation we need he ‘Auge oueceate (Eq, 468. For SRE recombication nthe bl we ted ‘he densty and pesto ofthe dowant trp tate and the iene fo letran end ale aptre (Ey 479}; athe mae we ne th 80 ‘ation velco: (Bay 440 al 4.8) oe the fel changed la Plato's eqation me seed the doping pole Patt) = (N=) + Nato) 690) ic a spss the denies of Soni aceptozs ed donee Sap a derived fra ergtaline materia Chapter 3: According oF. 365 so 8.6, te crest canbe expemed in tere of the ecto Sd ble quasi Fermi lvl, one dine, ee, Sem eae Fe a crystalline ate thee can be epee in teres of 9 and» teing the desis of Br, Br, (qe 331 and 3.34), Por noweetaline ‘Sura wo must eibetuteaernatve pprorinte express fot Jaa ‘Poa ae Bq 3 ‘Wen and J, ae subattned nto Bs 87 an £88, we have eet sltbte oguties whic can besoled to delve np end asa fnction of ‘Send auming chat all ner parameter are nn. Boundary cond {Suna provided ty the exeaal lta! onions and by he alae ‘eeobiaton enna nd by the ime pendence of he decal eo tlie conditions forthe rans pelts, 404. Comments on dhe trenoport problem Steady sae slatins Sos cla ls operate the ted state we ae sully intecsein the mo mo? sd solve he transport equations fo «sted state luninaton end eo trical onions. Inthe tend state, the detton apd ble densi in each ‘nd ain Ile state st be constant. The ease tet the gen- ‘cation and capture terme fr the exchange of eaters between band at tre state (on opposed to rcoiboation cnere) rust cancel et, a 0 apping ean be lt out ofthe coutnlty equations, The cnmoqunce lethat the easton and recombinaien proces areal eetvly Yaad torband: Gy = Gy and Up = Up The tapped charge deny wil tenes {ho soliton trough the Baad charge tr in Pines! eiaton, Tr she trance case where ape ee bog filed oes, Che tema for apne aad sles frm rape be nc and ot goer ‘on rate or bles aed deteneace nae, Pheton coninety ‘tl now, we have stun tt the deny of photon a poi de terized aly Ly the aleorpion wihinthe materi. That ee bam ‘ued that the deny of photon rerling from radtveresombla. ‘on smilie compared othe cde Su dna In atria ‘high diate efsency or under high iominaton conditions there yell” photons may be signet. Then s farther conti equation ‘eure, for photon, and further ualowa neds obo found, he poton fn dnuty (2). To ac of photon sryeling i treated in Chapter 9 4.62. Transport equations én a erytat ‘The mon celeast canine for convention pholovltais i 2 oor Aimensonally varying erytalne atrial i the ay stat, The quay olin Uh et ete ihr ofthe terse Jy py ad itd ‘enonce on applied bis and lamination. Toad this we Bet need to oe Up the tampon equations and sale for m pend, ae dsb above Wie prose by oombinig the current equations fo compat tonsa ryatal (Ege 8.5 an4.176) it hu ed state ont ne ‘Nos to btn a pl of ond order iret equations gorering od » Incne dineninn Fn Ms anh Dot se + onl 040: (ann) sd Ce ee ee LE + ogh ME + moe Ur om (as) While Os wn «function of poston ony geerly depends po both easier denstis, This emp the wansport equations fo elcrons su ble. Inerta stations, bomever, depends on mor ply andthe ‘ution ea be soled independent. In paris, when (0 ene caries ype gritly eens the other a the recombination cate imple tothe monomeleas fora 0» (2~0o)/% (24. 480), and (a) the slectsic eld Fe uo or commas, the transport equations for minty exis simpy to the analyeally soluble fora Gn, afdén (=m), ga stra ae (498) pea eer oe bop), coo mare” 9 498 sd Sor aes tho nrg. ere we have wd the Binteinrlaton ave ltvodced tbe difsin length or eetona| 3G (Ba 77) oe wand y= VED 4s) sod toes Dr aon "Te difuson length wonmue ofthe average tac «miei e- Fee wil die before recombining, Ie een sat, the nenensona {ifson equation bacomee (o=00 _ p, #8 pfs eon) ich hs solutions fr th ees minority err conantations (0 — na) Ube form e2°, Thi eee b= VDF a natural uit of gth Characters difnicn, Minot eartircoocenteation und erent profes lane diferettehavondependingon Whee Eisargor anal compa to thn agri, and to the absepton lng ‘rally, ecole tho transport eqtions or (+o) (Pps) bj 0 appropriate boundary conditions, Inthe next chapters, we wll et Svea ‘Shuopeswiee the singled spproach of Ep. 4:98 and 94 ca be ood 4. Summary Photscutntgsteation by a ela ills Enka to charge carer guns sion and vecoubinaton By coment ofthe numbers of elton endbolas. Photogentaton isthe pmary cater generation pres photo ‘lai ol, Fo diet gap secondacore, the aborpion coset can bedeeribedmathenatinlly by Fes Gaiden Rae aod aca tothe baa eg it pends on photon eoerey approximately es (E ~ ,). ot. ‘ect apne ht absorption seq oon sores o ion, {hr abuoptoncoticen genrally smaller an saw moe gucaly, ike (E-2,), near the band edge Photegeneration formally requires the i toclatne ofan exited sae and i ot dental oight seo in seme ‘Seapated or orgie nae where this dnasiaton incomplete “The min recombination mechanisms ae radiative, Anger, nd rap a. sista rection in the bulk othe uae: Rete recombination Isto rlmatio ofan elton aos the band gap together wth the emi on of pon Ie is wavciablen a ight abcrhing matt sd st Imgortast when absorption i tong, In dct gap sunicondacters. The dite eombination rts deed by» ever Pel fra {ed vate apprninately a np. Auger seomnation the relation of Charge carr to excites soon cartier oa higher energy state with he Ynnd The ate depunds on creer denies to thi ord and ie tenet she the charge erie dents te hgh. Trp ated canto {Ciukipe wep elation peooms, eel ivoving intron ate In ‘he bane gop: The enegy lt by tlaaton gies up as eat The rate {pends upon the daa ad pation of tase torment eats aad ot ‘he rain denne of let and bie. eronge or dec tape enn ad pare st. Ta doped material i comes iat and an be haracteind by a sage rsoaiastion time. Top satited recombination le particle portant ato eure on acount of ure eaten Surice recombination beemas Incr a doped material and can be carateriet lyyauraceocmtinaton wloty which depends on the desty of wtace dies. I el motets tp asi combination is dominant. Inte Lit of perfect materi reatveroombination i dint and Auger boom portant fr lov band gap and nde gap material ‘onmalae forthe guneration and recabiasen eats can be ud to 1 up trtopert equations for ech the chage cates Toecer wth Posen eqution, thew form aot of coupled dient! aquatione which ‘xa be solved forthe dare carve densi, erent andthe elrotati Peal In gnsal, ho problem le complex bt eas be ges simpli through assuming near roombination rate ae neletog eat fad, ‘oatons which ate valida many dvin setae Fr t references S.A, Pail Propet LY Smtr Coonan (Sih ‘i pat 6 Par Pr, Boe Ss ed Opi Taos le Osa Pann tal eh pl Seid Here (Bs onan 8) ja Bue rosa of ler By Comerin Oxnd iy Pa sel Sr i Dre Ph Sey Ye a: Axe, 18), Win Son tr Ctr rd Pcl nd Pas ne ce Pmcrtas faeer 1) 4. nai eS Grad i thal, dee. Chen en 28 ‘Sear bin einaton in Sonia (New Yor Cane Ui ‘i 11 RO, Pw i eed aod CA Price a nk a A of Sonor Dein Enon Ce Price Hal, Sur Blenie these of the opal popes of Sd State ‘ie. a0 (95) MS, Tynch ntedution te Snlcndctr Mere and Deis (Chihetr ‘i 10. Wout "Te ei petenl ef ration’, J: Py © — Sol Sate ‘ge, Ses (1682Chapter 5 Junctions 1. Introduction Phoovltic nergy conversion results om charge generation, hace sep tion ad cage ennport In Chapters 3 and 4 the prose of pho fepeettion and care rampart in a sccnducoewote cts The feinng slag, catge seperation, requires some kind of deving foc. ‘Tis ving frei abeluely kyr potwoale nergy conversion aed too: be al nto out deen, I ho langvane of Chepter 3, the ding fcr cao We une to ght dud pode athe qual Ferm oval for elceons and bol. Tan slteratv,electciclpitre, the light ab seing materi connected to Uh eternal eat by pats of diferent ‘estanct one whic bas uch lowe rete fr negative the pov ‘hang, aud the other which har much lower rstane for postive than este (Pi 5.) In pti, thee ae many ways of providing charge cepetating ech sia Te neealy proved by spat variations inte scree ex enmeat, In crysalinesemlcndustor devin, = junetion Uetwen €90 oe ages =D < xFr wo ‘he Pepi of Str Cty toctonily diet materia provides an elstrostate fre. In pte. fyathesis— where care separation Is bo rqusite— exited ero, ‘re deen crn the photonic membrane by diferencia the tee ‘ergy of mokelar acceptors. In bth eases he fore arse tom p0- ‘onal gras this chapter we wil dics, without mathematical det, vaio ‘per of junction we in photovlale devices. Chapter 6 completa the dhcrpton of photvotisaction with «deta anaes of thames nh portant example, the pn junction, 54, Origin of Photovoltaic Action Jn photoolae deve, pt produces asepuatlon of cargo That charge reputation thon gine ris to a photoerent (a short cet) or phot ‘eltage Gi open cca). The photovlaie action arse ro the deving foro siparating charges, Hare wo il analy the in tr ofthe cont ‘baton tothe phtacuret, Jean equally well be aloe ie tem enti t the photooltage Font, 1980) "Now, rom Chapter § (ge. 365-57} we hae for the cures at a pla J = Sut Jp Han Be, + ys TE, on By definition, fr wiconducor in euiiam, Ep, and Br, te equ ‘ul constant and J = 0 eveeyshore So, o achiev ptovelaeetion, we ‘must have asitantion where ight producer a gradient nat es te a ho qs Fen! lees. "ow sold that happen’? Using the dit ifn forma for Jy and J ‘tom Chaper 3 (Exe 3 75-3.76) we have that Jy= aDaV{n0~ ne) + al —ne)QP Vx HPVINN.) (62) sod Jy aD yep) + Help PONeP ~ Vx VEy+KTVINN) (63) ‘bee ne ny rpreent the carter det Sn uli aad we have inde un of theft that J, = Jp = 0 in equa. In either equation, ‘he ist lem repseets ifn al he second represents dif unde he ‘et electric fol, which i duo to compostional gradi, os well san? ‘letras ld (a shown in Fig 5.2). When the equtinn are wad ln this orm, beh tars ar etal bro in ain ‘Vode latin n> n andy > pT te lt el on act dl caren il ot Atenas no ete a, Tiare greta the alr etn, Sn ee inn cen cal "Ah vc ehh xin ci bien’ Sead sr aie to competional ore We sal bow hw 9 tin eto atc et at ha tcce btm vo tal ret. Set ncn, Ae shown in Chper 9 an clic Ste el ma so Shek tom woes ate cles ay tend ap eet tad “ety of shea An etc had eee fr care pert so Soup dre pa carn opp icin ‘aren dnaty rts el om pala n te ecco or soon. In an ctbervne trope snvontent a get i he gee ote nc of scien oe pan rou tht cet only Whe ‘Eto contac or dios tod ols edie. te ae the Sant the ston nd ele feo events coal ont ety “he poeta fren ceed ysemety fain cota he Dinter poten, ot uly lngeebuph fr ect phtoaae tevin i cytlioe tata, athugh ay be eg toler ei Large ie acca be sll, Rowe, nan yun caveat vine the ee sonal ean wih adel tenor cv ore The ld be cnet ich a i stance felotoe sd igh fo: bles Sacha cntac charged ein prt ‘tly somos etn fer the ge tring repo ad cen 8 ‘Bain he dco Sent Tuy be corel a scons ‘Fat dey grates ee au don ddwion cares. Ta hn tation ties mo bol cat to easel te saon cote ns hae wee tovealie. Thre ay boson stat whith petal senor Toke aad th cetr sow diftsion cent wiih ado the eon nthe allowing, cota conttos ote cag separating sot Bar i, Comtriatios to aye separating fl Figuse 62 shows bad pl eprisntaton ofthe various posible conztsothe et eld experince yelectons nto cotton nad, (Noe that each ofthese ongurtions ut in an elton eurent® © he, $2 comity te « bain fee Gad for daone, (ie ea fr Sense) fom ght oe Te sgn of th net current depend on he se ofthe sing fina rhs sth lence be) Te) often he tor anton as en to = dt tte wstum lel deer ctr Bel, FOE n(Q)e densi eton fiay deo deonpostoal int cecsesn en a, Uy oon a0 eet nh onan bad ie Ts (0) add de to rd th lect cofstion band deity tne, AE Ye ving stot he ight. Thi er att be depen ts digo erst rn in ef eer Set than pel ey: trey doen Shemodyaniely ahe ‘Sncin of ateing erably of a. igus 5:3 shows to verou factors whi coutbate to the ne ee tote fd win some gene, sompotonlly varying semiconductor ia enllriom. Negheting greets in the bad ete of stl, xo eke tron in the condutnn band experienoes an etre eld of 2 TUE Uy) and hole ia the vance bend experiences tbe Belt Hee, 2 i1vE — Vx- VE) Ta Fe 5340) the cries densities ave thelr equilibrium proles no, ‘which ge sptnly varying and tbe Fara ove sf. Tn Fig. 5.0) © ® pet, uit ial fla cag prion tg in Site onda st onrm excst cartier denty of ins preset o that oo + Sodpo ce pos Am Now, the ust Fel levels ae opi and tae both Pecdped& patie gradient Eltron wll bo drive the et an ole (tkerit bythe balla ed hus efocting charge epson. Te sinry, the various eonltons wiih an ies to charge 9p (erate in the meu level or wor funtion => eerste ld (i) roe in th enteon fy = eftive Bld (i) arent kn he nd gp = civ eld fi) Salon tho bad dese of tes fective Bld ‘tet threo these are exited in photovaai deves, Cages in (i {aa (i) ean beacieed at the tase between to difeea tetii 1 fete netic’ oe hough radal ngerin the compotion of {aby However: th fsb throug wrations in the elton aay cea gop cu he el nied test cesta venicondctos. A ‘rue polem with Heerojunctiane that defect a the neice ea ‘anne rconbiation ss ‘Coangs ta the Yocum lel wok foeton (ca alo be acieved snout nig diferent trinity by varying the doping eel in [Map semiconetor The bls etablishu this way can be args and vel Tater probes dso eterounetione This the most widely und ‘Sean of etabshng the chp npaating fd in oa cla "The moat common tp of nto ae described below.a me P 4S 0, tine ue 5.3. Work Function and Types of unetion 54. MotalSemieonductor Junction ‘The nok fncion of « material ste pots eegied to remove tbe Perhaps the sinplst type of charge separating Juncton is the lest ly bound elton Ti defied by esiendoctor-metl junction. We wile Cee del to expla bt ld a estublabd and ow enue (qaltatve ee the cost 8. Bae Be) 4) ‘hororoal action. In metals. i aay aqua othe eleton afi Inston it cu be cata by doping, Sines the pono of he era lee within the band gap ofa senicoulctor dpeade upon doit, a partisan ductor wil havea smaller werk ft wen x dped m type than ‘hen tis doped pepe Sine Eps contnt in equa, es decteeatic Sal mt bee labled atthe jnetiogbeteen any two cepa of diet By do fo the gradient in Bye Ths could be a eterjunstin between © sien ‘uct and amet o wo semiconductor of iret yore could be et | homepenction between two les ofthe seme eicontar which hve on doped dicey ar any ofthe jaeson, the elected evaoated io th flowing ‘The latrotatio poten energy diernce arose jtion sak to the difrnoe inthe work fanetons. These the eld exablabel seco junson inthe dtin mst cy set. Betalihing 0 flld Suppose wel # aon 1 ype smcoedactor of work Futon dy aod Smeal of work fncion © auch chat > By. Whon the to mts fhe ested fom cack er the orn lvls wil be iadependet, a Fr (a), When they aze Brought et eens costact the Fra orl rot lne up, at in Pig. Sb), with th eemmgience ea the acum Teel changer y (@y ~ &y) between the semiconductor and the wet Povialy this achieved by the exchange of charg crt actos the Jinn, Etro flow om th aemicondtar tothe tal lasing ler ‘of pativ ed are blind, ad agate image chago onthe metal, llth cbnge grant wich lle up eet fo peeve Bite How, At hip he to Iajere are in shermal equi, The nary the endction band ego Ln the blk of th snonducor i ler than th Interface with the tal nn leteostatie eld ext cot the Joetion, The wrlaton in elecrettic potesal energy is represented by 5 Ue bangs fn Ey in Fg 84 and the Bald by the pain of Eg, Tho af Fe = balay) Belen) = Be 68) potential dierence i shored between the two matrials according to their where aed x represent pstlane fr fom the jascin omits where the ect el er, Poon' equation egies Cat Pac Herron) 6) wheres the oes ice permitiity and the loa ange dey ‘uc contrition fom all charge in the Junctions regan — sapped ‘arg a well ae Grd pace chacg ad ts detone 2nd hol, The fee ‘ater dsributiousthenulver depend on the lea value ofp rela {0 tho bad edges co the problan hn to be ave eed Ty sccommodting difeence in work fnetoneeely means a et baton of charge ara the jt, This wil be sen fr the examples e844) Da pf mip mem nt aan (8) Bat alow. ‘tif erat nie megan ° ecr Pa Phe Pg of Solera etic peritvtie, Boca tls ace much yore storing charge ‘than emlcondutors (much lowe veal al ef the poten difernce Ue dropped isthe senionductor. At some distance fo thn jueton oe ‘ier, he pot diference top maying andthe detec Sel le to tro. Tai distance vanishingly short nthe tal buts igaleant — ‘soil acosnd amleon — inthe vreandactee With thee eon the nites cary at charge. This gion called the apace chare rein ce mcs shanye Liver ofthe ncn. Ie corresponds the regan where Ey femaging Because the dete fly std bad gap ar avert nthe Semisnton the eandoetion and valence band energie mst canes in atl with Ege This arly refered to eo bod bonding. ‘The tot oust by which the bands bend inthe somionducor ie given by qh ‘share yelled the bun ba. “The large dictibution wees te neti can bo oie fom the tnd bending. Far fom the junction, mand p wl have thir eqs hum value fr shat doping lel, = jy and p SE (Ege 2 and 540) andthe material eletricaly petal Now singe frm Bq. 23 fhe Noer(@"B0 37, we can ee tala = apposite jupetion aad Ey {Derases wll cae Below ix oq vale 20 tht 9 < Ny sed ‘he material bcos positively charged. AL the sme te, the oie ala coucnsation ines sce Ey ncensing and p = Nye“ CR, omeve, pil ery aall andthe eave charge sogiel ede in| te the Exe ionieed dover alco which have let thelr eaten, The space cargo ropon Ie depleted of earns ad often called x depletion rion tr ettowtin lager ‘Thm by Jilag sn = type semondactor to areal of larger wrk functions we up un clei eld i a layer lone to the interface, Tee don sha hi ld wll sve sete tote lft and oles to the ih, ‘So fecting charge eparation. The osc penn aver rte path {or holes than dette, ftom samteaniuctor to metal, This ype of uetion ies example of Scotty bari 5.4.2. Behaviour in the tight Now suppor hat the seniondocor a hnianted wth photons of err _ratr than By The space large lajer wil cas elect pls gene Soli the suncondacor oe separated 3 a he leone secure in the mmiconductor apd the fol ip the mal (ce, seems emoved from the metal). Th appl to pts gered ff the Held bes oan ction of htm eae he nape aon spon rough co dive curet resulting ftom prefeentia ole xa. ‘in a the Inefien, Th somicondacze wll beome natively charged tun the poesia difencewzous the uation wil be rodund. The le- ‘zon quest Ferm ev fa rom so juneion wil be higher tha it wasn {he dar and higher thn he Fem lel inthe tal sown in Fg 8.5 ‘To ight has couse the Feral ol to split Te scented photovatone, ‘Yeqal to the deans inthe Ferm nel of smeonduetar and meta {er fom the Junction, Ths ably to sustain ference in guns Per tole ander ilumioaion i the ay rsuienen! for plabviie exes) 5.43. Behaviour in the dark ‘The prema ofthe brie abo gover the cwtent-voltage characte nthe dark Condition ins type mordacore x nrmally hy seceon fw, abd the ieterae peta bri wo elton fe At eqlilun, ‘mall crrent du to the thermal activation of eetrons oer the bar aris bolaned by» mall esage crest due vo tho dit of le fom femennductor to metal, Wen «formar bi applied (the aniondac tor ba a tare nope bia than the tal) the Dare elt Be rood and ects pase ore ely over the barter orn xeondac ‘orta metal. This rv eure increases oppress exponetlly 08 he bari igh elf even lathe Das hight nese, rpptesieg the sotiated caret and th ony onsbuton& She salTe SA (9 Sumas cman rar of yr a ula rac 0) A foe pth of nape eons ‘See the pnd Car pon B bcs pele opie Pe rte leaage caren a the reste dieton, wich ited by the low den: ‘ty of mobile Ha. So, the junction panes cureatprletetil i Use faeward deci, and exit ectivng’ characters (Fi. 5.3). (Tis sms the seca property ofthe ery meta-emivondutor unetions men {ona ia Chapeer to which photsotae behaviour was atebated) This ‘symmetric erent voltage bebsviour in the dark a consequence ofthe Charge eepcaing junction sod ew fate of tot photovetie davis. ‘The grster the difrenein wor anton, he aange the band beg sud the greater the ayer betwen the forward and evr cures send p fe mele semizondutr jention ‘A complatalyszalogou seston eppiss oop type exmicondueto inca ‘ack wha ttal of ower work futon, ey dy < Bp thi ca he ® 2 Syma nen open eclconductar bands ben down toward the nce (Pig. 8.7). presenting ‘Teter to maloity sue whieh ae ow hots Th peat lage af the Sanicntvetr i ngtively arged dv tthe spoe charge ofthe oned ‘Stator partion The oxward currents provided by hole station over {hese tnd the reverence yet alge. Under Uminaion lect ate dven int the sta and hal no the sence, end {Ghtomondactor develope a photoatage ich pslv elie the [tal Ta the dar tho junction exit he samo type of eye at ht alagebehaiou the n type Scotty barr, but with oppenite aly B44. Ohmic contacts he stunton i erent if we kave an = typental junction sh that Bac by oro p ype ntl tion with By > By. NOW, when the mee ‘ilsacebioupit ato coach the weducor bands Bnd inch = wy {at Sey encourage te tranpot of alan cari acres the jction, NS only the low ef mex eins (Pig. 6.8). Maer atics ‘ine aocolte near th nerace to etal the necerny potest [noon ad the nein tein ich with cris. Ths means it xn pot “tet oly ltr dso, a 20s bao alow eins conte OF tna erie, wu clled a Ob contact. Under eatin, the {args seperated tthe jnetion pas bck ros the justin relatively aay so thatthe recltagtptovltge othe eine eal Tae ‘mehncam wich ves fie a the photaslige ina bata juneton — the elie ronal of iexy casera — abet,Pa Pe Poi of Slr Cet ® ® Fe 58. Obnie panacea mtgpe ene a (GF s pay tint aac ne he ieee iron host supa Wry ee wa ces tA We cn daw tho flowing concn fom the show dcusion: +s ebege separating fd etaishd tthe ntertice twee two mae teria of diferent work aioe he jueton wl vl a potvotage prod that t pect ba ‘er majority ear eurents 4 the potovoliage lated to the dlfeence in work factions 5.45. Limitations of the Schothy barrier junction ‘The mtal-semcondsctor tare ia simple way to prepare photoala junction However, do at produce te highest plotovakagss;() When {he bveer eights Inge than ~ /, the minty crsiesoxtaunber ‘the majerily ears i the region eae to the intaface ad ea sersion| ie fred In tase coins the te enti becomes cave ch spd eanaot mutans photvlige This ims he we acer eight and ‘nc mits the photovaage (i) Inte ase of highly doped eaxcondue tor, very tia baer ner ay colt wll allow useing of olor acts trough te Justo, reducing he eectvens of the bari, (i) "The entra itertcebeten the etcondeto ad the meal leu Interac sats which may tp charge ae iat the phatovolage, as ie ‘ted below. “The problae of the Schottky barier cin be avoided with semloondicar- seconds juin. Tr 155. Semiconductor Semiconductor Junctions 554. pen junction ‘Thep-nnstion isthe clestical mode of ena cll‘Phis typeof junctions Cyeted by doping diferent regions of the seme sioner dire, [mre hove an itvface between p type and type les of the same fae. Sie the work fasta of the p type marl i lager than tiem tps the loot potential mist te smaller onthe msde than the abd an dete Held le etablced atthe junction (see Fig 59} iis drvsphotogeneratdaleronstwarde then side and ol toad tie p. The Junction ren le depleted of both electors nd bel, and svopeprasnts a bse to majority eaves, and «Tow stance ath to minor caries Te dives the elletion of natty cries which ace ‘photogsoetated threugbout the» nd ayers, an ach the junction by ® 1g 58 (0 Band lin pen ad ener hn) Dd peat te ps ne neila he Poof Str Cy ‘The pn juction has the avenge oer Ue Sebo air hat hare so ned fore rtallrieal nterac with is ascocitd det ‘The juntion can be crete by cntnuouly vying the doping of i ‘de exytal wafer during or aber growth; (A large bull in bse can bo ‘Stabe witout populating the junction eon (no inversion ae) "The pn Junction i the most widely used structure fr sla elle a wil be analysed in detain Chapter 8 5.2, pion junction Avasation onthe pn tame tho pin junction. Thi Justin where aj of semiconductor betwen p and n has ben et ucdoped, ot Ino (). The sre bli ba I etal wit the ection ‘sth the same doping level, but the lected extende Over wide ‘eins shown in Fig, 5.10. The dig i pred in materiale whee he » git 0 nd et oy an i ts na sunt cation lengths ae shox, and cases photogenerated in porn gers ae unly to conttbta tothe photocuret, Care which fre photoneoeraod inthe selon ae dive tard the comats hy the Shc ld and survive for greater distance than i doped materi [ie of eatin the replon are mally extended eae the in the doped reas. Some daacnatags ofthe p--n dng are that (i) thet rego as poorer condtny thas doped nye, ard may into tie tance; (3) the Htathood of onanaton witha the layer at feward tis coins, where electron ad hole popsatons bso sim td (il) eareed impure may cae th lee el to all o aero within tie xsi region. p-njunon ia amorpows sco wl be dscaned In Chapt 8 rand p-n juncons can ao be prepared as Retort ag | ‘ae materia of direst bandgap, This night be x design etre fo Improve ert ellecton (Gated in Chota 7) or « eoty beewse the doping propre of arable mater AL the uncon ther wl ba a dicotinty ithe concution and ance band edges doe to the ‘angen tho bond gap. This peel step todas aernt fective Fels fr electrons aod hols which usually wit the detrestate Bld fr ‘ne carte an oppor it forthe eter. Inthe example in Fig 11, the heterojunction eahanoes tho fd driving cons awards the msde but ‘ype the hal for hla ntodosinga barrie in the vlna Sac ‘rere are common — though not uieciable in p-n Beterojuntions, std can lead cance recitation in th neti eon, Tho exact, nd ine wil dopend upon te diferencia the lection ate sod ‘he work funds, 56, Electrochemial Junetion Asuroe bee junction ie tothe Sehaty base ca be esa | ‘the interfion baton eleenductor and qu lc A lee tole which containn a rear euple capable of taneprtng cha 10 ‘df the semiconductor suas. The Year ope contain wo oe ‘pods of diferent tate of charg, ox oidation state, Ths ay be fons tthe sae raters dficnt sate of charge, for ietaee BO ad BEN The ane with «more potive charge the axed species, whileapenas ® ig £31 (9) Band pra p20 ype mink of lk Yad te (hatin and pee ep hci ns the moce nave one I the redodapcs, The spaces ae capable of ‘Sngig Seg th each te yaar an eheton. Th ete Stnearrton raed on pasta (Ike oping encod) a veal charge lane! with oer one “Mie et reali, edo couple bs » Fr re chemin! pot wich w cutat st qeibum. opr the stare ihe junto, we ued to now the lt wok fection ofthe de {ol Be wll te ites erent Sel pteia ed ie ‘Rony le Ra potenti sul give elt to standard re Trout eel such ct eo pola of drogen. TE the we ton Ste crane hen he wv ution o elect an Be Seed an eel tot! Poa, 1080) 6 Fea + One hatin (EP) on | memertiwee A mn . bere Bt the tana oan potential ofthe lctrlyte and ithe ‘rook fai of te atardard. The ial erm hows ow the wo ta {epende upon th relive conentatios of duced specie, (Re. and txiied specie, Ox) (The standard eon potential is ded for equa fsoomtttone) "Toe type ef Junction which i formed st « pet nets dapends pon the diference inthe work functions ofthe nemiconductor an the tlle. ust a withthe smiconductor-metl junc, esuface bar fer wil be fra a the interface between an type semiconductor wth otk faction ty and an sletrolyte with by > &y Thi stated in Fe. 612(), Upon cout, eleezone flow fom somcondactor ito ls tole ant the Fermi eves equal, establishing «postive epceehsrge layer the serionductr alan lec eld the atcace which deve ® e632 nd tl of map cra ape ination {Se trie ean peange spartion. A balancing shard Ise formod in the eetayeg ‘Thos hanged layer aly taken ap within the frst few monolayer of ‘Dheat lee, aa rope called te Hells layer wich ay tsa {Sige dar el. The ane concentrations say coatinue to be distal ‘Bom exalt through» roa beyond te Hebots layer called the {fos layer Besos the petite of lets, ike metals are, the cee nme futons ta vp sso etl by the sing Ueto, the potential deep within the elholts layer ofthe soutien Via sama en Pee Hr et “The eaegy evel of herded aloe ope inthe lca aut ifleren Th enn euegy ofthe ale tte, (Eo, her et the monn ogy of the rade sao, (Bp) lower than the redox ‘ovens yaa amount now ae ee rorgeinion every. Thi difernce Fido to the reniaton of solvent molecules to stable the elton ‘the ndced ie plane eft i eld. Bacae of thermal fictions, te enerzn of he roca and cde state are zat ‘ord the meas wlue, These dstibtons uence the charge tar (ron t the semiconductor enctucyte interface, Breeton taser {othe conduc ura, Red Oe ez the lvls ofthe ruc pein eld overlap with vacant lel othe Semicon, For tranae un the snicoedaetor, on he lvls of the nnd epee sould oveap with il ee inthe ‘emicondactor ‘Undo testo, lectus wl be transced to ot fo the ss conductor soning v the ype of doping. Foe the mt semiconductor ‘Mocwoges jen stated Fig 12, lero wil be traced fo te cankonducor mies, reultag In the saneoductor slang & Tepve charge andthe eletroyte = pestve cares v0 providing # hstvatge "Th caren uly inthe etl duet te nt x fre spe i hs engl) tae a cd pei ay fom the sm ‘onductor sac, Thi pore «aren dete fom semianductr fo Rol, ects » sry For erat Faw trnigh tht eternal ict, the cin sete mint be able to recver an electron fom a counter electrode and ‘ent died cel ction 3 po mass Scotly tae has novation openly upon etn the aera, oe dea ha, a ny Waar Zee clr sae me oe nial wih i de nr lumioto, Tae poeta be evaded Wh eed seetecnnal nto (Gita, 20 s.7. Junctions in Organic Materials Suction in molecular photovlai materi eequle diferent conse ‘itor Toa mbeulr sumiconducce Light onaratos exciton Which ate ‘Sol stony bosnd, depending on the strength ofthe ita-olecaae fos compared to tose Binding the moheuls together. Tn ome co {on eran sol, ntermalclar foes ate tang bd cries ny be ‘Sondre to occpy fade asc He eaegani rt. In such mate “remtows nay be spt epotaneouly ad device can be designed wing ‘iar pints 2 for nngsie meta-szondacorjoetins Tn ote Imai auch ua abcrpbou organ wlds or polymers, inramalesl feces dota ad the exons ae very eh Dou In such cases the ‘Stowotate els salable fom the dforence in wok Fncios of the [poco mater 2 usally sient to pt the exciton. Instead, {iS exctons dit and ony apt when they approach the junction with 3 enact material diferne work fetion. Charge separation ths cece ely the junction, The probless tha oily bousd exon Diy 1S renmlive belo sesh he Smet, Tn ype molecular material {ho enim difusion lngh ss few tens of uanometses. Thi ean tat fer «Sct barr type stctre, ool the 10 wx of material ces {oh Junton cas cotebute to the photocurrent Hundred of an of the ‘mae wil be mead for a god opie depth "A colton tothe probe no te datebuted interface, where 240 rate of deen esteonic structure are combined into « blend. The ates shoul beehower vo at thee eorg levine up to escouage ‘atoms to alt at tho trace ov sw In Pig S18. The erence in ‘lecton fis adv tong lel cess el. Then when an exon ‘eso the tert kl tobe pl and te retng charge states (chs polaron in eolecla trse) are ee to difar owaeds the44 © ‘Moe aula soon eke lemen, Paton siaptin (oat ‘Sueno tn Sets) Sparel hr my ese) (Gnd yates doors ane its eign oa SS Rema hy peat nd aeper ons on np a coletng contacts. Charge separation wil be ficient f the mater ar edad oa cle ish sar to Ue excon fusion length, t,o the nanometre ae, By sing « datited juneon, charge wpetain ‘a be ecleed tought ayer of igh opal depth As in al pho ‘ola srry i i necmany to nomi eotactsto the Meo {tae oat oll ete and belay. ‘ilar princi expt in de sos davis, where 3 mle sie ster eased at the interac between alco canoe ‘senioonddtr apd ale aneperting mau. In this ease the aston pe mest aumiconducto itesace whee the direc nelson afi espe te exciton. Nancerystaline porossemicndor sats a- {oe ending ofthe materiale ona 1-100 am scale, The pipe of reac toot dvis i desorbed by Halls and Find [Hall 20%), andthe lpn of de sesitied junctions by Gritz [Gite 200; Hagel Eel Geel 200) 158. Surface and Interface States Tndscaming the vasoa types of interac (metal-semionctor semicon disor beteenction, sicenduter-aectrte) we have supped te Sreibnduoritertaer are pric. Inf, slid ree ce Uy % natn dlc and ipa, both ine defected vo th iserop ‘on of thecal ructace athe surfs, and ete deere de toaltrbod impunity atoms, Thee deta tad to itoduce extn de ‘ole atts with energies in the bad gap. Thee “sce” oraverice {nese (tally) oer to the inten ad are ape of trap ag ares dso hey wl nence the potest dstebaton ses the Inietace trough Eq 56. When interac tater ar penn, the poten {i diference acesery to mat Work untins ceo jonctin wl be hed ier GAA. Surface states on free surfaces Icr-band gap state mer tothe valence bad tend tote estean (ac- ‘ipo tatn) whl tates nat to he eondution band tnd to trp los (Gir sates. Ta general, inate states may be debuted in energy ‘irouzout the band enp vin, aad wheter thay’ ct he scepter ot ors depends wp the ceeupany of the state ad the Fer evel of ths semioducor. I i uel o dine 9 uevralty lee yo the level ‘apo which th tte re led when the urae (or interice) i extn "Ta ike a Fenton a olin, When the ston wl ji layer of onicondctr, dwn general a a diferent energy than ‘he rmconducor Fe level and co charge must be exchanged to Ding the rrace and semiondsctor sto equllrum. If < By the sarc cpr ie and taps eletes,whl i o> Sp te uae donor Ee tel pe been Figure 514 abows bow a depletion rein etal a Seen of ype malt hd < BU ct lettons How rm semiondastor ito aase tte, ong spanielef) ed een mpd charged delet layer bend util the poesia baree abi, Vy ta big eough to prevent furthar flow The sue charge ncuulatd is eget and en 69) there Vi the donor oiatine eer, oi) the density of saoe Taos andy i deere by smaneouy solving Poisson's equation. ‘This enot be sic by «pone charge +Q, inde the srioadtor ‘neat deltas lye smal xtablsed en he sue of piypesemiosdactr with fy < Ep Son Bardecs (Bardeen, 1947) fo 8 sip dnsrson of th fect of ure stats, instead we had surface with dy > Bp on 20 -3pe sic ov 60 < By on a pype smiondactor thon the semiconductor woul ‘rcnmulate cris fo compenate be enface chage, but he charge ae would end much les fr ato the umlconducor andthe band ending (oul be lle. 582. Bifect of interface states on junctions fom th above we ate that sree op its sates can intros 8 tet diernce, aad at ect fl nto an oti ntl sn Conductor starr. At «juston, tele oats ie) tap aang eed Intense the festa sed eet eld diebution. AlSoogh inate tte connor str the net potential dfeeace arse the asetin [ch Tat loge eal the diferencia work nets), chy inves the way inwhich cat patil dvd tween the wo teil Interface states af a pn function Simp we have en acceptor Hk trace at = pr junction. When the Jason formed, ome lets fn the pnt bacon rapped the titatan, so that a allan peaative apace charge neds to be dveapad ln the pale to compensate the postive space charge on the msde, The consequent i that mere of the potential difeence + dropped om the ‘ie, andthe clot fl, wich fe donno atthe charged nerfs, lenow higheron then sie To support he larger potential iference en the ‘nid an iverion lager of mote le (nino cares) may accumulate de the inarfce gute 615 sbows bow the band profle my change. Noise that the fo ofthe tte layer ato pull Es ler to pat tho itr, "We sould day tn extreme sao: + Ith density of ltentce tte ng ech, tan the Far oe the inven wil be pnt ty respective of the ware facta of ‘he materia on either ide. The high duty of sapped ebare ot the Interac coe the ewo mea rom exch oter + In adtion de ow enough ensgarble with the aceptronzation tegy Vg), then thease pel diene ean be dropped onthe Interface states of a metal-vemiconductor junction ‘An tric aye noditely next the mal at a meta-seoadacar| ‘cin fs efor op the slecotatin of the jeotion bees theeee © ae ——T su 2, a ote agen i me Soho ince none nctce huge wil be ceed by te Lainey mobile cares of At nei tern eer spree fm he tal 3 sa ron huge em o soe ater of Hs Oe Ca yaoi, conga ptt oma THe So ae ince tn ae ney frm beter he et) se te: eautbues othe nag a work futon et the junction hog Lae = Mt Van a se at bo gen by Vig = 406 sere aera he tal age develope he ein ae Ce Ur te nertce layer aod ¢ the esse emi stone P be insling per, Note a he pete of the nang ae wl ot an tht fe an nthe sean, es thn Ae? elfen tates once he hasing ote Pen Leeson twee he seminar wi he lating be, Wie emma, axgt ike ste ed wo tedace te dete 20 Ts Sano hh of he pti lees upped fai ho andre the mye sein, sta in che ef he ein (ies Vs ees atv te eat wth 0 eran or Uh tats to fl wt te arta nt ede Ys gate) ame hgh dent ete stale, Ep wil be pase 6 dy Fe cs cel ce th tal fo he sender a Vk Sateen ofthe wor incon of th eta. Thi led the Waele for metal senator ection. tn the ponte nis of Bae eon nh oo iaace tate, any angen te wor aon Sfmt eves an equal chan in Vi rucrfoce states at vemiconductor-clctolte junction Tou as ot the sanconducor-metal junction iarface sites ot ¢ J eat dete junction can acon pr of he erence dan ullons beeen the weiner and redox coupe Tactiog fhe nterce tte charge we Dave be = Vi Vn + Me ‘ators wry la density of trace sates, By pla at. tthe ‘atc and Vu be independat ofthe nex oun 59, Summary era light abcbing devin to work a ola ill ome Kad fear aan at be bul it te aytem which devs electrons and le ete eens, Tis weymmety ay be neodaced throug spatial asst the eaorone yropertine Spats varaon in lectron a, EGE on, ork foeton ot denaty of states ca dive charg separation Fee: cae nein can georetearge electri ela re ert ‘oumony we, “tin nace betwen to diferent coctoa atria» potenti io ual the dfeene in work faetion i etblsod by exchange of eesttancre ‘Te pote taon op lo the soins) and itut he Pe of oar Cas reprweted by bending the bas The ct le lctive for charge ap ‘Saton ifthe sniconducton deleted of crits and Bock the flow of ‘Rbjoty ents sctos the seta I the semiconductor each with “hrgs the junction Oho, A Hocking contac canbe formed between ‘Sittal and srmiendcts a Shotehy arin), betwoen en mand ype Seascondctr {a pn jueton or Beveon semiconductor abd an ele ttlgee Wen te vc ented, loons and hols ae epasatd ty the fed a the juntion, and secumalate on oppose ses The pox tov i deterined by the sexi charge separation ef eld (othe bight of the pote stop and te wetifing ation of the June tion. As Scotty baie the piocoge s Kiely te fration ‘tan iverson ager and by tueling pr uttlns perfor better. De {ets at tho interface intde states isthe emicondtor band gap which fen tap charger and infoence the potntil dtibuion atte uneson. A gh deity of interlace tans todo Ue potovolage and degrades the bhotovalaspefrtane of the dv. References 2, Bada, “Sure tt’ Pg, Re 73,77 (1960 54, Fona Stor Cul Deuce Phys (New York, Acne, 190) Stlontan “Piece al tre A, 38-04 (20), 1X egies Mt Gael "Mea ptoai, Az Cher, Re, 89, “po.2r (ou) AM. lana TU, Organi iowa devin Gan Bert “fom Potosi wa, MDs od RD Umpaa Calege Pre, Soon | Chapter 6 Analysis of the p-n Junction ‘The 7 homojuntion I the met widely used dove tructre in photo alla Selene doping ofthe eifeent ier of a eminonductor warp type and ype eds to potent barber between tho repons This eDe- {Bn acts oranda basa fo charg eer Bo, 0 that here estanoe pth for ecru othe contact and fo ole wo the pont, {Bae providing the sevumety in resistance which x neces fr phat totais conversion, By eonrel ofthe doping lee, age potent bari an bo established which nae possible to pees rg photooltage I bth practical advantage that he nti ean be peepate em ese txt secondutor wale without dh eed fora tallarel tel, {te associat’ probs feta states "The photovoliscfanction of pn unetion canbe analy sing the ‘ootin ppactin ntodced in Chapter Sel La general, tho prob Jem conve saving wtf eupled diferent equations fo the ec ton demity hole density and the electorate pots, given opeced fom fr the potagenertion the combatant elton ad ble ‘cent fi goer omplex problen but, wih the Beef of «0 ‘Srproniatons, analyse soliton or the J(V) characteristic under afer et caitons can be found, These two approrimations are the depletion ‘pproinaton, ad the spprcrimation tht recombination i the doped rae Uowr, This allows the diferent pqotins to be uecoupled tel incr Inthe net ection we stout the appooach to vlvng the pn uncon, belore presenting he solsens and deussng some of he lnpleatiog or untion desig,Pa he Pl of Solr Cat 62. The p-m Junction 6.2.1. Formation of p-n junction ‘he explained in Chapter 5, a pt Jetion bs tai when ayer of 1 etimicondctor and sage of wipe mata ce brought os. eens nus the junction losing bind sper of ed chara, See Met brine taprity stoma, on ter sie, Thnopec chase te eel deanna ld which pons forthe difsin aos the econ. webhost etablsbed whet dist of malority cir arose the patton algae by the dit of loo canner back crow the ston eee fiitmeleiotati ld, Ah pot the Farm eves ofthe p and ee pervanecq, the difeenc the work aston teas op by ce ites covdton and ylene band edges, called the bali Bin, fd ibe janet regan i deplete of cari. ‘the bate bins negra, Vy, a temined by the diferee work functions ofthe » and p type material, and #p, The deen seen anion aqua tothe diferace i he si f the Fem ees ethene psc energy of the einondetar, since space to Ene Hence oe ee Bapan- (BB rom te eso, = My nthe nie n= Nyon iT a se eel a temo te Uping e SE By fas en eT sr Ve sr (8) we tte « oR, «8 eigen els Fe Dstt the je es REIS tpn pti teat rg ab ple a th Fr el 2 eed the nl roped we he ae (oom Yew-v a) where V ete bins applied to the p side. A paatve applied bias wil (Docs caro fom the uncon reson, neresing the depletion wil § eats apbed bin inet carr and odes the depletion, A posit sy of apr Jeon ue Tet, oto ar don re it aati rc perro pe ee Sir ee eee asf V wl completely cancel the poeta step and remove the aye ‘oy whic drives the photvokaofet Muna of the eniconductor ‘sina ptgeneratd olen to bald up a the ped ad electrons onthe ‘ie, hing the Fes lvl he se zenae wa positive spl bias. 2:2, Outline of pproach 1a the ana ofthe ich rn junction which fellows, we sme tat we be igh ques, rstalinesemiondectr les at the Junction bes ofus The Pao Soler Cy latrace rater We rue thatthe bio bas ub ake up completly thin the mand players The tue fr typical doping ele a layer ‘Bicneeee "Then the junction conte of thie regan: a eusal pte region « cng elon around the uncon and a neutral jpe ean Wie wast to calculate the tract whlch passe though the dele Ia steady state sider given Hlaination and frm given potent diferecy etn the terminal Un gobea, es ay be done by sling the ea cndictontenmport uations and Poisons equation (Ba 487-488) eh ‘consistent together wish appropiate boundary endtons a the pd ‘ermine aad appropeate fora fr the photngenertion and eecrbin tion rater and the decton ap he cures The proble in ge Complicated because of he coming of ton ad ce denies through Poison’ equation and nie ner recainatio terme ‘he peoblem is implied by making Wo eppaaimation. Fr, we a. ‘sume tht the charged repon around te jnetion costal o ee crn tat the potential step ae vp completly by the ed pace dhargeot ‘he doped marta ea the unction. Thins te depition sppiation. In thi approsinaton the ect ld vast a a Sed data fom oh thereof the Justo, leaving acta p and n type eins, Within thse earl regions, th majority eter bavs cer egutbru wale ad only ‘tone Ue mort eae density eater caret. Aas the pleted epon the quater levels ae separated bythe appl ban, {and this providers boundary condion onthe uni ert deity 1 the ede ofeach wel region, 0 the minority cater deny can be Solved within that rein le. Fal, the aboesce of else ld sare thatthe ivory caer curt ae driven by difinion only and theca ‘ea equsons are slid. Thus che depletion spprnimation allows the ‘olcions in the neal pad mein tbe drop ‘he second appronistion le thatthe resnnation rates ithe ae tual reno az Ina in the minority cater dest. Thi erasable, stcordng to Bp, 480-48, snc the majority carer desis are age ‘nd constant. Tis alows analyte elton to be found. Tis Boesie- tion decoapee the efit of bias om theese of illusion, 2 tal ‘he sltions under bis and oder Ut may be aed to gv the sl ton under both ght and tae This ir sometines eal the aperpstinn sporouiatin. In the folowing, we wl et eta the width ofthe dpleted regen, sc space charge repos (SCR), Then wt up the eqeatins fa he nei ‘ate enstcsin the neutel spon, and Sth gnual lution he | no fe Seton wa ny carr cuts derail, We nie ‘Stet ion pcan tin a Bre se etc en cues nine tn cro lege carte Oia Sue tw (15) wd te pn spprition Ba 10 Sabet t "We lock at solutions for special cases to show haw the photocurrent ia anu te nny carer up prt ano he dark ado! ye scmbiuton mtonom, ee ean ‘Ttmothed ty djing son ei ow x seta Soon doed comand hee cepa a mst ceed 68, Depletion Approximation We define on junction a ayer ofp type material of dplng Nor = <0 ish adn layer f m type mntrlofdopng Ny fr > 0, with a pore iterae in ha place 2. The payer he this 2 athe Fer bs thicket The unesin i ompsely fe of major carers fara dept the payer aw to there, x shown in ig 62. ‘heath dpe lye athe two material ar chatged by he loeb in pty stone Tho ee bepoed the bovbdaria ae completely neta Note thot an vp [oscton can he tent exactly Ue ane wy: ony ‘he deton af = changes region region substrate Peta Stee yer sees of pr je6... Calculation of depletion wits According to Polson equation the ectrosiatie potntal # mus aby Poe Hoty wre ea aa 44 Sf 2m reso 9 were 5 tho pemitvity of the semiconductor and elated tothe | Inca potetn energy srough B= q+ where Ci any cotta ‘and can bo et to 0. Since can Yry only within the apace charge eon mart change by Vij stom the width ofthat sean, Thi gies the oundary cations bah erm Itegating Peimon's equation the ye expreeios fr the eect fot, P= 8, caer) weowceco oe a Mew) meoez an wed mand fir up te and ang = gle — yeh (os) pes < wy which xp the fact het the mobile noi err easy gnc only witha a dius lengch ofthe dept eon. Fer voile etree ee tote Mal oe oe by eombination Belore they rac he jction ‘ince both Jy ad Jp tou rom minority cari dfison they ean be _goupod together ae 2 bifurion arent, Jo Jaat¥) = J(u + Spon) = Jente™ 3) (689) 2 (Pe 4 Pe dune = 8 (ape sei) os Including the fit Inger thickness ap sure recombnston veloty ange the ou of Ju, bat oo the bis dependence "he esmbintion erent om the depletion een gen by 68 has the appromate aes IuniV) = Dealt ¥ 8 1) (655) (un up) a han = es (50) Note tht Jays diferent dependcne on bth mand V 20 Ju ‘Combining tes we have Joyal) = Sale" ~ 1) Jaga l97 = 1) + gle? 3) sn sehore wo bas ike « ters forthe radiative recobiastion eaten, Tn. Froma B57 i clear tat the atv ctor as the sae i pendence athe duo curren. Jigs may besglcant i igh quali, Unc band gap mitra. The relative portance of tho tex depends on ‘he iportaor of eomination nthe SCR. Tanck gp wail ‘Mon ils lng ar lng coped the depleon ah and YeryPa Pe Pa of Sat Cty ial reombinaoncceus i the pit repos, 0 Jy ca be fnial Tn that eae we bave Jaga = Jato — 1) a) “Tis the Stace on el’ ede equation and oon quoted fr the Ah cert sla eal, Tn diet band gup ata whore abecepton ls stony oF Wh the SOR's wide, recombination within the depleted eon may be doninan, Then Soak Janae 1) (es) 1 moe than co ron porta Jun ay APPA Lo Ay He ane (ete? = tea nee Jp a sonata the Solty frtor Ax Sea! od tas Ine Loman be ner rom APatatoun ay ae we 1 el ole we ofem sn change in lope oma Jy dome at lw Bia (m= 2) 20a oF Jt thigh bis (= 1) a sown in Pig, 67 ‘ston cre a lg fhe sce cgi ans eH ete en ect pa fn staojunctions,tumoelingthoogh base may give He tom se than 2, The elt af ay ely zor eete ha to elace ‘el coe of the solr ell For eal lad the i ctr i 80% 7. pn Junction under Ile ra. Short crew ‘hen the Jenetion is minated, gh cones elatoncale pl all ‘Drs rine mand pare then exhaaced above their equim mls, ‘tb eleton and oe quis Fern les ae spl, Tho eletie Slt {ae unetion ets to separate tho ple by diving mos ari ecrne the acton, We wil ist olin express for the phetccutet genera fart cia Tn these conditions V = Oso thi, within he depletion topeimation, Ey, ard Ep, are egal acne the SOR and there ino ‘at osobination there Fighe 8 lstesoe he bal profi id carer ‘ats. "Now aly the rt tm in euch of Bas 634 an€ 639 eno zero ad al re megaive,epreseating poste eons fa the photocurrent, For the inst cate carrent on the neal eons eave Mi) ela * e-1 [ib catabae sere nage an 6) (ae seuss} seo Mw) ETD Resa) yng «Rg ean “pean 0) sah SD 4 ge ste-e) gaasems (ean) Th gecration current in the SCR, jg i elven by Ba 8.44ral Tae Pe of ir Ce nor /o¥ air density em Distance um e660 Rat pea (2) cr en fo rd rm io a {Bho Tecan dcon ad Elmore apo. Contig este we hve fr te shortcut spectral pholocuteat eB) = nf yt) iat) ~ i an) or paucotatic peru the nt photocerrent ie sm [sta 0) ti fe an ‘he quant icine of te cla aierent photon nage Eden in (Caper I for some purpones of are inter than ne doe not penton tencden sperm. We obtain QE) eal ft the pected ftorurcentelace euch component of) m proportional ta 6(E) (B.u) ~ yB,0}— Jul) wae) Ee) (600) 7.2, Photocurrent and QB in opecial cases t's conser the frm ofthe photoarent and ie QE hi soc spc Tr the cae ofa thick pm cll where both the nately asic lular than the diflsos lng the ectoe and bole erent can be tporoinate by ie -mmnii-meet (2) gan “! semimnmernn (2h). ay Here ay etre generated within one dio gt ofthe space carge teponareoslscted, In the ter eet, where ln ab Ly ae ac lenge (Ban thep and eon, especialy have Ss. Meme et-n(ieS)une) Biman (1-5 (ese), (670) nti nif no cars ar st trough recombination at te rao, (G, =r Sy = 0) theaectron and hale pctocunerts are imply es "he Rx of plrooe arb in ha ye ‘The QE spoctrum rect the ell desig and the mate quay. For pc the short wavelength rerpone i provided rail by tho p te Hance hgh energy photon are absorbed a the at of the cll Since ‘acre generat ner the rotten are sepia to ston eco Hnton he shot waelgth QE epartclasty note tothe sce veombinstion velocity. 5, may be renee by introducing a window ayeri sre Pai of Sor Cla ox pusiating the sures. Long wavelength QU sat Wy the back oem andy thei ofthe cll To abreposs ofthe QB eee nee form af the eacption. At intemedlte wares ca se ce uted the SCR. The various coteibtins to the QE are ar ts Me 60, The overall ringite of the QE is fst by th 8 Rey oth ebvrpin. le tay be etesed by rebuing rection ames, Fir tteasing the wth ofthe ello by ight rapping techies Pigue 6.10 shows the foc of varying sme of the Junction poeta, In Fig 0a) shows how the QE ehsnges with rites tikes. When 1a EMends npr of the est bests» end Iyer which aberke ip tangeouate ne photociret, pd degrade the il performance 1 eeigorwar to how tht ia te open deg the emit should ts in ax penble ad ertsnlythinser than Ly Peet solar el ae ity designed to hove thin highly doped eater and thik, ith SE a Te thse conditions the photocarent fren te tia p reo ‘Minty tbe tinted Wy ounce eevombiaation eo, while the current fom the hth tegion maybe ited y ithe minor cri dion suas vty ea murae reeombinston The ee: of Son sucha device tethowe tn Fig, 610() and tho fete of Ly and n Fg 6:10) Layer contributions ‘Wavelength /nm 8:73. pon junction as « photovoliae cell 1 restive load i eonneted between the tetas ofthe Wmlnata Cal te lesen ot sical and opal ne, The is spite th Ferm lee throughout che doves, ax sow ln Fg. 6.11, Notes how the Etfect of junction depin Wavelength (nm « fect of Sy Wavelengt/nmm o ‘it hy tos ts sta eae ce er se cae tpt pare se rt i ca wie ow 3 STS tiaste ete gon oe 7w he Pf Sr Ci Effect of Lp and Se Kasi St Wavelength nm © 10, (Comin. ‘erm evel slo towards the nd age atthe gas af the SCR a they (idm te case ft sort clit cll identi ct the net eucet eztv ey photocure Now both wera in Bg. 624 aod 6.9 ee non eo, owner, cae he vltins fr ios ao gt duced caren ate Independett inthe ‘Eps approxineton, the sun fr the corer J n his eine {Gren by the elgerai wom ofthe interatod shortcut photacuret aod (he dark user a that bins (By. 1.4) IW) = de a” “hie superrositon of curses i all within the depletion apron ‘Than monty eure ooombination fea. fore estanee impor tant the ation ft hangs gly, ae exlale bslow, ito dark cute dominated Uy dision erect (Ba. 6.8) then JV) = Ja ~ Sale" =) on vei te dat aturation cures ap given by Ba. 64, This is ent ‘Oke ea diode eqatan, £9.15, and isthe most commosly wed form forthe catet-roltagecharearintis of» solar cell More gece, ty {TV} ese sometines be expr bythe noida de oa SIV) = de = tale = 2) om dnl of hep acon a Distance um ” P 7 Distance um © e621, (4) Bd ot (0) dein in a tamil rn jt a era cts Soy as an ro se tel yn pte wre Jno sfurtion caren ine dark When recombination su Testi te SOR are dmlont, m= 2604 Je = Jar ‘Equation 272 cu be renranged to aden expression fr te open cleat wltages Ve the vleage whch develops betwen the trains of: I I | 7 th ntl when wc earn = BHT (f+) om ame 67, of 672 en mor al te, dn ec hae cncte ftp non lr Te lates Be rahe sv) sce ad an petomaee can Some npr. econ nv ene JY) any pn en ‘Sontag paca ying the QE pci a teak ‘Siow ret dbl sve Then he a pte Ses creed ced Chapa 68. ects on pn Junetion Characteristics 68:1, pets of parasite resistances So fa we have consdeol «loss mata without pra rosa. Sein sestance ie borever pretlet problem in practi son cal ‘AS meationed in Chapter 1, sels resistance arises fom the resistance of the p and m layers to majority care Soa wel a from the esanee ‘of teeta onc tothe el The oes eto Introduce 9 potenti top of JAR, between the junction snd We applied potential ference at the tell, Vy evan, ‘Thus, whan « photcarent ows (J > 0), the bis a eh terminal smaller than that at the junction, sid when s dak eucest fs ho bie ‘tthe trminals large, In the formula derived above, V refers othe ppd bar athe uncon. I and Jun ne bth expan in ert he ‘assess Vg thn the edit condition soul be changed Wage +FAR) = Jae Jaan apy ~ SAR) to ake acount fer rstance oe, The fect fee rsa on IV) ebaraterse s Dsated a Fig. 1.10 65.2. Rift of tradiation For lear photopsnerson and rection, increasing the itasty of the leer ight increases the phtecuret, Jy vats Bem ith aay anos cain i 3 } 4 vote Votage « w 62. _Rienofl) mnie area in 0 ‘onoentratin factor up to high radiation lel Baton 6:75 scalar that Vos shoud ls ese, lgarthnially, with Inada, Threore ‘we espect [ght concentration t nies ell eine. Te efoto it Imenity on JV) ss stated ia Pig 612. In practice, consnratin ls incrnes srs rsitanc ad rae the experts of the call. Thee eflacts ten to degrade cell pecornance, ‘ith theres hat che cls on ops eficeney e ome Ete con Cvzation,ueully few hundred sane. This wil be decd futher in Chapter 089, Effect of temperature As tampeatue i incroued, te ogra population ofelotone m lncescsexpovetil,iseresing the dark eturetion current dane. Note that‘ flac willbe atonger fr the difason component o te a curvent than forthe recombination generation companet,beesse the stronger dependence on my, (Bas. 8.4 and 0.56), The increased ac corres raluces Ve. At the same ine, creased tempersture Je ics the band snp end increases the photocurrent, sce lower emeey Plctne ean now be abuobed. The ur fl lea eduction i ellney renune the ln i Vor entwegh the ean fo Ja Th ix stented a Fe 6120).7 ‘The Pe of tr Cay 684. Other devie structures ‘The techuigues deserted inthis chapter can be appli to oer de vies stricter, provided at the depletin apreaimaton bali, Mog Completed stucure may Include “eon” lars placed i oat of te lta; Behl doped buck ence Gold lagers; grated p oF legen ‘Fn seictures nd heterouaetions, A we bandgap Window le tel ty Teds the ara recombination velocity and to modi light dig ‘rough eeieclon and absorption of shore wavelength ght. Thee fies ate cay inorported ithe model a change to S, and GE) Modeling back surface eld layer, such as beck sitet layer be ‘ath an nope tae mane sling for the n-e* iunton etd Sd. ine minority carrer dfs ccentao bth gina. A competion graded p ofr layer cau bo aed to ast the mberly caer How to ‘vers the nein and ean be teat hy inching the etre Bel ter the eurent equations, A pn sauce i stagiforsrd, aad et bo treat by extending the depletion reron to nslade an dood er. ‘This dueaed In Chaper 8 for amphovs elon. A pon bateojane tion maybe treated just asthe pon Junction, ence the heterojunetion po: tent pole i word out, and the diference In ssorpiion cote ioe 65.5. Validity of the approsimations ‘The depletion apprsimatin bast ily doped justine a lo bie ‘Thun the rectangular frm aed forthe space chargs pole most ‘cca, aud the volume talen up by the Juncion isthe sll. For ‘wekly doped Junctions o at high forwnd bin, rn ears populate the jneton region and cnttbate to the poeta! dstbtin. The eect a ‘sarily to presse eobination, sine the elton adhe desis re ‘Bore ily tobe sna, andthe Shockey Reed Hall ecombiatcn vale larger. Ths the depltin opposition undeestinats the dak erent slow doping o high forward bias eat reombiaton reals for ether ShocKley Road Hall or rir te rembintion inthe Lit where the many carer deat gealy ‘outnumber the not ere. This wl be ate or gti dpe Cero i the init of high ght stent: Some other recombination process af ot ner, vein the Limit of ow minority cater deny. ‘hs dfestve air the ecorbintionrteuny ie enpeioaly 2 iy of he pe etn i ioe case done Bsn ofthe eta of top, Jn ch eondtins, peel dark cuszat ay not be aed, ante ight eureat may even 1 onlay with gb intensity. ‘Asa junction between a pipe ad type lao ofthe mame sion ‘ist, a ote ctr food wich ate ws 8 arr to molrty (are How. This barsar prover the aeymineti resistances need fr folate setion Cond qulty pr juncsions ean be mado ely aod {bey ae the mom widely ued design of lar cal, ‘The csseat-veliage characte fr a pn junction slr ell can be aluhtelanaytealy by making vo apecnuatlons, The ae that he pai dropped etl acres junio region whichis ee of aes {ie celina apprainston), aod hat the minority ear recombination fates te Ear the cave daa. Tan the junction may be teed Ln thee layers aeutal nnd p pe lager ad charged pao charge re (gon. The caren ce to contibtors fra each ofthe Injers, heh fe caluatnd sxpartely. ln ech of th nestzal layers the cute! i doe fo nln caters and can be found by slag the cuent and con ity enios, These equitions ate simple hea the elect el feo an ewombiation Ener In the space charge region the exrent tet gemrtion and teombiation between bath ype of ce, The fet cure voltage characteristic ete sun of eontebutios due tothe Feit (the otocuren) and da t the applied bie (te dak cute). ‘he dak eatat om the esta Injers at space charge ayers have {aeons bie dependene.J{V) ea be apren in the frm ofthe Shock try diode equation wth an nly factor which expresses the dominast ‘ape of dark erent. The photacrent cau be slated to the quant fisency apeteum, ad lleted by the Junction delgn and mato. Sal parameters Photocrsct ie hghess when he greater amount of ight ‘ele in eles creasing the jnetion This i eve for « chin oir, Joe foot serfce recombination velo, lng Aifsion length in Ue bose low edetvy, Dark current i lot when cartier tones ae the Ings. “The formulation cab utd ta slate the fs of anton design, rains proper, iraanee and owe portetets on sla eal pet. mance ae eal toed to model ober tastier of pn Junton.o he Par of er Cay References (0-1 Sah RX. Noe nd WS, “Cr gon iain Sp-tjmala adipn poate owner Pao Engineers, 1228 (1957). ae 1, Sele Dw 3: ond dad eno Co: Tel abs tne Suche ana (st) PED ae ‘stot Sn een tow tS St ‘Slt St Pete Bagg Une So Ss St Chapter 7 Monocrystalline Solar Cells TH. Introduction: Principles of Coll Design “The mast common solar all sign # mosoerystaliep- unctin. pon eoofunetone har he sigan advantage oer heterojunction designe that thre uo ter ntrface atte fete, ado loa due to [Ea var can be avoided. Inthe chaptat em dis the de. 51 of rm junction solar el In the two best performing photorolae feral tmmerytalion soon and glum ersnie, astrating the i foe tlemat ta PV in weakly abnebing and strongly absorbing materials. ‘Wel lok at the techgone which ee used to prove peeormance in pte ‘cnt plotvohale energy comeron segue ent ight absorp sn ect charge pation and eles charge tanger. Fram Chp- lec can tele hes rosea into demands on heater end figs paren of « proton slr cal, ‘Fogo opal abeonpton, the opie! depth of te deve o( ap -+ 1s) shouldbe high for eer E above the bandgap, andthe elit the ere, RB}, soa be soll For good change aeparain, che bul In Blas Vg should be lg, de ‘maing igh doping gant acoe he justin (a lage Na > Ne ‘rout. Charge eambiation i the uation region hoa be slow {sr yoile.And, a2 we bave ssn in Chapter 6, the Junon shoud be Tosted cle to the sre for entive dare septation omer a range twstlngthe or fides minority care sramport the sinoty carr times (rtp) and difaica Iago (Ly) sould be lng and wurlice re omblation vote (SS, shold be aml Good majority earoier tranport coger rll eig eitancs Rand the shat resistance Ra- Te Paseo Sate Cay shoud be ou hgh pole to avoid elage of caries back accom hg junction "The baad gap should be cloe to the optim fr the intended lag specu, Some thee demande are contrary and amps: ist be und, or lntanos high doping ela seeded fo «large il a bie ar ily to race mito carrier Hstimes, and song opel sherpien il pn, aly mean song recombination, 7, Material and Design Isues TAA. Material dependant factors ‘There ave certain baie materials eguiremess, For igh theoreti on ‘wrsoneficiensies in AMS (> 90) the bal gap shoud be nthe ange F-26eV rin the range. 1 26V fr fiat ows 20% (0 Fg 7), pate n type warts ofthe semiconductor material mst be aval, ad ‘wena to beable to produce a juneton of good qual Boe acpi Photoeurrnt Ile the qoastun‘felcy shouldbe high ovr brad ange of wavelength Tat means tha he dfson lege met be log compared o the ablerptlen depth, and this pew high demands on the eystal qa. ot Ly tency é Benacen er oni Sle Cale w ‘These reguiements lait the teage of water wich ean be os pgite cows the ton gape of sone common seniconlucor maze ‘Feared t the Uniting ofBceey in maar sla spectrum. Of the ‘ahora seuconictors only eon ha table bard sup, Germania 8Psnlenium wee uel in ety phtavlae cals bu the band gape are Si lnall Of te componad semiconductors HIV erystalioe matecse [bv been best developed. Gali arene and ind phosphide have ‘fable boed gape Several I-VI nad (-T-V secondo ate strong I ebuorbere with euable bad gap and some, actably Ce and (atnsy, have bee developed fr phtotlass. Thee materia cannot vay be doped bot mand p type so that pn bomo)aneions cana be fanle Amorphous loon and relatad ls have salable band sap, but ‘Blin Ings ave oo hort compare to the section depth ad 50 (fain they cannot be wed for pm bomojanction elle ates can be prepared sage cryals (anocrytallne) ot 28 plpertlieo lecytalinewafore. Igain tease than de os thik, rain oundary ees re Maly to dominate transport end “Beto lenge ae ily too shor. T auch cae, ch of he analy a Chaper inut ald, We wil tings loreal materia te the etal grain sie i comparable with or lege than he device (iknoo, end ‘plyeyalia’ or tlereceyetallie’ as atrial hee the {pune ah aller. Devew ae rom mulieystallin stra can conser in snne way arg stl devs, toatl below. Tune ‘Sone in polyeysaline material wll be considered in the Chapter 8. Ths materials wadabln ara the peal popertns, che axa ope the ere mobo, ad Ue dominant recombination proces, ‘Got whih ae cle wo the crystal structure. Protas vasibles are the Incas of wer and junction eat, 12.2, Design foctors ‘The ruremest of «good quay junction generally favour he p-n box ‘mejncin fo the derige, Once the atari ie choze, amie mbes ff ign factors rma Wich ean be cazoed. Thee oeude junction elas, ntion dap doping eves doping gradients el hes + {ie traveni; al ootack desi. The imple pn jncion can abo be died ln ber of wget prove pertace. ties cde cnprtonl variations su windowed rade ager, and Light tap ‘ag stevePa Th Pas So uy ‘The main fou of al desig depends upon the optical pret th ‘astral Weakly absorbing mater ie aco, sate ong ‘he cpt absorption areimportase and renbnation athe oes ned Yo be aad In lghy sberbing material he gale neni fed opal abeoplon i achieed easily ut ove tention mus pl to mininsing recombination nae rst race and around the jane Stratgis or thee two groups of mars are discussed blow 123. General devin features of p-n junction elle ‘A cumnber cf general desig features apply to pn bomojunetion ellie ‘pendant ofthe mati, Tate ae tat (0) te eins ould ete the absorption length, fe fir seorpin (i) fhe Sinton shold be shallow cxnpace to bith th dion leat Inte emitter and the absorp gt, to ald having «ded le ‘the at ofthe cll where ight abana unproductive a old ie Chapter (a) the eter shoud be doped heavy, to prove cosductivity to a fino metal contact the fot ofthe el. Howry eter doping tho alls the base tobe doped ight, which nprove alleen ‘he neal bose region without niieg the pen-el volage () Refetin of ight should be mioimid, All yealine venison tor oleae tated with an at-refetion (AR) coat. This in layer of mataralof reat index been tht of the secondo td the le wich couple ght of petredwavenngtb ato hes fendacer by matching tbs opti! npadatee ‘Th AI coat mao tu tice we chest masini potoevient gern forthe ‘elma incest spc, (This a dicaued fh in Chapter 9) 7A. Sileon Material Propertion TSA. Band structure and optical absorption Sicon is © goup IV lamest which adopt the ttabudel crystal ste ture at oom femporatre and promi Ts thi arrangement every leno ‘leeron Iulia bonding and he mater isa eelcondctr. Ae tse in Chapter 3, the Bad gap bine. That i alto te amet ein in the conduction baad and the bigest pou nthe alee ban f NS © 22, en cl ari pie iy Bd tn SMEPEGTr pom ote Cs ded clog G00) Te domme Bed gps the fudauantal band gap — are sepazated by only 1 eV at room expat, then pots cour at diferec values ofthe eal ame fam and = non need a wll a photn inorder for an election to be promoted. This rede the optical abeorption compared o dct {po sertnantucone, Dict opt tenons our in ale et photon ‘Srv above 3 eV though ther are not us for photraiaics “The hand exp ty elas to the optim fr car energy conven, Av LL eV the theoreti lining eBeny i ADIL lea fow pero slr than the maxima. ‘lion he alia index of arcand 3.4 and natural efctivity of about 40% ove visible wavelet, Itong sage or mltyee tt efction cout reduces thi ota 5%, 782. Doping Another citation for slstonic materiale ls whether they can be easy ped. ‘Sic can be reudly doped 9p orally By the aon of ‘ptavaleet phorphorusinpatiy atoms, wich itoden an eta Losey rund leton when aubetiued for tetrvlent slicon com. PSPS® Vane w Gads, ‘Silicon Energy /eV 2 lo con th aon ton el Salt serait etc ra ner sticon nay be peed by doping with tlt boro, which ated {i ccttontacangy, or bole ino he Inte when sob fran "Adon of thee inpuity atom gnoralydogedes the material qa ‘However latinly i doping eels ae edd i the emitter to rele secs resanc td Inereze Vy, whic ota increas Vln the {nfleenos of doping on Ve nia y the drnlage of te band gp, dw to the incotucion af all tate, at Reh dping Ives Tia mes ht Vz eanaot in fet eee 81% of By at rom enpeature Wewlss below that neal of he volume of pial eystaie ina ‘ellispovided by p typ sone, Tho eet of rcrbiation inthe depletion gion and enter ayer i rte low because of tho low levels bat fenernion in thee hs layers, and ean lly be neglestd. Tie eas ‘Seton eombinton ia hep reson ae he omit volume rent tion procs This lads reat, Auger sod trap-aisted macaoes epliae Sor ale Pa ‘teat secombination rate, U, wil be the sm of ll proces, Vat Ta + Can a om Ba. 480 expect the rditive ecombiation rate inp type mata ‘pf oy tee the alate itine rue vn ke 1/1. Sige son is a nd eran gop sicondacot tative recombination Se dow at ae ‘pio he order of milirds, otis eontbuton i nepihle Mange rocubnation ci be imporeaat i athens, ithe are densey fetigh Por elactons in p ype aerial om Ba, 407 Vasu = Aatl0-= 0) @3) tht the tine vere Tho a huge proce 8 ost importa in eizon at high doping denis owe {0" eur) and canbe the dominant recmbiationpatvay mechan, "hap eed noua procames dominate all ut the pars l- on, Fer Shockley Reed Hall remtiztion through a ing tap eate we ‘age, from Bg 0, ns 3 ae the oy eae iltine rat depends upon te deny of rp aie, ell ae het potion within the band gup. From Ba, 469 we tow tha oan = gh i) sd there eidence that yy deren doping increase, uggstng tet the mater of ct tape neem with depag. Liftinos vary tom for very pe tral oa ction ofp high deft dente. ‘Combining th lection process in Eg 7-1 nd uoting that Inthe outa eponal eembiation mechani te ian the exc ‘decom dest, (mma, bln to et lecton Ute yah hak onto onts hs 4 lton m » no tg dey np a sd» (rnd iene ig Snr ein hea ta ‘edit eying hag pm Sar Lins SS ER ett en snd San Fat * hae ay Digeeot procs wil have difen ampere stil doping dependenoe ln lightly doped pype alum at room temperature, SRH proces Som ate giving eto ave of aout 10. Lifetime in ly doped pe ‘nate rater chore, sound Ip. ore hoi doped lion ot Higher ieaperatresAngn dominte. Ti evident fom the depend sr on N, shown la Fig. 74. Hadative Heine lon ae exe Jong abd aver dominate the reconation lapel le call. ‘as we so Chapter 6, setace ecobiation important whe ball wcontination lon when mnt carer dfs lent ae lng eterna in 9 typo alco, he eure ceombination vet at Wk ‘fad nce, nl tera with metalic contacts Ue rage of SGuio! cm «Hove, 1078), When the cee pasate with a layer ‘Paco dhe the snide hide minority csrie om deft wt the Suh and seus Sy ton tan 100 em 3 [Gee 190) net. Carrier transport In practi the elctros moby In p type sicon tnd tobe highs thas {Behn wobly In n type soon doped o sho ste fv nd the mk (uty elton diftwion lng lange, The becase the Fderertl apes in alco ae of soopor type and oo are moe important in» ‘Goeth type atecal eae het cari colecion ore ect ip pe ate than in an expe lage of the came doping density and {hens and ea cell ace generally designed ae n-p ela wih thin ype tener ontop ofthc pepe base. esr and hole notes are detained bythe eguncy’ of sot- teiag eveate wih the eondation o sence bad. At aw doping levels xterng dominated by the lon latin, At high doping my do- {pesesbeceae the ape atoms geerateseateing cents, To 2 Sst ftprosnatin the obit doer not depend on wheter doping in tye ot ‘ite In leon etonsbave «nobly of around S00 em? V~" «a Fo deving aig to aod TO en! V~" 2 etimparty concentrations of ter 10° cu hile Holes have lowedoping maby of 500? V's, fling to sround 50 ca? V-" e-, The eoereponding diason constants Fghly doped terial ace 20-40! ofr eletons and arcund 10 ex* 1 fe Bae (Sha, 100; Geen, 195). Minority caressa lng ate define fom L = VFB (Bq 495) ‘where? ras tothe et recombination and do ot diingush Dewees ‘roceces or wcommarci con ell yb several wand yi around ‘he estvy of ay secondetor mata depends upon the esl ot oping, From the defiltion of eanductity (Ba), coo) ooPa Dee Poof Sat Cte 1 dope ential, esistivity wil there be dominted by the marty ovtie deity ad tc. 9 vie ronght ik (10/4) Obtretnn p ‘Opeth, and ia factor of tee smaller in type, With an accept concentration cf 10 ea ap repn several inde jo thie has bet {erbtance of around 10-! Obren? which a tleipotant fr the euren levis under standard volt mination. Howews artis race {bets oan bo more sro inthe emiter, where the funnels of citer. fom alargesomicnductr aro at ery al contct en eee igh ‘ret dense, Tit sone eon why teeter eighty doped ane to the ban, When the contact restence nce the ula tee tht eltasce fra commercial alco cls ypcally 20-50 Ohman? ‘Slcn materal roperte are dsc deta (Gren, 1905 Dab 1008; vn Ovettaatan, 188; and many eomioondustrtexbooks. ‘14, Sitcon Solar Call Design ‘PA. Batis silicon solar cll A typi! sion sar els san np nction made ln wae of pte ‘co a few bred neon hice aed sround 100 enn aren. The 9 ype Sele for the bat ofthe all at hick (200-50 a) node to et ‘2 ua ght a8 possle, and ighly doped (~ 10° ex) 80 mprowe {ifn lange Then spe etter cane iy dopant difoion and ie avy doped (~ 10" em?) 19 redoce sec arcs rsstane, Tals lye ‘shoud be thin to allow aa ch ight a ome ops throught the br, but thi enough to kep sees estan eon low, Caer calcio from te emiter i nepigle beens of hgh recombination i thie hey eyed layer. Tho font surface i nti retion contd ad both stand tuck surfaces ar coztactd before encanto ina las covering 72 Cell fabrication Sngleeytal ion maybe grow by e umberofnethods I the cmuna ‘Grchuh roc sgl yea ire slowy ot of mal nthe fast zone procet singe cratal i radaly formed om plyrytalizo ed tyrpassg molten 20 ough. Tals more coy but produc higher pity mate In ether cae the dopant (csually brea i intoduoe fring growth to produce « p type est Th sold erwta ald int ‘rls end ech to smooth the ough earl | eo me owe te hg 1 Deeg ate fr ae (i 2 tn tion "The Janson is repre by diualag the m spe dopast — osu coporea on othe p type war. Phomphoru may be deposit ete lathe vpour phase by expo to loge gus Daring POCis tom ‘ol phasor exe yea por deat of phepbors exe, {Sieclyby fon inplatation, The lter method allows grater cata ‘ft doping profle bt norco. Note that he dopant profi nthe {aoa oer wl wot be uno an he etn nt seep, le the ideal pn jonrtion in Chapter 6, Ths hae the consequence thot ibn elec {els extond farther from he nation andthe depletion epprximation i ew ecu), The difwed ping plea be modeled wth an oe ‘ition uletaline slic, which wd in moet commercalsicon cel, ts mde by a suity of methods wich a cariag and ibbon gsovth (Fie= Th po Sor Oa deb Pyro eee I warcnact Re 77 Lae ets see Gree ree, 105) The ela lrgesizer of he aoe (0 Wr) mean that moderately efficent devin can be pepated om ml lester ing tedhnigee sina tothe wed foe monary tale ans, ‘Tae ot surlace rly tated to race sect and a an ‘efecto eating dopested fom liquor vapour pe added For ale the AR cooling sould have a reactive index of around 2 snd thks of 60-100 nn. Sabla materi for alleen ave tanta ode (Tns0), ‘ani (1104) at lion aide (SN) "The rer surface in doped mote bevy to cota «back wre Sl hick hale to reduce the lom of exes through sacercombinain “This dieased bon. "inl the foot and back contacts are ade fn holy alo ll, stoma was ud are reer contact In lare sale production, AR ca, front and back contacts ae sully deposed by sens pati and tt fd. Sees printing of entacte i cheap bt shocueem selatiely Ig ara ofthe oll apd eran conduc TA. Optimisation of silicon solar cell design igure 78 itats th absorption aod secmbinationpeoSan a falcon ol eluate wing the pm nction theory of Chapter 6 and ‘he materials pruners ln Table 7.1. Erma th grap we can maketh folowing cbeertone + sbeorpin of igh late tothe bas ap (oa nat) pot | | eel Ste Cle Pa ‘oot Bh sh she pean n Tne? ‘orm te er We ‘Cn adh lindo Or ted ga age ‘Bi Sarton sult foo Al Spun ecu laa) tbe Bl aie of SSS wal senp wo le pe atm mal md lai TTR OCIA) BAe PTH ‘amie oe 208 Seca ve vn Ei er ton neem 1 ‘an + bat combination i the pein i the mast important recoination 1 tesreure recombination importa, patel fr potganaration ty rd nd nated ike ‘on suse recombinntin and ecorbiton in the netion region re ratalyuniaportant fr potogeneaton by lng wavelengths. ~— Xx ° » he 78, suc xing: (9 sow te ac fede Ht aye th ‘Ee stich pep engine oi may So (THe: en spas vw eer ramn ‘To improve the performance ofthe ell it necessary to mast the ‘oorpion of righ tiis recombination ot co eur sre ad Inne sere resitano Bulk recombioution determined mally bythe Imetod of wales growth, ed for ened quality alone leady a lw at cas be expec, "Tus tbe main challenges in crystalline acon cll design are to: + Mase abortion 1 Minimise rar sstece recombination 1 Miatale ste reitance ‘Than are duewsed below. TAA, Strotgies to enbance absorption 1 Tentsing of tout wfc. Thi reduces the nat reson flight and focreases the optical dep of the ell. Tentaring ean be achieved by ‘tenting wth sate henical ee. which ete pfrtally along the (111) etal plane and leer pattern of pyramid on te sue Regular pyramid xn be produced ona manoerjtalino surface by Ft taltbegmphic definition. Light teaping ix improved by aang stad prrumid, which improve the total iteroalreuetin of light reflect from the bck vce, by aynceti pyri, o by octane rar trace. Light tapping tte are dicuned free Chapter 9 + Opsiniation of ontacta Shang of te font surface by metal contacts ‘ede the surface arn eval to inidet ight by aa ch as 10% dove contac zea pore the ovalabl uric area but incre F120, Hooton, Dieta tg abet aoe eae te thy sesietance ithe ia the eit, oot te to pare of the metal ith fing ate too nator. The optim arrangement 2 (i of parr, dene, highly conducing Gages, One aout tose arom, dap coutat partly bao inthe race ofthe al Thi nay ‘oe shading to a faction of «percent of the wurlce. By embedding "he contact the smienctoy, «Irs contact aca canbe achieved witout incensing the srfce shading. The grooves ae ereaied by er ‘mechanical hing nd te doped more heavily tha the man iter to improve conductivity. However, he large scale preparation of uch ootacte ore cst than seen pease TAS. Siratagies to ratuce rurface recombination + Back surface fel. A’more bevy doped aor Be tid at th bac sce af the p type tae by alloying with aluninim or by dition. This introdunas a pp jcion atl preoats a potas batter ta the ano ectons Thi ack surface ld reflect cron and redcse {he ellen on oufacevcobnatin volt tol than 100 c= (She Box 71), The exes php Snetion leo adds tothe bl i Bae the el, apd may enhance Vos (Havel, 1975), Feot suse bls have ‘ko been ued ln come cll ius, Dut areas eflstive sino the ratio of doping eee wl salle ‘Bea i Calaton of etve warfce reombnaton vai with «tack orev ld ‘When «tack sure fd ger prec: inp type materia the change ‘a doping nodosa sep inthe coudacion td edge of lht OEFal The Pyne of Soe Cy os | fe ——— Se | , o | ree esas eres ee ea | sc? nf) een ncn dude hp te Ei uition () iat tothe pe) tenn a ag ene A tether emcee een hide vvedearer hone miow i nae) = ty EMT = nay Me forthe ex etre conostetion An roves nancond boundary condition, ses cotiniy a the joe dota) «ste py) « pa) ‘where Dy aod Dy, 0 dunn constant in the pnd p* lyr. Now, ine defi an ectiesaeace ecombintion vl tthe ution, in naogy with Bq, 485, = this.) Sam Rigo) de i allows that seg = Dea des) Bn Mae ae "The electron density inthe Righly doped layer fe by the Roundary condo a the rae eres Eres) ~Da Sealey +04) whe te thlcnn of he highly doped Iyer ad Sy the ear eu ‘aoe recrbination veloc within the high doped ler Ifrecomlansin ene is nar hat npr and curated by a dusion lng gg we can “BE and id inthe ac, that tele he rt (ra) ede bihly dopo lye ig chia enough, Bg 710 shows that Sy wil be olin by the ai of doping irs ‘+ Panivation of fost aurice with thin oxide coating, The high ele ecomblnsion vlety st bow alens sua endeto erent a dad lay where photogenerated carrey aso soled, at these of sh aspuotel cell Oxidsag the surlase aetena ti ayer ofthe wide tnd ens lato, ton dside,whichpowent cares rom ech fheeseice nd ence educa the fictive src ecombination vey ‘The interfae between sien and sion doce tah len defective than ee licon sane. This rece the oe fein in the ee lazough surice recombization, ad improve the sponse to bse ip Use of point eons a ear Sno the sleno-matal nerfs i te defeat than the son elican docde interne, orate reso tation can be rede by contacting only part ofthe rea per with ral, ing "pot? conacn, The rest of Ue marc can than Be pas fated wih onde, and the overall sufcerecombluation loses gry Feduced. Ia onder to ald probe with sree recite, the Tao sf mmicondactor clos tothe pont contact dilretlly doped p ‘The movaton ale om the rea point contact ela el dead alo e712, Rept otc pp tawo ‘he Pai of Solr Cy 7A, Strategies to reduce series resistance 1 Optinietion ofthe ei doping Raden doping inrowes colleen from the regan gig» Better seepnue vo blue ight. Tnereaed ‘oping incest Vand eos ern etn, although Yer high n Aoyagi uabpfl for ierorng Va Danan of Avge reonbiation fa band gap nattowing + Dieta doping of the tea around the omc, ‘his i achieved by apeing the aen ob costae to dopant ich guts before depo Ufibe contacts Foe point and rd contacts, the crtent density too the atrial cloe ba the contacted aren wl be bgh. Doping this Yole orl rede the one to sere resistance. « Novtw but deo finger ont cota as above. The hgh aspect aio eaves grace en lad by eontocta without redeig fogs com Sectional ae nd the clay high contact are betwen Gages end emieondactr sens th eient dy atthe contact, At. Beoltion of silicon solar cell dean ets ok ot how thve sstaghs have bee coyporead into the da aeen eae cola Asrmary of saline scon cel pecormance data Inaiven i Tale 72, Black cole "Typical ack cel! sgn (called because of thr almost reo tefl: tivty) sere developed inthe easly 180» aad exhibited finde of up to? ‘Bleck cos ncorporated th anoatins of the surice texturing at trl th earn of the tase ool dened above Passo emir cls Pasiaed enter solr els (PESO) aes called Yecuse of he inom: thon ofthe pestation of the non-contact font srface wth thin lye ‘ct ilcon dade Inprovements such os thee make t worth Using Inove expensive oat ate rode alco, whichis better qual tha (Couche nd hs « ngs iio length, he PESC cll ws dea 1 the Unive of New South Wale aad acleel an eficieney of toss. Menertatine Ser Cats i : i 2 E & BeFICTNCY ‘WHERE DEVELOPED “AREA (GP) Vou fs WATERY einve Dre Pa of St Cty Fg 118. Patt enter tc (PES [eo 16085, Rear pote cama el By placing both them and p contacts onthe rar of the all hie dein ‘liinatsehadiog lots entirely. Thi ell was neoduced at Stanfré is 1099, with an offeeney of 25 The orginal dain was ited for wwe | a concentrator Stor, 186). The ele made roma Egy doped » pe slicon with heavy doped m and p type rogou cle to plat contacts tho tear surface The fot ufos pstted ond textured se uel Th ‘ll shin (160 jen) and is intended Yo operat at high injeson levels, let raping npr “eteemaybigh parity mates node, boa photogeocatd ea ‘ere vet die wo theca of the cal Sell pace charge elon rear onc Fe 134 PERL rm deep a tho rer of he al baween contact of pete ply ate {han a the oat. Another dit i the rk of sorting ost betwen ‘oztct of apps platy ea asl srace. PBR cl "Th pasate emitr, ser Illy lund (PERE, sla call was del pd UNSW, wih an elceny 26% 299 2a, 1904, Thi eng ‘plats the edvantage of poss contact n reducing recombination tthe fen ule, I ete allowing fete: 1 ear pot contac rede the aren ofthe semiconductor tec, ‘here reinntion i high, so that moet of the fer surface may be Tottacted with nie, 1 Grooved fon conti swith the pasiated mite ola cal. 1 Difereatil hear doping of layer ea contacts + Sufiee textcing using ivected pris TAB Pitere directions én silicon cll design ‘The performance of slicon sor cl som ally clos to the heoreia asl of 20%. Contin refinements to the desig, rail sed at ‘eda dhading aad sere rian vr ayia eee of ab ‘oh 026% or 27% in ANS. The man challenge are pow in proving™ Th Pes of Sie Oy ‘ll production tecniqus in order to maseproducs ficient cals ‘heply. For campl, wth the Bure contact el ft have fried podtcing grooves mare cheaply for example by machaical etching “hue drat cretion the thin So mleocetalie sce oh Hoe the objective sta reuce bulk recombination lease without sorption and edie light toppngs required. This design werk the "heh nisin’ iit wher leet pysee apple. Ila eased bey in Chapter 8 7.0, Alternatives to siticon Stone no nl ca ol trial fortwo msi eons, One i tat it band pap (U1 eV) isle than the opinn (14 eV) for tera ‘ela eng couvrdin. ‘The otber i that sine ie abeoption coin ie low, a claly thick yer of ican ir neoded (in comention! linn ass) to abs sunlight efeevel. The sgaieant requirement fr igh ‘purty tion nerees the cst, a wel ab te wight ofthe eal. Another ‘ousldratin I the compertare dependence of efeny which male icon ln autale fr apiatons under conetzael light sain epee ‘Theres sumber of lteroatvescondictor tates hav bn ‘eloped for phtotlai appiations Cell deg imal at redcing et tying len or lm pe secondo mate xe cused In Cp ter 8 Tn the mest action we wl iy conser ata om the MEY oup of empound semiconductor, wth more avout mated rep te for hgh ceney ingles al 115. TIL-V Semiconductor Material Properties Tic. TITY semizonductor band structure and optiel absorption ATILY sonlconductr ian alley containing ua uber of atoms fr trovpe I and V inthe periodic table The group IIT atom cones free lence eleceous co bong and tho group V elament cent fre For many compounds the atom nang hemes iat the nen cya suctare ~ bo intro fice centred cble Inte — wher ‘ch tom forme four bonds to epoung atoms af the other type. lle the vlc cron te ued up n bonding, and ap the css fen, ‘he Imes energy condgurtion forthe etl ls suicondtor where men Slr Cale = \.) } ® etm the ls and msi he Fn ee Pindungcdenctet oe there bad gap betes the (oormaly empty) conduction band and the (cay le) vale bar, Relsve tose, IT-Vs have sora advantare a lectroie mate Yin One isthe pity of veryng the crystal composition by replacn {one ofthe gop IT ats wth another group I elma in oder £0 ‘ory the band gap in a contol way Another is that for many compo ‘one hese meters ae dic gupsulcondutrs, abl soar inch mote ecive opial absorber (te Fig. 7.2), TULVe have been widely developed fr apleatias in opeeleton ‘es Thay ae gown by « numberof epitaxial cchniques sich as iid phe epitary (LPB), olor bar ty (MBE), metal orga cer Jal vapour dopostion (MOCVD) and metaorganis vapour pase ep Saxy (MOVPE) which allow mite col ofthe composition aad ager ‘isk Eu growth has boon deroped in parla 2 hat be fuoatactrer— layered struct of matrae fdierent bad gap whlch ‘abo spatial cotiement of cars for apietions sch ss ser — may ‘eet. The bert sndersned and most widely wed of thse IIA semlcondactos yl arsenide (Gas. Tt le othe mest stabi for ‘or energy coovension, Other relent mail are the isle in ‘iam poepide (InP), galiom asionide (Gab) and ternary alley ichey Tre Pe of Slr Cty alin gun arsed (A1Ga, Ae), wheres ston # othe ea Tum ata in GaAs hav ben replaced by sluminiua atoms, inion ea um phosphide (n,Gey-,P) and idm gal are (aC Tnalun psp hn a stable bas gup fr photvoliae cesta Ie pastel attractive for space appliatons on scout fs ste to degradation une adel, or “dation bardnee’ Propetio of Gay te covered ebewbere [Lath 1986; Ads, 1992; Babe, 198) 182. Gallium arsenide (GaAs bas baad gap of 142 6V at room temperature, This ote the opium fr the standard ele epectram nid ane conversion fone of 81% le thoretealy possible. Tee direct sup mater ead shsotberangly above its bandgap. Over vile wavleagt de abr. tion coeffcont of GaAs ie about tea tne that of icon (ce Pi. 73), td only Se un rather than hundreds ofan ate nod for the at fexion of te toa ell This most important for space appliatons whee {he peony ta race th cll wih ys Faw i our fm ‘ton Gavssds : Eneray/a¥ Lapua i tence tener SOROS ieee Sita ae er Secon See moulin Str Cle a ‘GaAs eno lhe ranges for solr al appleatons, Ose in Bote ecpenttecoeticent than sien. Sola al eicleney tends to desea Nzmporatre creas, tecaton of nearing carer combination acd ‘Sersoing ter gap. The fet ci is mre poonoutrd in loon where ‘Keonbiation depend upon the saab of phono, which incase ‘fis tenperstun, Tha toane tet GaAs erorme better ia uation ‘The the al operates at high temporetue, under cotentration ea ‘Knotbe ctr relevant to ypc ie the dation restance of he mie sh Expose to etter radiation dogrades the eiciene of gale ‘Sl over ts lisine, Ga hae» better tadation harder than sco, ‘hough dum peepide is Beterl Tigh purity Gade ie much mace coy Shan pte sean, and Gas care sme 6 to 1D ke at expensive pei of duced al cere, oveer, GaAs production tcktlog i tll maturing, and production fets re decresng ote scale of mance of GaAs bse dees fr {ppleston in optoectronir expand "Tews facows ran tat GaAs ole have bon developed pmanlly fr we in spe, The mrt ey teeta splaton la fr power gener ‘So under conceteted light (Conurrtion is dnc Caapter 8) [Allough not of the design fstazer mentioned below are general om ‘ete developed with eanentaton i mlb, 13. Doping IML-V semiconductors can be dope by epaing one ofthe elements wth fone offen lence. ln Gad type doping many bo aelovd By neo. cng cout amount of lon dring growth. The teva lean ‘Some normaly replace some ofthe tiles all atoms the lin, Introducing a donor atte ancl wth the exes wlene dete, Tia, ‘hie lt tame a lo bee wd a dvor tpn op pe ‘ping carn sth st conan aed impure. Carbon, the ace, Ir eetavaer but under eran goweh condo pei fo sbutute fe erseie tars in the lice, ad 8 nodes a define of Yale ‘sto and Ince sesptorsatn Alena the group Tl elament Term can be ued which itroduees an avepoe stat hy sub ing for gle atoms, Dept may be intodace by fusion or directly dasing eront by epitaxial echniques,Radiative recmbintion ter in GaAs an lion, and ay donate In very pare mena. Tho diet and exp means tha: dec trang ffom eduction to vleucs Yaad ae roc ely andthe rdiative tine ‘factor of 10" shorter. For exams ot ceptor doping lve of 10° en, Taian | yin pep type GaAs, compared arouhd 10 ssinaileng [Lk 1986; Gree, 1085) The lage dferonce i due 2 the difernce ig te orton eoeflent at enerze at above the respective aborting ‘las. We know from es, 4.1 that eecotblaaton rate operons ‘othe value of within ha? of the abscrption ee “Anger ecombiatoe, onthe oer band, mich slower than i eon ie othe much smal neat cartes cocenration (3) = 210" ea, Gus, compared to 10 em nace) andi mgligbleln photovaie practical materi, nonradiative Shocey Retd Hall eombition hroigh dlc tte dominates SRH Himes depend cn the tee ad coneentation of imparts andthe grt condons. Electron Metine i toad quality p type GaAe vere fom around 1 i at ow daping lest Sppnonnataly (10"/,) ne higher doping Fer hale a» type Caer ‘ie rom 10-100 a tw doping of tg > 1" ca ye ‘ooo cdr of gti sorter than fm p ype GaAs doped tbe sie lee Tp dels, SRHresombinaton nthe spice charge rein dominate perzance Piss Beane the RH ceorbinton raters ths exon whore maa p a sie, snd boos the earier denn inthe Jeton regi of Cae devin thigh bees ofthe igh absorption ‘The recmblaton rate therefore lvates bot cater ype an aot simply proportional othe minority earser deity, a ese, noe [pmb ores the Liltne Into Icons doe iret prose, a ix Bats "The fect of space charge elon recombination seve: in the dak current characte of Ge solar cl. The dark cst tends 0 0) ith the seat fete of 2 caret of SAM recombination a tht uscton, Ja ~ e077, tlw positive tae Tn ion calf cn lon, hae the dark eure dominatd by ecsbintion ty he net fal region, th elt fazor ix cle to 1. AL higher forward base po quality Ga cl aa Bgl to vay Ube 7%, aerating r- fombization bain to dominate. Recombination neni Slr Cale 200 ‘ie. Spal aden al rants in cain in Fig 79, BETTER TPH) BAe WTP amy var tee Nene aries loth Se ceten neem city ap a6 aon? 0 Sen Lube bulk ectbinatioo, face reombinaton higher in Gas than tnsticon,Atunteted sacs the minty eri surface recombination [Bolte oder of 10 ex"? Hove 175) butts canbe reduced to unde Iocm easing window lies, dicted below Babe, 1008). 185. Cervier transport Asin lic, ecto hate a higher obit Shan hols in GaAs. Minority flees have eel of aonnd 600 em? V"! = tow doping which fal to coat 3000 ex! V—" eat doping les of 10" ear. The mi nity tle mobity varie om 300-400 m® V~* 4°? at low doin level as than 100 on! "Es! at doping lvl of more than 201 10 em) thas che teal caanot tormaly be doped. The eaten eaves which would be Intodvced into the conden or valence band by dooor or acepor i prt are capture by dangling bad defects, However, te background ‘Busy of dc tne may be rodol by saturating te dangling bonds vith tote lydeogen (Fie 83). Hydrogen forms a bond withthe ual Ulin ino otra (Dp) fest and removes the capecy of that defect to tap an eacton ot «bole. Passivation wich S-10% hydrogen reduces the detlty of dangling Bond o aru 10° em and predates zor fom which workable pn onions canbe mae “The mate may be d9ped or ype bt the dopagfleecy few or enumple,deping vith phowphore tod dena Ma of metal P ‘toms whic in etaline con wuld normaly foie oad ope eltonhe 88 Sem ny stn et ta in ta nt and eo. Blte pain the lt aly gh ‘Sede sen Woes * to the condaetion ba Pare Is amorphous sca, however, tha alton of an eeton upntthe ou ‘sum between netel and magately charged dangling Yond, eb dies the allowing resent the eh Da 0 that the density of D~ stats inrones. Tht dieses the sinrey fare Iftime sine D sata are ecambinaton ents for ble. Beat be shown tha the density of D~ increas le Vg and thera that te deity of many cartes ncreans ore som than Na. Tae es on te Farle isto ul the Fem vel ave fom the donor or aeeptor ler toads the defect level in the band pp, an shown in Fl. 86, Wht the ‘ezsity fasting bonds every igh the Fei levels pioel amona the detet state. Law doping esency means that the ory caret ‘ciation energy — which ithe dieence betwen Fem lee and bad ‘day —~ishgh (ln cytaline material his shoud be equal tote diferenes boven the inp eel andthe band ge) a type wi the achat ‘nergy i eound 0.46V. Thve args station ere it the sae be bulls bins which can be aired st x pom orp juntion, ees he iferenc between the bln Bie 80d the band gap. ee Espero Pal pee “The defect ten whith remain ater hydrogen postton act bath at ‘Bare tts end reemtiation ene end dominate charge rrspor la 2. "The dstibuiin of ti sates ew the condton and valence bend ls act a rps fr noble carers. Charge ari in Uso sats move {pescwunceof etna activation and seeping oes. Tie datebation ‘orgie nas toa dtebaton inte tine cmatante or ay tense Iroven, aid «mone dependence won tbe occupation ofthe ttn, aed Ice carsie densi Coneguealy the wal tanpart parecer of 0 ‘iy tite, and dftson constant are destydepeocest and hacd to ‘eae, Trampors harris ean be modulo by inelding tan toot and tom the tap eates. The dent of al states nthe eonction toda ofan modeled a an exponential ofthe form 10 phpeo( S58) ere Ne the vole dest of tal sao and To ea carats eniperstse which destin the depth ofthe lal. Sach appa ceslyreorodnce the features of transport measurement ia 8S. (Fo ‘revi, se Tie [Tod 184) Charge trnoport in euch w dct ‘onium ie smetimes called serie tasspor. "The dangling bond sats which remain wer pusation acts secomblnatinn enter and ean be eto ts spy by ican cop ‘noe of lcs doles by tw ior levees the band gap tere trating che unnesopied a sagy occupied Mate ofthe dfet (Fg. 81) Tea. Spec, 176, Rate equations canbe eonsiructd fr the eptae adBED" sate ogy ac ta yt ston /D* Canc. ‘lin of cries fom tht lve! ang detailed tals and Fas Dine Ta unloped hydrogenated amorphous also (Si) the minor can ser itetie spiny 10-20 po a the bfucion length aroun 04 pn slthongh oth ae cartier deity dependent. letron mbity i eather Teter han Ble moby (10°® to M0" a? Wl ek 10-7 to 10"% V"'5" rho), probaly duet an asymmnetie tap ditebation With oping the defect dey intense au lain length re mac ede, ‘This moms that care ellos ina pn jnetion mould be exe oor, and cocsequontlyp--n staccires re ed 83.6. Stabny Amorphous soon sofes ftom Lhtdnduoed degradation known ath Stable Weonei elleet. Th dle deny ip» iH increas with gh fexponre, ovr a time eeleof months, to cae an irae in he reso bition cue! apd vodsting i sony Ie beloved that gt nts lends acme SHH bonds to crn the dey of dangling bone The ‘stem sexo int ina higher energy configuration with more ctv d= fete Anzealing a ow hue does Cntgrde all the structs to rear, andthe dangling bonds to he restareed, For thls razon ©S) solar elle may pene rie beter a high temperate environ The type Si solr cel the efeaney i edd by upto 20% a the fat bx monts sa elo the Saclar Wrotak eet ad the far fll rm over Ot abot 6 Ti ihe Indced degradation the lot isdiatage of Stas photonic atrial, > atsce Fg 85 Band poe pe aon 9 Related alloys StH may be lye wit carbo (6) or with grant (Go) to produce onpoua storpbous materi of Wier (SICH) or nartower (SiGe) fund cap Thee allow the dsgn of alunction, beers or eradad tal, Metre properis ar lghly worse inthe ally; fr instance a Figs dont of lens band el stator in 2a, 84. Amorphous Silleon Solar Coll Design 1, Amorphous silicon p-i-n structures ‘The bade wi solar ells» p-- Jucton, Snes dion lengths are shat doped Si the cestrl undoped or ft elon needed to ean the hiner over which pans tay be efctively abearbed ‘Te hulin tae dropped sees the wth of the Sein, cesting na thei eld which drives charge sparta (Qseused ln Se. 86) In the [pm stoctare ptosis ate eolletad itary by dr rather than rian, ‘The ees ofthe reeon shuld be eptinived for maximum cura sation. Although more Ltt buorbod in tieor region, cated ‘ics sede the elated cross the 1 pon, and at se eke {he dh ofthe &soginn wil ced the spans charge width a shown in Fig 810 below, Toe ealing, natal part fhe ‘aera aed ayer nd dows not eotrbare to th ptocureat ‘Chey the al hou be eign wo tha hs deploton wide i renter ton the thickness ofthe epion at perting bia Tn rate hi iis= Pee Pa of Ste a fet ser ete ats mse eg oams temas tito the region thes to around 0: ya, Te fog seston explains bow ‘he current voltage chaactaratis of pin jnction maybe cleat. 84.2. p-i-n solar call device physics ‘Do oft approtimation the depletion approximation san be upd toca tulate the current-voltage chracansties of pn unetion ela cx We val consider stuctre with ps and map tikes yd en sel == Oa the plete, The p abd m doping dete ue Ny al vy respotvely, and the repon has wn unltntonal or background dap ing level of Nd to charged input, bere sane type, Beas ‘he doping levels in the p and m rons se ao snuehgher than i Inti region, the dept width within the p and regina at stall a can be aeleted. The, provide that the bocgound dogg 5 low enough, the space carpe region thikues i equal ta the Cin hiker. Pllowng the anal of the pn anetin in Chapter 6, we have ‘ng a, 6.2, = =O) ~ Jy) ~ Jur @ here Jer the eurant density fom the ayer ad each ofthe ese ‘onttatins ie worked ou for une ger bas ¥ and gneation ete Decne ofthe shor ftsion lengths in doped serps sina the uren alectian fom hep abd mle nla, Moreover, bee these Les ae oo thin, the exons recombination scaring tae ls oi oped tothe escinaionceceig a he ite hye see crenata, we aed only acute poten od 5 Et roaling fone te era, nk een ad se eat indent hve fo Ja~ den(V) dhe pe tea, the sk eat gen by he vole ens Seen sts th eo, sinh) ie vyir aw) nes ‘nace the Sb-Noyee- Shockey apprexinutlon, Eq. 6, has ben ty TET eer to econ and ble ities ia the undoped region. In ffs tr tts spoon ir ren start 7s ‘Favapproimation suppose that the isc energy level ais esl Taos the depicted open, which indeed the cae for prion sites thio bocground doping) Bacase the depletion regan shiek, exon ‘euncatin of the form 82 wll alge dinate ad the ea (= {} bdavoar expected fr diesen cartes fo pr jusetlon is seldom Tf cllstion of phctgenrated crit le pore, the thot cei? sltorurreat given bythe photognerted euzent inthe regia, fom By a, Sigal) = 62) dea farmemi-emas ‘st can ey sod rtp th mepe n Det eae So mli, Ss Si oe te ae Sapien slob yh ov eae mime mere as erga ote ao Senictt rk nes tree (gin) 88 hace isthe average iy Hetime produ forthe tw ects tps [ere {008 Tn coving Bq i ie sauzed hat etn and Hale ‘ets vary Sinn with tance a he pin ad have independent,constant hstines and that photgeneration is tif. Is weal to dapg St langth for ploxogneratd erie, L, rn eh Several stmbampircl models pesformance of amoepous loon cl calls hve been developed. which lila sch bie dependence of ths toeuret (69: Heaeda, 107) "Thee tea numer of ways which this reatnen my ned ty be swodled for wi pn stearic (0) I tho chao lacround doping inthe cin soo Righ hen ase above some threshold he + rion wll ot be epee deplete, ‘hic ation oeus wes the ein thisknae aba sy) where we lave used Bg 6.18 for the thicket of te depletion region at 1 eymmeti junction aod ssume that Ny > Nyx Vi neroaed the Tues ble opt between the pi and eters, tha inte ae cn type background doping inthe «regan, aly 1s dropped creme the 7 depletion seg ao the depltion thickness reduced fo on PD ain ‘Thon in ap, 2 and £4 Yo shoal be seplaced by Vp dsl be replaced bya fom Ba 86. The staat eased jn Fig 810, Tn thi station the phoocurent wil be redated and bacon Hae do pede decening wit nresaing Voc high N, lowe theft spears ‘aslo nthe plateau afte J-V curve and old be confted with ut retanc (GAT Nigh nection lvl, or instance a igh Ulan, the ee ‘ter destes in tho | repin become gaan and the depleting > rewimaton i ot vd fr eleltingthe band pros, Ta nd pole ould then be eletstd sel castes, nla the cosabatons of eres By ea tebe al tsuneo weet eh J nan ot nin eh neon ions he die Se egieitninc by te sce ces thew st and p Pre caries arrange theele omni the eletretai pote ese ith he ett ss lathe ho big otk hss th pion, higher atthe pando interfaces, ad alls (Be men ey high injection condone tho fl vanes throughout Inet of the eign and n=. "Tenn and p obey equations of the form ey ®n @ fn 64ee he Pasco Str ay where Day Dp fe the difixion confcets of eltrons and olin the Ineo region, Since =p nd np =p, thse ogous ea beaded ‘oe an embialar darion equation En (oan), fb) ead (9, re te ebipala usin canst even by BiB, 19) snd the ambipcardfision length by RLS en vee an pte *° Diet Dye (2) Beidey the cuzet ie sow driven ty fusion rather than dead ‘hare smparation driven bythe small epae charge eae for hls at the et tara and fr elton atthe on itera, 1h the condone te ecambinatin rat Bootes Une wth (be ‘SRH resntnation rate, By 470, beouner sprain popotna ty ‘nwhen n= p apd sconrtant arose epion. Then the ideality flor ofthe dark J-V characteristic shuld bocome el to ot In the case there election snd hole Hse are wa ad my p> ro Ba. 89 can be ‘nlved exe ta gv outlons azalogons to those the eure the motel repons of a pn onction dried la Chapter 6. (Gi) The electron and ole Meties ia Bg. 82a ogee ot cow ‘aot fran axoephows materi, At Tow ht intensity barge enn te ‘ore tly to be tapped intl sate, which evans thi tie, The srk eucet term in By 13 thavefne sonst dependent. Theft morpho sion p-1-n cle that parma abt at low hte tensity, Corse dent depndnon of iene i evident through deena tallacton efclences and il actor wth ieesng Up into (is) Ie the electron and hole rite ae low, clltion fo wid taped ayer may be lated by he elie Bld due tothe mobi ‘ates In these conan the cutent i tobe opece charg ae W moti i ites dependest, clin i this it shuld igre with ncesing ght iene VP mcmncrnen aE caintten moc ERARAARARR 8.200088 $y 8 8 = == oar Tea suparstate design ubstats design 843. Fobriation of oi colar cll [Anornous acon solar calls are nual depos on dss subtratn, ‘Tic arco witha trnspareat conducting oxide (TCO) such tinox- Sie or nda tac TOO cote pntics areal being develope. Cals {ie atllyfhrietd ina superset! deig, where ayers of cocting (iid, pnpe undoped sod type 2S are pote n quence The ‘Sully deposited by plasns dcompesion of slane or ‘gow cha ota number f ether depontion metbods ack a spttering wud ‘hot wie te bing ivetigated Pr the rear coat ne oxide deposit onto {ie layer led bya sta sally alamiium. Ligh taping sue tare maybe bulvin by vxsing the ont TCO lager, and metalaing oF tecaring the Back surface in ode Yo eahace light bsorpton, ‘hn alternative he ‘obtrate’ ang where layers are deposited on sont aubrete soc sel whlch fra the bac conrsct, Hae the» Ieper ctn be Wry cho, snow thee i gl andthe Font surface does ‘teed tobe at, and oo higher eficencis are pon. Howes, the brite desig st 80 esy to proces + Light induced degradation ‘The Stacler Wronski efit te the ma importaot bases to ‘wep us ofS aola alle Lightlnduced degradation i sronger |. Stratepies to improve oS ell performance= ‘he Pal of ir Cay in atria wth higher hydhogn content, becasn of the gente de sy of SHH bonds, yet igh hyrogen content onde fr aug ‘oping and tranapore prope, IS could be produce wih some npn dangling bond density the lm dope would be need fe ppstaton and othe Seasblr Wionsl effet coud be rte. Alar tative dapositontechguee are therfore being stdind. One pons 1s the ‘hoe wire technique wih appens to produce good = wen etutetal wth el 1% hydrogen. + proven of x ‘The open cat voltage in a; vole ole subsanlly ls than ‘he pti! bad gap (0.80 V compared vo 17 eV) om ecco ofthe igh ‘ction energie in wnorphots materi, ad esting low bul in i. Vee canbe netnoed by the we of eer () x war band pnp eee sas SICH or (i) a polyrystaline Some, which degenerate oping i possi 1 Iprorenent of Jo "Thao ate to problems (0 Respooe ta be ight i poor in homogenous Sl allo axes of poor collection the p layer. The ean be rene by replacing ‘he wip Injer with « wider bandgap «SICH window, Le ie Inserlace dain prefered for Gado bya grid SCS (W) Response to long wavelets may be por bese of hei to he Creo chides whieh ati fen charged nckgronid dope In the tregon. Tha can be reolved eter mith gh rapping tke igus to increase the opi pet Ing wikia the call, ith Pe Ste Ce za 1a Sie dite = tho se of mulayoe Sell Ta the allay dia, eo a more ‘pri cal wi latvely thin regions ar conned nso. The ‘xe cal a alls) increases oer it absorption whe the hin Tepons soi the colton ens duet bask’ dopg i the Felon. Moreover, the higher eect a whi apple in thier + layers appear ace the Salo Whom eet, Since the cel are const in iI pce to atch the cerrea from the frat ad back cell Stoel light senches te bak eth kl mas be hk pect ane ose The pinata rato of thiclnemee wl depend on duminatin condi ‘Ti oe teal tandem ecg (Sucerd th Chapa 10th ack ‘rill operate atte optim only under erin lmiation sno, 1 Improvement of iting ficeney ul gup call design ace posible ting wSICH the mail fr sider gap cl and SiGe for sarewer gap el. Determinal fucade doagee whee the difeen pion cal ate connected in sre sing tunel Justioge ave been studied, To date the bat efiicy from tee stack lighely improves on the bet sige Joti «St cal, but substantial inproveeate re pnible. The iting sony for thre cell deve clolatod st 2% Th mn pba ave been the oer quay ofthe alloy relative to wi and incorporating lags foe tend jantons, The evolution ef «Si slr el performance eared tate 85. Defects in Polyerystalline Thin Film Materials ‘The lalowing sstioes ae concerned wit poyrstalin thn ln photo Vole mata, We fest conde he farce of «grain boundary aed lhe comeguence for potorlss dois,eS = XC 8.5.1. Grain boundaries A plperystalline mater cmposa of leroeystallits ol of th selmiuctor arranged at rao eieatations to sah ober (Fs 814, "Phe mate ception over the width of rn, wich typi th der of ae an Sipe the gains ar age in quaianepechanl tame, the band structure, and dhefre the absorption coufient, vital ela ta tat ofthe sg eystal materi Homeer the espera recnmbinationproperie are strongly ale thepresuncef th it faces prainBodaree "Th diferent remains of neighbouring cyt grin sve ie ta de lectins miele stole), Yancy, tral bond glee std bond datansr a the nen. a chxpound econdacters we mi) Sad stoms occupying the wrong isten ste, and roan of pariear ‘ome which efssvely dope the sateral."Thee may be fw atoms lays operat crystal at the gran bounds, while che mater 2 emmovats the change in rstalorntation (Fg 818). Polyerysallse ‘intr re alo ely to cotain etic inp wc cotarinae the materials ding growth. Tose exten impurity atoms are ly ‘Toe various types of deat stoduc extra leerone stores. These eta stats are spatially cle and boone they do not nen to obey tt yume of he eyoal and cey oy have earls in the bad gap (ee {Chapter 8), the ina band top sats fend fo tap ears and we Wl ‘efor to thm a inetd ap stata’ snp teep state’ How thay Dbehanedepends upon this eergeteprtion relative to th bands of te ‘ul eet sallow defects cae othe conduction ban tad to 0 a8 etn rape (ceptors) while defi levl se tthe valence band et fs ble ape (aoe) "Dep dec lvl a energie wear te cet the si in Str Cte ™ aad gap may be capable of taping ether typeof carrera because ‘he tines for eee rom dep aps by thermal stration ate very long they tend oa nt eecorbiontion center. (ee Se. 48) ‘Because thee intra baad gop aie are bla to trap charge, they inf oss the poesia dtbution cleo the grain boundary Ia Chapler 5 we ‘a low defect states ta sure in oped material end to trap maonsy tunes and tai an letras Rd oppenne major eerie Sow ‘The tation vith gain boundary iar rater bso sfacer bck to back Wh consider the cao of rain boundary In type matcal in Fig 16. The calectinvl within the band gup ate sally tibted 20 {hs he neal nual lee (dined In Chapt as the evel up 0 which the state aril when the interes etal) es cer othe et of the band gp chan Ue Frm level of the doped selector. (This wl vag be the ee lear the interac stature conrad ery lr in ‘eer 0 the condetion bad elge) Tha, the sats wil be seceptr the fd rap electrons. Th ges rin ope of ol negative charge the Inve, snd layer of pultiveapac charge onthe ade whe the ‘ype material had bon dpltad. The eestetatie forests up a pont Nese which pone further ney cartier migrain, Menor eee, ower, se «potent wol tthe grain boundary anda ale towards I where the probably of combining wah rapped maori career eh, Figure £16 shows how = depletion sein ic ntact around gain oundary in n type material for which gy < Bp, The grain boundarye818 Moan how band tng tte hn af tric ata ‘Soccer sn ne tanto erste Ss we scouts (epatie) hue charge dst of ow whee g(B} the deny of aterace stats pe nit aren, Yi the danat Sonistin mary, and pi the band being due tote tnd chara, {ound tha Panton equation, The depleted layers of wens cither sid oud each contain compensating (pst) chtge deny of HG, orp type mete thestunton ls nalogous Occup defect lees be: low trap monty hole ut hcieroppeing ole fw i otablihed, ‘and’ negtvly charged depleted egon appetsazouad the pete Shared grata boundary. a2, Epes of grain boundaries on transport ‘pe eflectof grain boundavies an change tuner depends 2 wheter ‘Beye moral toot parle othe dreton of crest fw. Tn the Bit Gon, wben cucet » Boving cows a gran boundary, the potential ber ‘er alow dow the taaepert of majerty eae, hating te majority ‘ver motility, wile the potntil wel dive misty earsie tard Sfroubiaton cetes a the gaa bundy, redacig the luo ctrl ‘Bsion sath and Hine. The sie of the fics depends upon the (Dping th deny of tetce tate, nl he photogenerated cartier da Sig. spl model for again boundary an ype material Seo, 975; (an 1977; Landers, 08 dss below, "The lars ae tba Tznsng the trap day incre the spas eharge Raed at the gia ounday, which ineresee the Drier gh, rues conducts and inoue eombinton Toca the doping fet nero the ari height, bat a hier oping level rape bose strated, the space charge een Bene toeontrat and the bare ode, ‘Terese the day of five eer by omlnationredues the net Charge sovd athe pain bowadary and heose the barr At High lumina level the gris boundane hve the minim eft: fondactvity reaches Re macnn level and recombination wth trap Grain boundarie which he parallel othe eitston of cuz flow pit ciply aetna earns: Maori cares tae pall 0 the ~ 2 a =>) we et, a moi maa het ih ene ‘pin ses tort tn fl) pe (ieee ecu shown ty nem ae et ne taost Phe Pi of Bat Cat ‘le boundary ae not flee ~ they 8 00 bce — but iz ‘ers ae sl ly tobe erappd in te potential wel oad rena? ‘Wan gals boupdary actly cramer the pon Jutlon, it reduce fBcieny of charge separetion by competing with the pm ution fr ‘ont caears. A more seriou problem aris when dopa init sony, ‘oa theemitar ifs slong the rin boundaritheugh the tm rm june, La the base ‘Thiserentas a abuse path throurh te po 5sllan which rode the setae the justo, 8.5.8. Depletion approsimetion model for gr boundary ee me are gong to ue the depletion approxiation to show how te resistivity ofa granular material depards upon doping, deosty of tap ‘Sas and light Intent. The gris boundary ia modeled Pane ot {20 with at density Ni of ets etd tetneen tw afer ‘omogeaoes material degeertely doped nype with dopant deasty Mg [Neighbour grain boundaries ae plaid at 2 — The eft cer levels are lead ina uatow baad arusd By rich nt Be es han te donor level B~ Vy 1a lson, the nual level ofthe grain boundary 5s teow the Fo lee f tbe blk semiconductor a hows in Pi. 818, When the tre ners at bong toe, lectene moe from he bale aye at rp statr a the grin boudaty wal eur reached ‘Then the plane of te gaia Boundary wil be neatly charged sed the snrourding bale ayer oti ehagererling in he potential pol ‘Shown in Fig) 818. The conduction band edge a the iain toundacy i ‘lol by a amount By relive tots abe atthe ent oft ale In the depletion appreximation me agli fer city aad spose ‘har the bulk ayers ae completly depleted for a thsknes Lo eet de Phn solving Polson’ aquatin ith the bouary contin that the acti Bld vanisis at 2 = 0 Sld we find that the condita and flee varies Ie es B40) = Bo) Now we need to dinngith to cu (0 the grain i comply deplete and the ap states ace pasty ile (Gg < N) This secure a ow doping, (4 She rain is parey depleted and the trap staan at ctuplataly fla (ANG N,) Tas cceae at high doping ora high atest love’ (ob? 9 , he A Grae andy he eon mainntn sowing 9 oey [Sh tie Bande ed Bp 1 he fet can = f ad the brie bgt ven by tad (eas) Be nthe cass, oes the pai ie cmpletely depleted, te Fem eve has en wine rom the dovos le ofthe alk materia At the mae of ‘he eran the Fra Ives been ied down by an amount an he ‘ceceon dant redued to Nye" 9” eltve othe undelete atc ‘Tofind the new value of By wn nee ta conser the igo the tap ler ‘The bet deny of onuped tap sates lo givea by Ns SHB, Be. Twi Bd) (a6) ere f(BisBpT) the Fuml-Diae dsibaton function (Ba 3.28) ‘With dea futon forthe dtebaton af tap sats er wit are ge(E) = MSE) 1) se acum # pin degeercy of one we od aN i ws)a he Pasi of Str ay Reatrangingy We Bd for Ep Be Bat ‘sa, whe Bp and Ey stemware eative to some vlereoe, sh as te Insrace lovl xt x — 0. Ph tho Fo lel wpe fom he done lovely ad xedinsead to the tp eer ee 1 te soon as, where th praln pry deplete, ex aoe itt a sd the conduetion bad ncn aa the condsetion band alge sag ofthe lk mata in eguliiom. In the mid grain, endeplecl regs ‘he Ferm level ie psned atthe dana level and yas tsb al ‘The cage dastbrions, slate fd nd hand profes ate tata ach eave in Fig, 519 belo 85.4. Majority carvier transport In studying the trnaport of majority care we ae inarented i theo fective aduttyof he en, which the current cos the grabs oundary pa nt plied ald, nd the fective maki wich the ok Aleit pr wait nee. For is we nod to cua the ean ce Aoi erring the grain bosndary, (J), ‘We suppes thas ovarlans lric Geld Faldo the grat madi of the last ention, Then the letras potential eon arene ihe by Pon the ight thn the lof the gaia boundary in Fig. 820, od ut eucet of epprninaly (2) = aed ertet(etara® e2) il fw othe gt Hoo) tbo mean alecton dat and yi te ‘ean electron velit in the = dest, pen by wy" os oom ae 7 vo 4, ae e . 7 — 7 o o ig 20, Spc hs, sl and te ta gn town emt itech se tare gn oe ya pry eae (te Rect me th GE Moll them et ploy dre lVa Pie Poo Sale a, suming Batu statist and nteopic matin, where mf thea, toon oBetve mass Since Fs al somal ta hy the conducting bind from Ba, 8:22 given by D . Pind -esnat 12. ent, 29 sd the dcton mb ty nee (25 ‘Bquatios 624 and 8.25 show that depends on Naat Ne only theogh ‘Bp ad (nnd oly though By. I immediatly lee tat js ‘elo where fy i great. To conser the bbaviur ef 2 we alt alte the mean erie dey (9) Ts sondogeneate condone th cle delty avenged over a grin wing Be, 2.4 fo nnd [7 nemen-tnaras 2m) ‘This canbe evaluated exactly wing Bq 8.14 fo Ba) wlth the appropiate ‘alo off in ech se, The eel has the iting forme fymnetoreeier a for dy € Ny ana ye Ne (62) for dia > NTs bas the consouenc that ¢ i smal nd nent doping ovr the ene where dy = Ny but then rin apy with Na ‘onge dv > No, Gly tending cower th iit for crystal seater as Bp -+ 0. The restttyafpalerstalin mater therefor ih st ‘oping ev, ang very rapialy a ore aerate doping levee ull nal it compan with xystalite vals a igh Ni, Tin stad i Fig 821 "Tis sug tat we soul sn fr bighly doped polerysaline ma terial t eds eit less. Homer, igh doping ta incense te Jone of minty erie vin secombination a grain boundae, sw be seen dow. Aa wich erystaline materia the bs naar a compat ‘betwee heh doping and high conduit. ie i “coma to) ONT pec te) un he sy of yon Sl cae ti 18, 855, Bpect of illumination By analogy with tho ome of balk recmbiation via lage trap lvl (Ga Aa) the Gacio of fates rape whlch ae ose eve by em B= Sa 4 Sata eS TAIfeo 1g 822 Gran sont hh te et ai eh ee tty Scorn che ed ae tt as ee i ee he wii ‘ere pare the deste of eleceoan and ole atthe gain boundary Sud 5, are the nance yeomizaion vz, Mumation cress oth wand, bot he rion ines othe inesity esr population ols in his ease — ie grater Tes clay fom Eq. 829 that fr train loony in type materi if and pare bth incest by the Sen amount, wl be decreased. Play he ede a greater rt oe capure th grain bounds, rsalting ina lowe ne chat. The olced grin boundary charge rele the bee ght Ep son la Fig 822 At fete mire ari Fem level il above te rp Invl (Ce, 7 ps the ratio Ba, 8.31 dcrenes, ad the eectve recombination ‘wloty dezeaes "To evlste the cowl est on the minority rir tanepot char csariais we tod tea the gris boundary reembnatios to the other ‘rnc rcmbintion shams, We dete a minority eer ene Joe gain boundacy eeconbintion from the gan boundary recombination sate pr grit, (Le, 8 volun rennin at) Alle Ss. ae" T= es) ‘The an ellie minty career Mine, ry can be died by ang ‘rin boundary combination tothe ther chains, toi, aya meth a0) ‘tc difsonfngth er maybe dived om ry Sn the ual wa, for Bag. 4.95 and 98 La = VDorra 635) In conditions whore gran boundary recombination dominates — hat, low doping, high gata boundary deficrdanlty an fw iuination — ‘he overall fect iftme and ison length wl be a td eens Seendent though the Ue dependence of Sy AE Meh intansty brel ‘he other mechani takeover, sad Lay lnceaea tons @ steratonsiei6 see t | wet ER fen ai an nh a i i yp hue In plyrytaline silicon, Lg fs been obsved to increase with uration ate up to a sturtion fv (Fig 823). 1p that mater gala Soundary ets dominate fr doping lee Ny < 105" em 8.5.7. Bets of grain boundary recombination on solar elt performance ‘Gris hound tet infaaos the erent voltage carta of pol ‘ean ola calle ceveral important ways 1 he fas of grain boar in rdsing major cre moi may fncrnse se esac, +The nhancament of mini carter recomtnstion a gan boundaca redo itines, a dcased above, od ntaue dar cute, Noir that sac gai boundary recombination ccnp charge regions there end p are compatable, we tnd the dark earent chars forte pcalof generation recambintion caret with desl factor of) kobe gan boundary defect des sgh etaug «Became erie times nd ifs ga eecarie density Apes, he everecurent wich opps te shore eet ptoeue fest may be intensity depesent whist the phetscurent ay be bie Skpendens, and ot wel eppeouted by Jy The mean tet spe ‘lode oration deacipions such av Ba, 1 are aot appropeate, ules tala boundary eft are well onto ‘A fre inden on J-V charset aries fom rsombioaion te Jnterace ip heterojunction ell, dean blow 86. CulnSo Thin Flim Solar Celle SOL. Materials propertice ‘Coppe nd clei (CaaS, o# CIS) dict gup semiconductor with bad gap of wound 1 oV and en opel sbeorption which monet the ight hacen for eny seminoaductar. Is sng sbuorption, as all ‘ss evelyn both p aad » types, ae Ie tiactive for thin fim Pictvaltaje aad t bar bean developed for thi purpose sac the ery 1970s I te peljrsetaline fm, consists of pais of se approximately 1 pms eh tn ts re cosine sche oe thet gpa bears te mote aly to Uo nora othe p-n Junction. CIS pon homofuneion ‘ole ale can be made, bt have wt ecency of aly 34%, and belie “ove eon be made with heterfctionetrctre, ung ype CAS ‘nite on lightly doped pype CIS bre Tiegh doped Ca ier ie ‘ad gap of wonnd 2.5 eV and serves) at window Iyer to race te Collation les dr to sua roobiation of ear photapeeratal by short wavelength Heit, and () to transport electron foe Junction 2 front sus wich mina serie saanee, Only fw pm ofp CIS bo re ataded fbr good sbserpson Tn most plavorail structure the tlley CulnGaSey(CIGS) i sed in place of CS, Aion of Ga improves the photvaltse characte by rabing the band gap, a8 wll a the tlectonieproperis ofthe ear ont. he compound tee th chalopyieexyetal structure, Tho condo Livy f pepe CIS ie du to native defen, rainy inn veauces7 ‘and copper some on indie site, and oa be coiled by vying the ‘Cul ratio dura groch, These native delete ord to coreg a the sla boundaries an ve se to x dcbtion of tap energie aoe he “lene band edge eich tht the hole ciation soe) ls etuud 0 eV (ote this is smaller than the Yelue fra, lndeating tat ate cn pensation Ie len of prblem) Tn atin, postialy charge! slats ‘cancies concentrate a tbe grin boundars admat be pasate, foe lasance by aneaig in oxygen, to rece gin bouncy ct len tron ifision lengths ate salar to the gras size, ging he 0 litera quanta fies whch area igh a OG a be taxis, 8.6.2, Heterojunctions in thin flm solar ell design To a batrounction the eter made fom a diferent wider band ap ‘material han she base, Such dsga ate toed in plyersetalie thin Gn Solar cell fortwo rewone Piet, tbe short difion Inthe tenn tat ih carey photons may notte cll fly, The wider bd pap ite sarefre acts ie «window (ee See 8). The soon ren {hot Cae and Calne thin Hm material caoot easly be dpa wp se aleratve metal auc ag CaS mst be "The mater interface trues ple (0) Diterences bobroen th etl steacare of Iter conan ofthe ‘two material generally intro in bd gap dfs ates a the Junction. The states encourage Shockley Rd Hall sobeation, Ineresing dark comers and hing the open cet vltage They ‘ny as sist naling of carr acon th unto ga eens ‘ing ecombinvion. Vary Tage dante of interface sateen lad to Farm lee pining at the iterfac, with the oct that carrier des tio are not eal onto, (Dios tates the cecal campos ofthe to nates may lead to the difsion of epuie acon he janesion, o the faa of now chanical compounds i the funtion tepon ot exaslthe awn alloys CuSey and CuSy may form at the CuaSey — C8 Iterjunctin. (l)Dierenes betwen the electron afnity and band emp of he tom tele moy lad to he situation where there is» nace arise sil in the conduton or valence ban or Boh, at the aes ‘Then photogenerated carer cag the jttion eed to fared through the ep bfore ay ca be collied, and ths tees the Fg 26 Dad tied ner ecto pl CS al. ceny of clleeton. At the Call Gs)Sep — CUS junctlon, step Gf around 08 eV inthe conduction band edge erates » trang tere (Pig §24()), opposing elletion of photogenerated lets ‘Ths eap nots lk «Sette tare, but ect on phorocareat telecon i agli i les than Oo. Te toes 3 cane ‘cltaton to the tovmbinationcuret fom tunel of eactoos to Interac dfs the CdS, and hs aif as on ideo factor featr than 2 ko tbe (ow tmpernae) dark carrent charecertle [Ra 2001, The problem of bce a the hetzojuncon is avoided for C48 — Cie n-p srt 803. CalmGases solar cll design (IGS i cape ty two main method vapour eo-epoeon of compe, lad, gallos and leu: an the snstion of C/I fs. After epotan of the CICS laps te fi rane in oxygen to compensate ‘arged grin boundary dees and reduce the dens ef recombination ‘coin Then them type CUS layer Goposod tpl by ehemical bath ‘spetioe, flowed by thin ayer of condactieg oxide which may ako fervent pt aati cont Zine ora refereed a it igh ca ‘dutty sods the thiconr of C45 aeoel to ow tens of am. C1GS tal ce aye prepare ar autre designs on ® molybdenum coated {Ga sobetae, os Me seeded to make a Ohi sons. Gx proves ‘Meson tothe Mocatac, Dat is ot Theeiceny of CGS ons improved substantially oer holst 10 years sad preety sande at 18% for devin om gestae [Coters, 00,os 1e Pha of Slr Cate “Tn mgje dang problema with CIOS ols (0 Poor spectra response at lug waelngts, which i de othe poor ‘leet of earners plotogeeted a the back ofthe al Ineored photocurrent rogue long eaten diftson length, ad sine ‘St ebout 2am already mse to the pain oe thi eae edly ‘rain boundary eocombination. This may be dane by paating the Intecics or ceaing te erystalite sie hy annelig (i) High recombination a the Heterojunction, and gai boundle Thy ark caret i sboet ten tines that of erysalit allon (wich hag sina Sand gp), The high deict deity at the heterojunction fut fom th smatch ofthe wort ctl srt of Ca wt the chalopyite tecture of CIGS, and encourage recoblation op tunel via tap stat (Gi) Although opal lone in the C&S canbe minimiod by hoping har Taye thin a onl, poor collation inte lueand gee isa prob lem with mae produced eal beens of pote race proceing 817. Céte Thin Film Solar Cells 8:74. Materials propertios ‘Cadmium tlle (CAT) isthe smcondoetor fom the I-VI group of ‘materiale wish a priepo at ele for photovotaI hs diet ‘and ap of 1.44 e, clase tothe opium fr photowoaverien, and 8 ry igh opti abeorption I one of only two I-VI compos (he ote one Ze, with » band gap of 2.26 eV) which ean be doped p96 st well ann typ, History, Cae was sought and doeoped t's? pe ‘placement fr the photoes mata Cur wich was tet a aly Intorojuntion desis with m type CaS ax th wider baud ep ene, but whos performance ws lnllitd by difion of Cu along the gale ound. ‘The eeysal adopt she wurtate etl stractor, lk GaAs bt a poorer teonoportproperses te aero high dusty of mative dete ‘ch as exes Te atoms ot the gala boutdaie which give eto dae ‘tata dup in the band gp. p type CTa mat be doped extras bat he big nea baad defect nay lad por doping fcc, uch ae In amorphous alien. Honor, testes have been developed to etree tho tape and eset (> 15%) solar al me new ben produced fer the polyrtaline materi Action by esting CAC, een to eaters] Bem teee| Ee ——— ingrove material quay: Grin ste can be increased td natal pope. (Ga ingroved by annealing ‘cfs con be single epil oe pulbsrpstalin, although pljogtaline| vs obvioiy the sates of fattest for hi Sn ols nd tn fa eas {tbionel the best perfomance A wide varley of techniques hve been usd forthe deposton of CETe in slat ol The bet eats oda hve been febevo wih coe epase vposrtranspert, but oder candidates elude {spat evaporation and opey pralee. 8.2. Cre solar ctl desion ‘he prefered design x CS p-CTe eteojnctin call. A in Cue Ihe cl the CaS eter ate a window to improve clletion a hort ‘recent, fo this csc bre ete nthe naduction oe wlence id, bot lasts nate between the Eo atari leads fo interte ve Abeut 9-8 pn of CATe are wade for sient optical depth, This in generally weakly dope buts sezend doping teatnent with coppee teh ned to improve the oat ty of the CATs ayer a he four cata, ‘The materiale may bo deposed in subse ebiono 3 Sal cette, o In sperstat kin on TCO coated ls. icles acing C2Te al dsgn ae ws flo: 4 The CaS etre bore sigan nth groen and ey thin (0- {0m yer ate need fir good reponse to geen ght. One objective in Oe al develop lo rode the tices ofthe Ca ayer fn ass production. The hh deny of mp ett a the rain boundare g se toa lgh Akar urea (abot 20 ines tha of We bares sar nats As) Solow Vg (02 V lem tan Gas. The low Ve poy aibuted to ‘lr eel plang atte ep otto.a he Phi of Str Cay “Ferm level pening by the rep states leads to dificaltis dopa Ca Invi ptype and making Ohl contat to che abate, 1 Detect tthe C48.CdTo heterojunction de to ltin mitch ote the firmaton of other ehemialsomponnds (teh ws CWTKO,) ebanee Jetin ecomblatoe, ‘The mest ficient CATE cle a 1648 fet, en? CAS/CATE deve om dase, proved by the US Natoual Renewable Beery Labortote Tg thallenge i now to improve Cesar ell production techlogy so og torneo th ficiency of eee produced elle owarde the auc fo 85. Thin Film Siicon Solar Calls 88.1. Materials propertice ‘Thin fm mieroaystline lion i character by gain ses of around 1 am, eas th optical properties ofepstaline con, whe ite elton properties are dominatd by the grin boundaries, Deft sks at ga boundaris inde degling bonds typical of anorphou lion a wel ‘sale impurtne introdonl daring gowsh The daft sate apt fo be dinibtad through te band sp eo that the gain boundaries are ate 1 bth mand p type material. Gran bounnis dominate the teneport properties of mlcosystalin I for doping lees Ny-< 20" ems lag ie ointensity depen miei cao elfsion lng std mbites ‘Mitorjtline alien (8) ean be prepared by tbe same toch as mberstalig, normally by costing of molten lion lta aggregates or sha. A range of oer techniques have bern iets frei lin palertaline mater inlading liquid phase epitaxy, eheical vapor “epoitin and the cryatalaaion of amorbowe sean, The gel ob ‘ate ol b depsting the yeSon cheap cars ol ett or hs, 3.82. Microcrystalline silicon solar cell design Figur 8.1 butates the bse problem wth using sion in tin fl solar calls Asin any polyrpalie mate the dition Ing is 5 fie tively ied bythe gai az, ad thi places imi on the lene for efctive cao ellecton of fom loos o tens of ioe. Hower, ‘the bw abortion neces an that layer of Si few ron hk iene tetera et nets ethan al ofthe salable patos (Fg 8). Below we mention fo esc epproshee to impeorng performance. A 2m thik Salo ‘Shel on slot has bees reported with to have an efiecy of oer 10% Franco, 198, «png ha ln Sl ce ae hn nn be de om lean cn it svg esas wed oe opel pth nth tle ‘SUE nn nad tects cen he opti eth Se carn, ahah ment ole te cet LESS hea ofthe ks gh Tals thn PRS apt wt aloe hips Is eng, ness ie pons tg tglng wl te Sua in Ca 9. «iad wane inset ee ‘lane ong n hn sinh parathion st cael oagened seat ae es PG piconet ys lar platy ae come Thro ge oan ct ord purl ecu he {Seceofsndar ips te nyc iii gt he TRIS lg es ptegensted sty cre lech Etre pajnton, ayers hn ise erly oe ie Set Set prt ber han elton a fe ‘Sie lan bene tof ony ner ae yes ‘sim weal 89, Semmary "Thin fl mate based on plyeytaline or smorgbous seieandve- tae are ting developed fr lower cost photovoltaic. Advantage ace the pomilie of depontion ovr large ares on chap euetrates (ech t= dom plastic or fl) aad the poteatl for fbriatinglnetally com eto’ ede Guin lm depolon. The pray douatange i lover per conversion efceney renting fom poorer charge transport Proper. rin te deacive mater Suitable material shoud bare high opt ‘Swonption The leading marina are amorphows sion (3), and the ‘aberyealnevmoooductors edn ellie (CATo) and copper ne ‘um glm dblnie (C16. “Ameepoos lon oferty ht eboeption compared to crystalline sitcom ant tay be doped at lowe tripertares. AB on wvorphousenous, ious fom angling bond dice which mae ds ‘leat, od ere band a states whch seduce mebilty by charge tae ing Posirtion wh Lydrogon rece he dle est cent ty el devcos nye md, bat the efcency of doping ew and tine, In doped material re very sr Por transport in doped Si ean ht tela alt ate made in pen rather than pn strut, In pt an teres collection lee ray cs rm eter netralston of elec ba rave estan nhs trope. Higher eens may be olan wg Tandem structure, which re the teks of inva «regions, 6 eteojanetione, wich eon calectin lesen the tary itedatng ‘window. The daperive tramp characters ond anise aac of {Si lad to ight ites denen ranspert and caret vohage che terse A longstanding probe eight indool degradation o Stabler ‘Wronski efit whit eases «90% redo nell erlomance oe Se fit moths of pectin alyerytlnericonductor ate carstroe! by gain boundary. ‘acts, Defra rin boundary opal matte space age {etins where rnjority eater mobility bred and snot cart ‘mbna enhanced. Saturation of tape elue gain boubay rea Sinai at igh ih tenes Th ef of gran toute on oat si fits can be deed with a model based onthe depletion approx Jhaton. Inthe bs polyrytalinephoovlae materi, CAT and CGS, ln boundary stv i inimied during mater grove, abd elie ‘rm junction devine an be de For both Cae and CIGS, cls ae prepared tn beteo)uncsos with sn type CAS emer in order to mite QP ows in tho eta. The etaco-tertce toons alta dente which act a rorombinatog Cents and reduce the open sci ote, In CIGS-CAS ere he Tterjuaction alo ltodts «barr isthe codton band impeding tlston collection. Te man challenges ae o improve usspre pepe fhe bal sata prove the ust of th heterojunction; impeoe fentact with sbatete and rece lee dae to eeface recombination {Ue emitter cincie of over 16% and 18% hav boe achive a CTS ‘se CIOS, rapostivey ia mp setae on glass ‘Msroerytalie icone trative for ehalm photorlsk, but sa ‘os ow opti absorption, Desens corpora ight teepingstac tars ofr to increase the QE for erotik fn and achiee impor ‘tansportpropris by eparting a high case density, a References 40. Ache and, Hd), Clean Eric fom Pte (Londo ipa Colg Pea 0) ‘RAL Bute Patri Mle London: npr Cale Pre, 88) Fg Candand es Yang, "Bletrone roc st rai enna inde ope Siteimton" ZEB rns Baton Des BD, 37-0 (OT) a. Concern ak Prog vars BR eee Calta) poeye {ane hein sar ei, Prope Photowtae 7 1-8 (00) a ttc, ‘Dataty fete betaine wn Pea Proper ‘7 horpons teal an. Ader (New Vek Pet 19). suca Been Binary Eig ead W Wat, Slr cl ey table, Prag Potosi, 2208 (2000) 88, Hogue, “Curent velar se of nd SiGe war eal ing eles depeneat pc calesian™ Pry. Photos Re. Ap Sis i6 . per taney ae SE Abahani ic sata a of etalon ghia ase oe of rm bunds" Ap Ph. “ast (asd, 2 ae pin eee est eal tel model oars ‘ten woe nd med, IEEE Pon Bacon Dee 8, 2-420 ian leh, AL, Peveirsh and LH. Babe, Photvlaedtsemiaton of opal svecpon in CAT, App Phy. 4, 20 30197), 12, Maen Seminars for Slr Cats Arte Hou, 18), Pde Paw stn, “On the njoson eel oped the tinny Titi In dca tn carter, Sl Ste Bro 27,57 (198 1, Ramat LW Shek, "Cl, cal n lan Bitty fom "Phtsotace we HCD. Arran DHE Laon paral alge Pros 0). 1. Set Th lara poperi of plea ico Hi J. Ap pig: 4 ers (079), W. Spat and P. atone, “Ecole proper of abtutnlly doped “Seep Sand Cy PAL May 8,98 (67) ‘iy Tn rived care taps Marge acre ion in yer ydegentat Amsplow Scores 1D. Damsepoe ad {tac 28-30 (Spaz, 86, et of epee tc pil propria of se thin ‘inf rd 10h TBE Photos Sats Con, 150-108 uel, "hi ply elt elon a oer nal at Tow tpi”, MRS Spring ecg, Api 100 Se Frat,Chapter 9 Managing Light 04, Introduction ‘This chapter about tho efoto needing photon fx density within che foe ell‘The min cearon fr doing thi hat by teen tho pheton fle per une vue, we decom the velar of el tara whichis ed to herve» erat snout of Ug Thi desraner the cost per wot of toary sate since the volume of cell meted the ain determinant Sect. Another sna ie that el nay pero more filet? der ere pot x lvl ‘Westat by reviewng hw light i ulis ina photovoltae cel. Con sve eemisoadacoe layer of sive width w, supported bya anbtite of {slr oeicontr, seated in Fig 9. Light normally nidet athe al pses though encapelting rater bfove meting the call Stvac, wher ny ste wenennducor or el contact Some tion, Tf she light wl be selected from tho semiconductor src, contact ‘ed outer layer OF th reader, some wl be abort inthe active o ee ER — | : onige os cj Fe 61. Atami, eatin ed retin on ation nen ‘Sa fei oN ne a qo a my aa the ‘tnd ote om pn yop thricelays and sone wll pss stright thug ato the sate, Within the (atthe fy tenuate so tht «dap =the Bue deny of photoes of egy Bi ven by 4B 2) = (1 REED EVE HT en where (2) othe incident photon ac ent normal othe sufaco, RCE) Ite reftvity ofthe surfs ond a(E,=) the absorption safe of| theseaicodutar at + Arwuing tht all absorbed photons eu ban [esp tation lactam ola pale ao generatd arate B,2) = of 2M} = (1 REED o(E,=pa( Ble“ EMM 09) per unt voli, in acordance with Eq, 425. For a el of thaws w, a fcton ew) ae - incident photon are aborbed whe aston Sow ms cough, Fr uform absorber the absorbed ad unused falls (GRE ee) 03) = RIED 4) foam respectively, The unabsorbed fiation ie hgh whenever cu ls anal, or Ttetane, fr wavelngts he othe band gap and fer inet semione lctory ch alia or efit ight lisnion, as rach Light as possible sboult be ab- enbed in the actin layers, 20 RCE) and WE) should be as smal pl IC2(E,2) could be icreaeed whi the cl the photogeneration Fete tod iene. Tit meas we cold achieve the same photogenratin {hic with smaller volo, recog trae quent "The fect of ineresed (2,2) on cal efiiency is discussed below Seo 9c. We wll tow ta the ie deny aceon by factor the ol current soul increase, oa Bet approximation in proportion [rete cal yltgeinstsss ax lg(X1). Ths masts thet the power ai. | detwze bythe cl, JV) + V ness faster than X, sete eetency fnceuns under Intend photon uz lve Note ha Us edepesent tthe rl th! for ne delete semionducors, enon lectin a Ie improved ot higher gt intense. "This chapter is engasoed follows Sst we cevew the rle of photon fxn sla cll asd dsc the waye a which ight mangement can wor the pefonnasce of solar ll Then we Wet the ollowing strates teste costings consneatr esters, Ug trapping sutures a cto eyeing asters In each cata hn ot on devi pee aly eed. 9.2, Photon Flux: A Review and Overviow of Light Management Bor 9 Understandig photon Rex: ome dfotons "The speceal photon Aux dst B(2 6.6) ite number of photons ergy B whlch pase through ust aren per wait ld ange er uit tino In toner is deioed by detion (@) sod poltion wel an lneray depend. Coonrmton of photons reques tha forsee vole Vet mata with race 5, [nena [onteer-miboar 09 ‘hres pot on the sft, (Bi the poten ems aed alr) the pon abecptian ste per ui vote, We deine (2) ibe nt secon, hat the diference betwen absorption an the ‘std emis. The ef and ategral a Bq 09 taken ove eli angle hand pina on te surteS, whl the id band integral salen ove tl potter wihln the voune P. Using Gaus’ law we nd that at xy pein within Y [eennomamite-mies) 09 ‘he ete of staorption for photons for a en Ha dzection b propor sional to the magniide ofthe photon Bf in tha cction, and the ‘ton rte proportional to he tngutod of ested fx Sarming apa Th Pes of oer cotebatios ove ct ng we a nts) = f note 8.9 oe er the hen cfc mntén)= [ele omienaon on rete enn const a sd th eed a deny, Bert, uma a may tn dd. tay ‘cites tenon an ae peel the ed sine de eos fas adel meee Contac Beane aud von sng dcn 0) v.pae-at hn he etn Baey os rr here fi the leah coordinate wong (9) [Chandran 190), Insel mata the ete ue, which sos rom th eaters bination of caries, sual neligile, That Ieee th the she lear equation e10) 1s the cas where the incident fie i iste ora Yo the call uae (€=0,¢~0), we ct = H(8, 2) aod hove the ose denna! ovation a Brerqo eu ‘Which the slaion (6,2) = MB, ef ob (09) sully ksowa asthe Boce-Lombere lv. Heneforth, ME; ) i ed to ‘present th Rue waving at dept = normal tthe surf of «pln ean ke os 924. Routes to higher photon flr ‘ho creased ton fx can be eve ia sve ways, By consetaton| ike ihe, topping ofthe bak, ot by explain af poten rating ‘Tse ae weed statically in Fy 02 All thte poses in to mpreve the efiiency of wtlaton of hoe tonal a gven amoust of photovoltaic mara They te efi i fret ‘euditouy, for stance igh sping strate are partly operat {or weksbotbere and thin el, ile cossetatio spartan Is Vey Ahlen, cyte el = — ° @ ssl a fl. — f— © © e220 on pine al et eit nl (oe au) om ‘Ski al tno ty aon an nee: Pont bec J) ein note in nrc catia) nae ene arty ncn eis ee rene ‘beige () oan ty mn rn etn a star taps pn pended rat reo oe {EPS wes mul may be wed py gy am AR cn wal oe hoe sd ge tres el de sean otA The Pla of Str Cy [ahi chapter we wl ok atthe bse py ofeach of ha proces, have they are or might be achived In peace, all how Chey afl thy lyse and pfrmance ofthe photovlacl 9. Mh O31. Optical propertiee of semiconductors ‘The optical proper of soll ate decebed bythe dete constant, x esa complex quantity and obeys Imising Reflection 1 share ny the rafictive nde of the mana he taginary pt y [rested tothe abecrption cafe ofthe material hrugh oem, (o1) In gor yng and % te wavelength dopeadent, nd may be distin dependent Dieoncs in refsctine dec detain the election sd tacion fight atthe interface betwen ro material Fr thin Ss, ight should ‘be ead ae aban, and Mixes egustions ean be led to Bad the ‘olatve ample of rananitted and refected wares I the sip en, that of «plane boundary between materiale of ttrective index ng ad ne, Tight srking the irate anormal nino eect with robablty a-(BeR) wom Fora semiconductor, ry tpl 4 at vale wavelengths (Tele 9.1), 0 that some 80-40% of ght neal cde om the gues from fe ace wil be reece, ‘Acobliqueincence th reflect Is agl and parson dependent ened ray maker a angle with She rnce normal nthe at smite ay an ang swith te srace nial ade thevemiondtor then ne (BER) 19 ‘ie Pure fase, Mewut _“teaseth thos BY shee nusteb, ox for place ligt (withthe sat ad eto the ple of inidenee) ua a= nicoate (018) sod for polar ght (doce fh vector normal tothe plane of ‘eac) handy ae slated teoaph Sols lw nosinds = msn, For unolaiso high, considered bon gu bt of» aed p polaris, (etre general ere with angle (fr the paid mp at increas While fo the compaten tae eins), approaching oe at luge angles. The minimum rectiviy ofa atleonduto erace to umplaid ight occre at nova dese abd ges by Bq, 15 ALSOLO, thin unaceeptayhih fr effet potovlaeewegy com vere, ‘Stel’ aw lo meas thst Light teaeling within the seconde to ‘wads thesuthce oan engl restr than the rial ale, italy reflected, Foran er-emonduetor arcs the etal angles gven by -a(8) vs14 83. Sg er trating Wen he fh dro ‘hls oat an ol btn oa For the alraon atectoe = 160% Inthe presen of a tel csting in Bq 9.19 replaced by the reectv inden of the cating a eit Increased. Ts phenomenon of otal terol ecto explied nah ‘rapping tructares, whith ar dna in Soo. 6 9.3.2. Antireflection coatings Retstvy ofthe ar-semicndtor nef can be eed wing enon sefection (AR) cong An AR cost thn fn of dale wit ‘etctive Index my Intaratiate bern then of tho nmondtor tee spoce (on) By comeing foward and bala toveling ware in each un can be sbown [Maco 201 thatthe recy fhe Slo or ight of wavelength i given by (m= n+ fun /n = ma oF Coun PTE om are athe phase bitin dhe Sl, By = Bandi ceti/A, oy the angle beeen the ight ray snd he nonlin the lm, a 5 the hikes. clay ha it minim vale when 6, = 9/2 Tor normal inedene, this frst happase when dy i equal to 8 que ‘velngth inthe hn fn ater (thse conten the wave rele ose Ltt a fom the font and rear lteice ofthe tin fla ae ont of phase and itr desteucively) R sons whe i a tue that n= VR em Sty coating ou soniondcte wl the lye ofa median with eae the Index m,n can todce tha rast to aero a some ports twslength Since the solr apectusn a toad, this movelngh should te dcsn to toward the mil ofthe rag f weveencthe whic can e willy aborbed for thet eicondactr, and the dees the AR. eat thickest, Clos oy, nesses With wavelength approxi i (GBP and ar wavelengths where the phase sift bests maine of» eich tena ale oq tothe mtu eectvy ofthe unented ‘efce This means that an AR cot epsmiad stave vile wavelength ima be quite highly eeting at ater AR cuts on lon al oll are ‘uly opimised for ved light, whore solar ladies i trong, an be tome teecive inthe bio, For this esenslcon elec often apne Wet or blue Sian the ees ofthe AR coat depends on tie {nd increses t wide angles. Tis ence that AR coats eof ied ae In dif ght ce for nowplanar sfc, Figuze 8-4 shows how an AR, out which is taoed for oem lacdenee a oan wavelength becomes etectng st other meelngth ad wide angle Wavelength am Dg 84 ole etsy af pln AI sat tno wnt a ‘cn ag fine 9 = 0, and Heh th aa ene age ttn nt saci stake ee at~ Te Pn ea athe above este of AR cats we seh the abo otal mater Ts usualy 9 god appocinstin saws et semiconductors, the absorption visible wavelength x auticiatly weak thet fn Por efecto fom a lrg elton opp pnd ye pies ner In B91 4 ed ‘cilatod with compo atime The iid meen onl ‘be noo-atsorbing, veut ‘craig 10,922, he Wa AR conte ilean awa ete index of are ado Gal, Cond mat tic lcn aid wich as ny = 17 and easton wih myo The ge elses ha 1 eel inden th opi wavelength. — Tnpove fect vr bad of wang ca be shined toot mor tin The rete sue fae, eo tunge of msl ret whch te recy can be nied. ly ‘les re sot aly praca reel ie cond ths enstiviy to ange of ieee, bot lees wed on Some ih ‘fice as Layers sos be ep on that eee ner ee covet ft a (coe (nove mt ose endutor(r)Refetty ana wen beth fina hae Sues singe ayer double layer Wavelength am th on tc mite dee Lt hose and nn ts ayn a Sic ce mene serie ot op re Sele tate mer seit ae ei Cae neon i ie tate 4. Concentration ‘41. Limite to consentration 1a pits amsontrton tens, i cllced ovr as a I foouad on tool in of er aren. This nero th eat fc dy ath nl me bya concern fan, Xe o> frome the nn of the llacton aad el see Tho main bjetie (Cite rey a edn the conf the poole cone a7 onseating pi re mck cheaper per wi are than pore cate Solthe cla comer the cnsrtad nad unooreutaHight with a frosty these fice. To it eproxination th conan {Short power of Weel ols anencead leh According to grec! opti, coceating the inant Ugh esl oexpanig te anlar rege sea the sours, Cn ‘Sting gh ty ctor X ug petal omen ieee {Be ange tage ssh apd hac te otal (ogling) Ince fa bys tor Soon sat oan 49 Fan” lan oy we Gh bal a see sun, 026 is asa hat The ney of te coset ht nm overt angl an Broan of ein of ek, tf the ht entrng the weirts ected coe to he arta, and 0 the x normal to the sutace ig ‘ubanoed approximately ty the factor X tlave tothe ubconentetad ‘tae or soeal incidence, 8,2) = 0 REEYADLB™ ‘Toa Sit approxmation the generat ae, ses In Ee 2. inten by the eae fet ‘The gvometiealfctor B, etrodced in Chapter 2 torte th ab sorta ght to the angule rage of eco, changes to £8 = XO 2 ee ae een "The mux tortie coneentrain ovur when x = 90", C6, X = 48050 Ror a connate with endl rather thas spa eye ‘the museum concetzasen i lomo: X= 1 2 9.42, Proctcal concentrators I potion constrain init by the quty of he pte, by tacking vor in working photoralteaystans, td Uy the paca Rely of ‘coupling ery highly conanrated Light, wth ts very wide angola rang, [ate the ci Pretioal concentration rte of tne to thou of ane have bean achieved wing rletive opis ex Feel ss. ‘ote tha imaging conentation i aly ponable when incident Hight rage are parallel ad the contesor i polting othe su. This mas that oni dee cunts canbe concetrated. Dif suligh, which baa ben catered by th ators and compte ste 16% of the andad ® © Ye 26, Cons a an) abl ete) Pre ee Te onsing Lhe os Son sun. on ada ond vend oe Fe8, Coop pba cnet {10115 specu, e incident on te concntitor rom wie ngs and can tot be coupled to the ail Even i diet sah, the concentrator ms beads to flow the sua dusiag is dal and sesonltsjectores, and this achoved with trucking aster. Concetetar eens we ns eas ‘fective wth high qunty ves wher aang om photovoltaic mater is retest, and In sun oimate where the det solar iadson i Ing Tracking sytem ae cent or hgh fiiney but ad to the ont and comply ofthe estar ‘An alternative to imazingcooentratrs re nanan, fw cone tintin prema whch doo ogi teking. An example the compound parable oncntatr [Weld 100, Thecll ects igh withthe a (pune rage 9, whee 4 he Dal angle ofthe parable, aad etiws Srncaieton rate of 4? 6, or dn/aig? i led wich a medium of teeter ‘othe approach ons imaging constrain to us of rece concetetor A selractive ten lod with aoresent partes eetA oa he Pape of tr Oat plotns on iraditon, Th eat light ean be dete on to the el pling total tema efecto, and te spectral rangeof the eet fait can be contol [Goatberger, 1977), 9.5, ‘fects of Concentration on Deviee Phys ‘We wl dng ale whish operate under concentration ie lw ection Coutions, where photogeneste carer erat ie slr tba the oa eum mae eave dy, Kon wbih pertain igh jection fonditions, where the photogenerizod det I great 9.5.1. Low injection In low iieton, «pr concentator coll canbe tented silly with the stand thor fore pr jancion developed in Chapter 8. In bw Injection eonditines, minor aria 2eorbinaton rates ae naa nd he ‘urent denaiie ssl lta dare compose Jun which doped 9 V ti a independent, ight generated component which depends on Fi density and ste nthe orpaste dco. Thus, from Ba. 1.4 JV) = Sanat) rere the dark cures ply asthe ode ite form so that HV) = Ju Berto? 1), om wits incident fy strat by factor X tough coeeration of the ht, ue wll incre to 8 Gt spprainatoa by the xe feng ex deh) = Ndu(G) but lave the dark erent fr © glen Bas, ‘sade, This means tant at any givin bias blow Vos the net cen Inerenos with X. Moreover» Dit Bie i needed to achieve the open ‘Sr coaton where dark corret cancel photocartet. Replacing Je wth Xun Ba 9.27 wo ae that for «diode of eat fio the op ‘Sout witage beso cay = ME in (3G ti) =mcys Max (928) Te rhe Yq) sprit he open rel oso under wnoneetrated Habe (lout), Ts Ve ecteses atta wth X, and WU el fl tor emai the se then the power delivered by the al sould ines y & sr Vare V {nc ai re tls aay: Teer th mains Foor ea atrophy hoe fector x (1+ FBR EX). sd the eco by a factor (Bah) ae X Increases. ms cabni eaeenteneenereeeres 95.2. High injection Concerta al may be designed to operate igh netoneondlns ‘That eae Ht the photogenerated carer densities ar lage compared tothe doping deny in he bose, nd both ease ype st be seluded inthe transport equations. Genoa man p wil be diferent and eli fed de co crir denny grail arte taken ito account. Tn the lit whee m= p we homo i Se. 8, for pn ste, that he tempor estos for either cuir suns to the dfn eatex whee De = fh, £2 = Dar, and the ablpler carter Meta, youn y Bg Bi The dria ecombiaton proces linea with ex caso de stn Ib ndependet of the deol equation (8) ine ‘rond the ating cam be separated ito independent light depen a Tin dependone tra, in the teatzet a Se. 68, i, operpotion eld Tis ithe cae for Shockey René Hall coon, oven aig injectin, Letg n= pla, 4.79 fr the SRE recombination rte, nd toning n> ng, ad p> Psd Chat enn = on) anil proportions to Yt the crite Mine has bean Increased ‘Phyl hist do to the relative set of majority caer. Tx ow Initio, be apt of ono carrie ina ea state mediately fi lowe by the cpt of majority carr, aply bees of tho abndance trols cnr and the rate determing step he moe ‘antace, Now bth hole apts ondeleetant ape are eae determining TUSRE recombination edaninast at al aeton lvl, superpositon shoud ol nd the argineats given above far he vasation of Ves ad ell power with couentration shou be solid, don Jig may inseaae ere Ese than X. om account of th ng cir Mine high neon, Rtv ad Avge ecsmtnation however, Dome nan ear With 9 ‘nig nection From Ea, 47 cle chat the aiativerecoation tell ry ke ns = Br? vies n= piping 4 Mtine which vei er 22°! ilar bas torbend Auge tooombinaton (Ba. 660) varies ike Une = da smpling tht + oe w-2, Thon a nction levee where radiative and “Anger pone te dominant, epepostion becomes invalid the dark ee reat term ineeons wih generation rate abd Vos Hse mar loy Ca Prdictd by 9.28, ‘Te Pha of Sor Cate oaing ht ca ‘he dist reombinaion regimes may be dings as dhange fn the intent depends of Va Ite sepaation In eatoertle Fes Jee elt Vand n= en fom the a of mas action we bane sol 0 we expert secobnntion to vay he ~ 8/7 fr STH procs Iie ~ eSV8T fr radiative proces and ke ~ &Y NT for Auge Coumeoctiy we enpect Vor tovary Hie S80 nX, BE inX aad Ml Ln, respecte lhe tive canes Te the cat of icon! Auger estat oe inion the eal pearance under coeaneation 9.8.. Limits to effctney wider concentration In So 25 we showed how to clelate the ancy of slr ell in tho raditiv nt, wher the oly le pros s radiative recombination. The fet dx abcd athe ol eh difernonHetwoen a ident Bus er hl proportion! and an ented Hux tem ws proportinal {oF the goed ctor fr itd ght. For Bat plate cll in andard von F/Py = 218% 10°, because of te small aul with of| ‘hesun Increasing yc Fx by oocetating te light (Eg 928) nereses {he alerld sativa emiednee a ysl ofthe chee potential {gee Bq 246) This increes th prot of et Sse and chen potential doe the limiting iene of the ole al. Masia copenration Ssoshioved wh the angle of captane @ reacs 90°, and Fy = Fy= ‘adi, that the cll accept and emit gh oer ‘the smo saguar {ogee lade to» masieunellcieny of ve 405 the eamperatare ‘is unaticted. Another way of achieving the condition tbat = F110 rest th angle rang fr emeion, This iene dovloped in Chapt 10. Tn pectin, concertrtion neta goa the simu eBleny of igh ality Sand Gas cel by se patent. Komen, hen the optical lesen th concntatng nit andthe matage of ue ight seal inte soon concentrates module actualy perth o more ele tan ne eu sods AMS. Conoentatre ar of interes peal ot ‘eroded cost trough reduced cal rea, nd ot fe lnproved sieny ‘Changing spectra ae aio change the optim bandgap. Fi ‘40 9 0 sem he Intingefeny ofan ea petocoverte celal function of band gap according to Se. 24-25, an AMIS pect tri X= L asd X= 1000 (Px = 1000R). It acer that the max Thum ficiacy pot chit to lower bad gap as concentration Incenseon ‘he Pai of alr Ca [Noto thatthe ealuation dove aot include Ange ecombinatin,whi 5, ie rediative recombination, an unavoidable pros, noe the eco 9.5.4. Temperature igh concession ass he tergetareaf the cll, APAigher epsratag the intrins carer population pve bet Sacra an oft which in ebaced by the svinkage ofthe bat gap By ‘ich nstesing tenperature.Inreasng ny cece te dark eaves, The duced bandgap incase the photosrrent,botealy sgh eompured {he eer on Jan 90 tho Inereasag dark custo! donates. This opps {he oot of inerouine een andor conourtion withthe sl that ‘ptm peforonnce achieved entered concentration ee (GaAs has a slg better ampere eoaticnt of ciency than sod, sau nde opin a a higher naeataton are ® Serica resistance By increasing the curent dens, conomtration increases the peat Ap, JARs, doe to ares retilacs inthe cll. This ina robo pas ‘easy in he emir gor where tral cures dealt ae high Can centator cll must thereorebedesighed fers, wth diferent meta ‘tion ptterus ead Mealy with higher emer doping thas onenun cl Emir doping evel aint by rerombiton sn anno be ined lade, ne cnn the contacted area bare too Ie, enprmnies ‘ut be fod. Minimisation of re etanc west mor ect tn concteatr ol dei, 9.54. Concentrator cell design Concentrator cls should eof wry high puri neigh elecy = rio, and ects th el stalls acton of the stem ests Tt foncentatr ell shuld fave very lm Bk econo ns, 0 igh ‘nay etl shouldbe aod, god earfac Ligh rapping pl ln redoing the el things aad choreby redueing Festive koe doe ‘rie diftson is the igh neton inst Mor iit doped material ca nae Uke Es be wed foe the av ayers han cn an al beau high ere eis sn ihr condctvis, and alo Benue lower doping produce tfuter quality teri. Exanpie of oncentatr ell re the PERL cl, Uerdoped st UNSW, 9 = 20% in 20 suns) wich operates i ow ijeton ‘Stations, snd the Ger polo cootact eal, developed at Stanford, ich [Paved ou an sndoyed nubtrate and operates high injection inion, TS8H Sens, 190), sled const which combi Lo eessty Iowaiading fer to prove serie rence i ure designs. Asnoted above ihe ets euteat deter mean that eis el ance insti throng eontat and eit dase important, Con {Set ple sould Have tla, deer fges and often are designed with fpeamey ta atch the nage of th concetrate igh. Thayer nemally ‘Tete vo give maxim plore nd cata caocntation love ed do ant wa cule give the at performance under ene condiions ‘Toe hie degee of metaliston neied interes lose by vali tid shading (to 10-20%), bt tha can be over by enspnlting the fall beneath a primatic lene which race the ight ono the bre call orice aed oa Eon the cots figs 95.7. Concentrator cell materials Figur 0.10 shows tat the optisnim bad gp or photorltae energy con won is rodued under cononrtion, This would suggest hat leon, frith By LV, ea bata oneentrtar all materi than GaAs with y= 1 eV, However, Gud bas 0 important advantages: () GaAs ‘rope «batter teapeatve cont of fiency thn soo and (i) ‘Anger toouination i stoager ia allogn boss of lower bed ge ted line the therein eecy ta 36% a conceteotion of 100 sus th pect gh earring. Angee rocnnbnation i ich los importa in Gah ond eflcncycotiavs tote with concentration up to ote Idee runs At 1000 aves che tenet eRconey is 36-37% (Sauce, 1005; Kauamser Brows, 1005. ‘Nope ect semicondatos ext with band gaps the ange 11 1c, whew the therein eeeney unde onoetration i igh Some tecety aly, wich Tay -yAs, ae slale ba gaps but the mae ‘eal quality i ino, To ate, Ga remain the bet mater fr high ‘onceataion with arco fine of 276% ln AM 1. under 255 suns [Neroa, 121), The bse lionel 266% a¢ 95 suns [Vidan, 989),om he Pa of Slr Cy nd Gap/eV Cy ® ‘re 92,9) Conc ei or mn il with ca any) Pa ‘ne eoigto eltoroe Bos snat 9.6. Light Connemont 9.61. Tight pathe and ray tracing contrat to antivelletion cots, which ieeac the faction of potas ‘admit to the ell, and conemtation which ernst the ice fu, Tigh confnenettechniqueincrene the pth mgt of photons aside the ‘lone edited, Taceasing the pathlength increase the probly ‘of sotogsoeration per cde photon, paclty when te absentia ‘eatin amal,inerasng the absorbed fraction. Lig eaping n0- ‘aay consldeed lathe rept of geometacl opis where stort tt Meng tile nm lange compared to the coberence length ofthe Hh, and Ugh eaye with (idee Rn do ot itera. Th is goed appuciation fv lion ere ol ae Handed of micous thick Ia wicron cle eoctre, ght (ould be rest nsoherent and interference becomes unportad. In each fret, ciel ay tasing approche ae not val an the photoges ration ate mut be found tn the grade of the Pojling vector ght raping invlvs the satan a releton of ht rye wihla the el 20 that they tatel st wider anges tothe surface normal. The problen an e conde i tee of the pats alan by ight ay ide {heel An adit ay may tapelin one of number of path, P, which tre defiaed y the el gewety. A oe pt win he cl vole, che foal isis ven the sum of the eats along the erent ph ‘The ela quaaty for plotogeceraion the ight sberption ae, om Bar, walBe) (BL ALE 68) (930) sere the integral oversold angles converted oa oe the Fath, and BR repent the photon Bux atx rom the deta (6) Equation 9:9 Proiee the photogeneraion rate at rand shoal rplee Ea 9.20 the ‘akulation of potoganeatioe, Hower, tect ofthe dierent bsory of {he rayeit india to determine the 5s geaeral pot and east ‘oad the taal absorbed fa by considering abeorpion elon the engl each ry path, sigan apron new aay ean. Th, (ne , fone RED 6) - Lace oien(-o1H J a)} 3 hue sng coordinate slong the path P abd the nageton {ake cr the ry pth, rom etry 2 eit (50) the Ax af the sh ay athe stato yah ld the ell — fetvely weighing factor Sor the pth and atisae Ease) 0 RENAE om or lanty, we have assume poston independent abacrption cece ‘lens a lnge ay path mil lend toa higher steration of he eay ud higher un- Diet ght teapng seme can be evalsted by“ Phe Ph of Sor Cte comping he aveage path ent o-Faeo [a/ Dae om ih the wld of th el, Note tat the pas eg ie dependent oly ‘om geomeiry and reaction and tamisionprotbls, and dos ny ‘uta the peobabty of plato absorption, 962. Mirrore ‘The imple ght wapping eche lev intone optical miror at the reat nace of the ol itor by montis the Ter call sac o¢ ‘by rowing the seve ner on top of «Brag stack The mio pally ‘efectos 85% of ae sing the ter sic, Rays whic subsequently Teach the ont, seaiendctorai euface ar ely Yo pan thro le the reletty of tat nefae mit be sal for oe ght apace 55 ‘the rear mtr efetvely doable the yt length ofthe ight. Foran el sitror (ith R= 1) and al fon sac (with R= 0) te pth eg Greater poth lng enhances canbe echevol by expat total internal section at the font nuface. Thee not pease for a al wih parle pina surtce sac, by symmety, rected rye ust sppronch he ent meface athe same ange at whic thy were anita, one sequently encounter the sae reflectivity, which shold be mal For ah trapping, rays tool approach te front sarc at « wider angle chan he saga whieh hay were did. Ths ca be eked by Hing be ot the mar surface, or by seating the ght wn th el I ight rps an be maniplated so tht they approdh the arace at an eagle, > 8 ‘| 212 Donte ak meh nai 7 | | | | ong Lote a hey wil be unable to scape im he el an bo etd bade or another oa pam thin the cel, 9.63. Rendomising surfaces Oo approach i to ue roughened sueac which ster, rondo, the igh upon sleton, hanging the vale of Hee we conser 9 ate owing rar sac hou in pepe ether the fot or the er su fice or both, can be radombsing A pel rendomiang svc, clad 2 Lamberton surac, sates elected aj With sphere sjuneey 0 thar al angle inthe Lemlspbete pnt int ce eal ae equally ly Assuming acral incon,» ight ray eae and cose the ell and i ‘eater atthe rear fc, The man pathlength the rete vy to ‘Gone bck othe out sac eth eal wits o- ga 38) ‘This doubling ofthe opti dt ofthe ll taate the advastoge of rasdomiig th Lig en before light covfnrant bas ovcured. Now, fins enly those rage wih 6 > Be ean escape, oly of the rays siking the fut autae wl Inave the cl the ret wil be rected to make ‘seco pas of lath 2, scrote clan be seated aga the rest frfce Adding up the pth lengt ofthe rae according to he number of {es ey are catered bore eating the ll we Sd Ved (t-4) eee de(reB) ty= dy xtwe dx (1-) ater dea (1-3) aa004 On” a a @ m sae amu ht he pth Hag we he oe ‘ac sa tn ftp ays 6 an ene) Bo raInteracts pasos. Summiag the sere to afte ode, (= Ge —2)0 ant (039 "Tie ideal pat ent ensancment, An, around 50 oraloa and ahs, ‘hich aos the potent of ight trapping systems (Lash, 100, thereat setace eLnperfey efiing then a faction ofthe Hehe ‘elt though the tear suc at cach eeateringevet, and the mean bath long is redaced. The let ean be coudrable because of he large ‘amber af ection events (atound nat thay surface ‘Although wef fer indian the pote of Uh rppingastems, perl rndonllg sao ae ot easly ead. Practical eau only depend onthe geomet optical propertin of ote rogue, tx tore waa 1A. Teoturad ewrfoces ‘Tow simple esto ia where ane nuce by Uod elas co the othe Consider a rear surat tted tan aie Py else to the pla font sce an Fig. 9.14 When dg > 40, normaly lcs rye wl be Fefected feu the var seice a an age grenter tan d,and be taaly fected tte oat Iara res the ame pori f he rear sree the ccd gsm, wl be eta a an een wider ang and oppo ‘ate For unformed! with, both postive and nepatie it anges nat be presnt a that tapped ray wl eventually bo velected at naerowee nae and expe, If he polio wad nagtive St angle are equal then ‘cry nas multi of four pase eros the cll The wast case, {our pate (n dole Bouse! Ustatd a Fig 0.14, The orl nen ‘ath length pends upon the wc and tt ogi the extare, but ca | BS 2 ly ro teh ta oe an, nig ena tt = inal be tated ea (22014502 e2 6 (oan) [Althoah higher tangle ad to Mighir path Iogth embascements fr ‘heshoret pan baller angle alow longer texted fr, and bor pebebiity of muiple pases "Tes the ent sure a these way eas to ipa eget staneemeats Normally ise ay sting the texted ste ae re {Ent nt the cll at an ale =f (2) on ich increase the pathlength fom id tose of the all. he wanting is symesil, thet ost of thou rays Wil ste the fo eure again fn fce whic be oppo it othe fce of er, and nae the allo, the ein, oni a dogble pa ial snd 2 twmey > 20, es) However, he texting rasyetso then by choca tet anges ately ft pe ft ight canbe aed, a shown in i, 95. ‘Aes genra ead, the lower the degree of syne, he gtester the degen of ight teapine Ifthe sue sted in two ectins, wh rami ether than gooves, then rae are scattered in te dnesions ‘ther than oe and He texpiag i apeove, Calculation of the an ft lent for any tenting pattern i complicated and rogue thea rage of ay pata ovr the ederestpolte of incfence by roy tain. owort it ensy fo oe tht for «sae tector with pyramid tbe probably of gh 9p rnkng She sure a the sae gl at whic it ‘ts aditind — the contin or escape ~ esa than for a surice Easter th ps th ra ate a el (Aor ‘pit nal whoopee rotaMe Plate of Ste Cay Pyramids (2 sees) (endom, regular) ‘Short-creutcurent. mon? sof yam (1 side) ‘fandom, equ) FE (vated nul Lau 1 28 10 2 80 100200 1000 Ccelthickness, mlerons ge atm tf ee eine ‘eataredooly wish grooves, Fora regular array of yeas, Ut cnn. sent beter fhe pyramid re lt om cach ober. Reto rey of Drmid, which have «very lw dsgreeofsymaety trap ight very el Sed re comparable with te Heal randosing sue. Inverted rgdar rami, as wed nthe PBR cl (Se. 1.) pero slg better than prght one braze ofa seeaed pecbublity of tho escping ight re ‘storia hell Figure 9.16 omnare she gh tapping parerance of age of diferent race 5.5. Practial schemas Font surface testaring in monorytalie mati ay beached ty ting a echetv etch which acts in prefered directions to expose parti ‘yea plans, Ln alinn aba etch nn Be ned en the (10) uae 200 ‘expo the (11) exytal faces. These of sarc pyran can be define Defre ing hy ung ac, Srace texting lo lmporcant for polseystaline materials. De ending onthe method af Sn deposition, the src eee hay 0 onesie Lhe = be rough and therefore have lowe eflatvity tha sage cya. Chem- Sal eee ve been wad in polerstline ion ta erate "honey? Sh otber structures whic echance light tapping ead et surfaces can be pepe by growing the ative Injen of the cell on paterene wean, The canbe prepared by etching: by (itoisl metiods ad the ative layers te gown etalon tp. Tbe he of fsars on textured sues ae typical i he yon rage, whlch Faceeplable fr alleon where cll cea eit tone of zon ck, bot problematic for bighly snorting bitte ke GaAs, An lteratve eto {om te active Igoe over a ized gecig Hee, 1955) which actives the pe sotering without neenig ell with Arpraiatly randomsng rot srs have buen prepare on alco wing fandom prrenidal race texte (Green, 1005) ad aleoaively tr thin layer of porous alleon oo tap of dhe activo les The porous Tiicon coating can be produced by elecochemeallyeehng the soon Rice. Nanonotesiedeytaltad pores inthe prow the ight to acevo wide angles of ete (Selmans, 1298) acta rene stor te propre by rtalining the rar of th cll ‘gh lumi or gold. Such semiconduciorauetal erie have elle Tvs of ove 95% Refaty t tha surface ean be improved thin layer of ile — typely S10, — i inserted between semiconductor ‘dual Raye nent a Wide ang re en rected by total itecoal Fescton. Pr eptaily gromn erst an alate so grow the ao- tive gers on top of Brag stack, whch has ey igh refectivity over & nd of woolen "Acton! path lange cohancomsnts of ove 10, rathor smaller than the smsvimum of 4, have bee acleed In sleo cells with roughened su fice nd with prada eng Note that thse consdeabty sale than the foe enaasreate abl though concentatio; uli cone trator ligt tapping ells operate in alae) ow injection condtons, ‘We boe not cused the pli of rosnant ave and photic tb sp to potootales, Thee are fa for strong continent of pase tale meelngtbs or baade of wvelngts, and may be of latest or Pietro este wth tow bao ght mere, but axe not expected fo be bets for eed ind sours.Fg 937.) May soto ase alse (9) A ag {gc of se sence se) Light confining structure: restrict acceptance (reas and external cates ‘he de of tik tpg can be cred fe cl is eoxbeed a 2 edeive cv with noted apese fr acepiace of li. Tm ‘ean wet In Pg 8:17 the fhe ee two te ‘ellbented wth areotive trl pro asnalapertre ih ‘Spe onc ght Rays dnd trough april teed tiny tines ine ey np and ave «pth eg many tne fhe ‘th ofthe oll Tae cond exam, any cols ae outa aa Ieesie ey which he sl aperae for aetna fight Ts th ‘i, th pa eng a ee th ely ng, and a hae totter oe ai are Halt ean by ante, 50 path Teg of rap in snr ll og erp to the wih of oa tina, 199) Inbotk ue hc perro, pena ama thn he grt ac ace oft elo ol, A etough te opt! pth eth ioc by the photos ha nie tl mati ned ty amc smalls cer, appocaay x Se, which x caxpere {othe channel with a or Suh cary srustee ae ‘aly only oli nnetion wi oncrtsning san, wre ig ‘our on th prt ese he Pton fur aed end conan pt ha dean he al ater 2.07. Bifets of light trapping on device phyoice Incorporate rpg can be compared to increasing the el hie fst Tose thin, compare a tandard dl of with w without rar relator ‘Tb ght tpg el of with W/— and a mean epic path length Gr) = WA, Tae extended path lng compensates che reduced call {Hoss 2 that, to at sppriation the action fight abentbed is {he ane a ater coe ‘Nom we an mal the fllowiag observations «Balk seombinatin late arrose, Thethicowm of the Ig appl coll i maler compared tothe ost cater eifsion length, #0 a alleen ofthe ptogonerated enriaresould be st by mln tate reombination than a the stands el + Rear surlaeecobiaton sen be nosed. The pit gtration rte nde up of cotebations fom eeestd and eden ay and nore ire han forthe sandstones that generation wl ‘besgaleant ner there srace, andthe Faction of catlrs mala for seoombinaton the higher Vey good quality ear maces ae therefore ueded, with le resomboation veloc Well as Yxy high opal rbot. + Babe reativiy lis ee reed, Boasts the ase noun of genets- thon scceuring ina salle eam, te toenarated extie enatie se higher, andthe coudutiy i increased. 1 The protnblty Anger resimsnation e teased, again becuse of| ghar eared, "The peoutur fr eaelating the cre andeureat dni neh ght ‘naping structce ie to tht tne fora standard ell, mich a the ‘pn junction example ln Chaper 6. "The mala eodifction chat the foaration tte, given by Eq. 9.2, must be replaced by a function, such [Bq 230, wlth icopoctes the sutebtons fom raye whic have ‘en reco fom the fon: and rear sure. Provided tt the carer Ea rol low enough for tha Shooley ea Hal recombination rte to mary Unealy with eacir deny inthe natal venus, (eo saisy Tow ifs condi, Un th net cent stl decoxples into bias dopendet dock cuenta5d ihe dependent potocreat. Comparing ‘esa to ola bone, wesc tat the pbotocuteat shouldbe lat ln he two cue, though may bo alge higher In th Tak Sapa ‘el Beem of reduced bulk eobnation lee The dark urea at any2 Pe Py of Sor Cay fen opin bias wil be amaller fr the is taping steuctre beens eis ehinee. Conequety the net photocsreat,J(V) = J ~ Jaan), til be inrese. ‘The low injctios apposition fe Hal to be wall or practi! ght teapping sactves where path lel enbicsmens ae seldom greater thet 10 fo sone vey hy dope deve tractrea ight tapping my ps the device lta the high ijn revo, where recnabnstion be lnm’ hotlines. Thierens be dace above in See. 9.52 ‘Comparison of light confinement with concentration Let compare coteetetor lof width w ed eoncntation fete X ‘vith wight wepping el of the sae with and pth length eabanonnent Ux wX. The cll have the sane volume and he samo average po- ton fx des. If only bulk recombinaton[ important, then the call ‘Should perf exude ice thre wil be the sae probability of & combaation event per generation eveat in ecber ease, However, ste face recombination nporeant, the the ght roping cll wil pecerm ‘ee wel Bevan of the higher sunar of reletions per generation evn, oc evi ace ely to be gered ear the reat etfs, al eats combination wi etfs be grate ‘The, mximam theocetel power density enhancement ovulble gt tapping the tame av that sraeble vith coneentmion. hn ete Bn te ball al eben bythe Ta precisa, Teves iis andes to chow bigh enbaneement toe wth gt oping ‘han to ade high conentratio tos 9%, Photon Recycling 8.74, Theory of photon reeyeing Photon tsyling (PR) the reabaepton of photons eit by radtve ‘econo ine the el Unt now thas Be eseued that to por ‘on generation tox nH 9.6 nelle. This se good precio in Inara where now-edintive proves dominate, Noverthels, we Koow fiom Chaps and that oa snieonducor avo rom equlba,re Aintve recombination felectous ad bole i evaHabl, and 9 hare ® in tet w no-to potongeoeration ara thy photon contin wee ln, though any be eeu al Inui ster, a, 8.9 shoul = 28-08 z ox where we have uted th alo alae rena «= (E84) {Stu the component ofthe Be sleng (8), ond Is he magaade tomitted lon por oi ng gion by Ba, 210 a ee Rae eae 09 Rococo come a tere oa wae @ tbe ange between dhe ry dzcton od poral tothe ell ec. Inthe seen of plotoa ecaling, the is tem on the right-hand de of By, 9 or aad the slain for ie the Bawr-ambert frm. Tie Inthe extol generals, pd asthe fora Ao) = (= Ream = flO MME for OS Ej, as sows in Fig 101. Procenee() and (2) aacont fr out 25% ani 39% ofthe sun's nergy spectively. Th ato of wrk out to photon eoergy in eget fr photons with energy clase to the band ‘np: elmore te 2ero (forthe ow enerty photons nbire B < By) oF poor (fr B > By) Figure 29 compares the power svulale at diferent ‘hotonecegiae with the isdeaepowve serum. Loses el fom he ‘oor math ofthe gl band apo the oar ell with he Load pet face radiation,7" = Tre Pano Sle Cty (comes ten (Ganon bed) Fe. 1D, Smite my Ya ir ar ol a ap sl. Phone ‘ow a aa hs ad uy ve pal ct potting een te ‘Stet cus tt ands) Th wea eer ‘ein xd cs hare oh on geass ot ‘S's Son ante poms dae th male x ‘See tet fire ‘Captzs 3-9 wot all concer with devin and marin which op rate within the lita proated in Chaper 2 In tha chpter we dace ‘was n whic cb tore limiting effelency may be increased. A sop ‘rts rote to ieroning the Initing cen, by cencetrton ol se lain to expe the aceptanoe ld angle, hs aloady Dee ciel In Chapter 0 the allowing ecine we Eat review the ealuation ofthe dele altos ting eeeney and deriving sumptions. Then we conde numberof stategin for ince the amout of work done per peta ‘by telasng te sumptions underying the detailed balance Kt. ri, ‘hese teatege recur wil Snoring the numba of bas! gas, to ze diferent photon ene spore filly (Lande and otber ult-band woe cal “+ reducing the dination of thermal energy by photogenerated catia (Ht ence? sla ool td + Sncresing the numberof elton. pic per photon (impact ise ‘on solr el). Apt eos tandem cla cll, the strategie re mainly theoreti ad would reqise materials with properties which have ot yet been raed ver he Lin: i oh Btn > However, ll ae based on ply cbtrvaions which suggest that the oped phenomena may be epee in rat, 10:2, How Much is Out There? Thermodynamic Lis Eiiioncy ‘Woctart ycalelting the maximus work wile om a photaconvrtr considering only thermodynamic arguments, Eset, the wor lis ‘ool body which rainy enuped to x eironment and operates by Sorbing short wavelength rediton fom «hot body (he a) a eper ‘ore, nd allowing some oft sbrorbl eng to be estates wok ‘Treaty deta tance the device mat leo ent lnger meant dation characterise ofc trparetare TT he spt Pca, oth su ad eal also and et ight Hk lack bode a thi reaper lemperatares lick body at tempertne Tenia an anount of nergy grea by 07° pr ant tne and surface ace, wher os i Stefan’ ona. The lniden! edition i lly eonceatrted sau the only nes proce “sportaeai enason bythe sl, then te net energy fx denny eosin Uy th oar all gen by ett ost Work canbe extzacad om the hotell by means of har eng, Lust ney i ot the wrk i enracte oenteopcally by tana a Caro ‘ngine. The the work aval s 2 w= (ota (1-8) aw ste i erp Cat at tn ia ag fpr re ny Se Shanda asi ye w Te)" vag (-(@))6 Ses ptf a lop 3 ha Thus fhe vapentuea S00 tas al pes rab ate sis corer truths ‘Thermal dsiptin aot consdered This Umit dentine he eating ceny ofa sole thermal converter 02);.4 oa Dee Paco Slr Cty w ‘Toad obe mma ewh ote wh ec kW 10.8, Detailed Balance Limit to Biicloney, Reviewed In Chapter 2 we aloud the Kimiting iceny of to level, oF singe Ta gp, potoonverir Hse we review tat cleltion ad aod ito doce some ofthe concspt wch wil be aed Inter thle capt. Amare ‘deed cate of deta balances appl oscar ell may be nd ‘deere [Araj, 1994; de Vos, 1900, "The olonoverter has «band pap Ey, below which photons are sot ssobed, and above which photo are abothed to generate electron ‘st in thermal equlleianh wih the Ite. T osaly assumed tat the el as plano gcrsry, ade ala to feosre and emi radon ito Uo bemithpere, Far ntconenatd sagt, che ell envs ole radi thon thvongh « small aint range O-< 8 Epa a aber a the tp sland al with By) < Eat the ‘otto ol mte Band Ba ore the band gaps ofthe bottom sad tap fall rnpectivly, Tho the output power wt rasimam concent Pos = Wis N Ba BaF 0) ~ MBq Ex TVs)? 4 aaa M(B 20,F50) ~ N(Bas00,7 Veal) (00.2) ner Va the vtage at which tbe top cel and Vy the volag a Which the bottom oss producee maxi power, Provided that the two Thnses canbe independently opto’ Pay anctin oly of he emo nud ape, Under fl concentration, 2 maskin eiclency of ofr 56% read with band gupe of 75 and 1.650, shown n Pig 10 (gases Higher band gap /eV Lower band gap/eV 104, altel ay en se» SOK hoy ra Scere she ost ge mca of worn veh Link Sinai or Fish tng 0 Jn th two terial conguration the mamma powes eee Uy the maxim of Pam = HV VMN Ep Eas To) MBs ea Taa¥)} (1029) shee Vand Vo no lnger ereses the ptm ote forte invidul Cell, but thay sty Ce contrat of qual eurent (Be Be T0) ~ ME Ba Ta aE NB 220, T0) ~ ME Tas) 029 6 vol a the condition tht Pays stationary. The iting efeny in ‘Sica sigh aller und tore etve to the bund gape or ether configuration, icra the mbt of band gape Serene he lining fii. In the li oan inate aber of band ge, te salt baad gp filo vao an she lniting foncy under ome ean aches 60%, Under fl oacentatio, che it appronces the ternods- meni of 6%, 10.6.8. Proctical tandem systems ‘Tandem els bae bon develope in avaisty of material combizaon. ‘Tyo ternal deigae have een tae widely ded than four tema Aegon ecase ofthe chological appealing poet of aerating ‘geen junctions ins singe muller deve by wing “Vanna uneions | te cannes diferent ps janeton, The tao jneton i «hes doped ‘ep junction which ie generally seeued to iateduee an Ohl contact tetvan the p emis of one ell pd tho m tail of tho net. TT-Y inital ae peered on ecouat of the igh abworplion cafe ad the posit of tuning che band ap by ompotional vation of teary td bighr ales. In practi, the well adetod binary sriondactr ‘alum ssclde (Gat), echt for ae of the ell ia ost cee A "hough te hand gap a By ~ 142 is difent fom the del fr the top or bottom cll is wo junction taney, the god atari quay aa ‘arto anspor propetice led 1 beter performance than poorer quae Wy ternary resale ith more ouable ood gape. Another portant ccosideration is the compatibity of tn diferent semiconduetae asteils In tere of thie Iter eonrtant, abd thermal expasiily. Mlspatebod Inte cman led ndtv atarfuos betwen the cel ad ebance——— = ‘The Po Sater Cat sakes 1 50a ain to sm es ain ‘ou though aombiaton, Dice confit of xpasio ed to ein ‘wun the ol experioose changes trperetae “The most efient tandem oll produel to date ie 909% eine lua gli phorphie/ gala ssenice tv terminal sack, develop ty Aap Energy ie 1086 (Pg, 10.10) (Gre eta, 2001. Prctia tele Jncton cl hae been developed ig he ue two atatalathe we rad gap componeta and he nsrow band gap serionducor, ema, ‘tte bottom cll Tes Bave act Yt spate the flensy’ ofthe ber Sete junction tae. Tene ola ae expensive a manulotise ad ‘mainly beng developed for asi apace wba ficeocy 8 premias 10.6, Intermediate Band and Multiple Band Ces 10.6. Principles of intermediate and multiple band cells ‘The adwatage ofthe tandem call ne a the fact that the quasi Por level espacio of the pltogeersed estzon and ole populations Is ‘ase through the wee of rile band gaps, tothe chemical potetial (tthe entng poten, syst whch opports dieent qua era lee ‘epatstions delivers more werk per ecidest plots. Tt would cay be trace f th cold be acleed, notin eeel jonctions made from di fest mata buts single onto wing ingle terial Tn og band gp photconeresr, thi nope becuse al of the codeton| tt tte recouped thvagh phon iteraetane and ecavequa ll photogenerated elena relat ito thenodynamne equim with a Sng sctrocemial potential All bole Howie clay sto qua tbe ‘nal eguibrian with singe dcteochanel potently, Although Sneha Hh fy so pomible o design a jention of variable baad 3p, peeenialyeboorblng photons of difreas energy at diferent patil octions, phonon coupling ‘fb spatial continues band of lecten stats bring al photogenerated tlectone oto ine thera ealleian with w sing yy and Hew ok In the lini of an ea radial dominated, sol call the die toe Ins dominated by the nal bad gap in the deve (Azano, 1934 ' kypothetil solution evo uta teil which contains more tan two baade Figure 10:1 rte cave of an intrmatinteban ote, uta two separste conduction bands, Cader Ulurination, electrons far exited fom the saleoce bund nko bath the opper and intermediate endictlon bods and trom the intermediate ito the upper contin ‘and. Psoidad thatthe itarniate and condtion bande are ot ther nally coupled, then the eet populations in the ifereot ends each form a local qua teeeleqlllvtum with owe qui Fer vel ‘Toe iternasnte band may be irodion via impure or quasta he structures which iroduce electri ees into the Bandgap, ft may tearm ofthe band strata Tovrea aud colr cel have been proposal hypothetical devices by several ators, [Kettmnn, 156 Laue, 197; Green, 2000, 2). The os of expling racatve taneene betwee intermediate levee beso extra concept of pactial “quent wel! sla col (Barna, 191, 100 106.2. Conditions We ist explain the eonton for such a deve to wotk nd then calle "he lniing ficiency. (0) A condition or aes t achieve independent qual cermal equi sium ina band that clans of setting crete within the bend Should be ruck mare equent than event teen bude (seo 0 Sec 28. This opie that there be gp 6h the ond stroctare which 1 large compared tothe marimar phonon energy Otbers, fo 8 eosity of tes hich I coninsus ln eee, crt can aways be ‘catered into ower enegy tates by means of clisons with phonons. (a) The fatre whch piss rise tothe intermedi lvl shold be pe fm space Psat imparts deft momentum carte sate peeing spt dlocalatin, which ads anspor. An impedesa he Py of Solr Cal say of oenrgse puree wl ed to carer loelsaton aad ‘oor tunmport Moree, the aangeent of least «ba bps To muppres ponon watering, Foran intxnedate band which Ue ‘niin bg? of he eoudaeton or vance bend inter band searing ‘res ae energetically alowed bt are rested by the requreent {or momentos convertion. The rsteeon sed for ws old Impurity lvl born ll sent sates ate repeated inthe ationary waefucton of the defect, Benin the cao of dap vel Irhich es beyond! fromthe nwarst band edge, i advent [Pov toforme bend. Although gl ponon scattering eer to the ound late af the parity are forbid, in ertaln conditions ea Tle phonon scattering events may be ablone, whereby an eletron ‘rappel by te imparty andthe rela to the round sate by 2 eres phonon emissions, asthe ecru evicoment s seossinely “tre by the pen ofthe secttn. Tit seca elaration ane “Teri wold be eymnety forbidden i pedi strwetar, at 30 tiple pnon etna would ot provide a route to the trapping ‘tan elation ty # band of dep levee orth ineriediat ane to be than lated rom the condition thud rs mesa that lactone ae exteactod fom ony ene ofthe Imad A selec contact sould bo made tothe cndetion bend sd notte iernince bat, Otherwise the electron poplatins ‘oul be bron iat rl ogo trough the contact, Witk ths stad, the inermatiate baad i coupled 70 the valence and tondaction Daa nly troop optical estos w Anolis ofthe intermediate bad ell Tet etune that all he codltins fora wystam supporting seperate qe Term lve ee etife, an cleat the iting efilensy forthe hes ‘ud ell rated in Fig 1011, We wil ase planar geomet and fall ‘oneniatoe There rt to typesof pot abenrplion event photons of 'B > a mich promote an cleton from the valence bao o CX; photons (GF B > By whith prone an elotron for the vlene band to C2 and ‘howe of B > Bs which ae abeored to promote an lion from band {C1 ta C2. Not hat been C1 apd C2 ao oth conduction beads and ‘owns emty the thes for (ston) abzrpton som the Bitar {Chto the atom of C2, and terre ys ~ By — By.) Forte marca ‘snout of work pe phon, «photon aba enly be absorbed across he = veh Lint go ih Re s8, Ry ta tin nit el gree highest band ap which 8 ie cpable of ccting. ‘his isthe ease If he ‘Srorpionseaficiet for th taon V-C1 is much greta than for (61-2, soi that for V-C3 much pester than fr V-CL Then enh of ‘he thes typeof aberpton event cin over nied energy een: By to Bya By ta By and By o 2. Auruing ae tle, uit ator ‘ach eer range the cuputcatet density besos UV) = a (8 00,0) — NB 0. ter He)) + 4(N Be Ee Ta) NB Ey Tots ~1)} (1928) share a eg ae the gual Fel ees ofthe valence, ntermeate ‘d conducion bt, espetvely Tn the sendy tate the ne cute fom ‘Wt C1 must be mntnd bythe crrent form Cte C2, which ee the constrain, AM Bea Bea Ts 0) ~ M(B, Ee Tetea~ ba) = af N (Ba Be Ta) — M(B By Tos ~ be) (1028) ad thet Per level mart anti (ea) a= Ha a (09.27 or any combination of Ey and Ey there sme va of V which mals he power deny, VJ), a mata, oben to the sbow consralts, ‘Optimum ficiency, the atin af maxi ent power dene oUt ‘ela pone dy tae anton ony of the band gape. For a 6008pa he Pp of Slr Coy tack body sun at fill conoentration, this efency bas » sim of phi wacn By = 109 6V and By = 07 eV [Lnge, 197 "Tis roll con be cpa to che two Junction tandem cls hice tes Meee function of to band gape but te Tniing vale ach ‘ether around 85% fr th wo ermine confration under maxémam | ‘entation, Tiere are difese mays regard the compasion. Oe is that he mind ell ctaly prea thre asd wot bro bad gape to tae taming photons albeit with some imitations on the Band gape (athe Fem level sporations, and should be compared wih the thre Suton tan cell Aether ssieration hat wih ies connected ‘aden cll wo photo ablorpion ewe ae always resuted to de ‘ne ltr to the execs, we with the inarediste baad ‘Eher two cree photon ze needed, depending ob photon eoeay 0 the heroceret qunntnn elnry is higher any cise, te interest ‘nel a based upon a totally more chabenging materials etation, fn acco ofthe eects fra thermally oad intermediate band Sod lective contact 10.6. Procica atrateples A sasety of practi cones to the atrmediats band wor cl have bs ‘roped. The single the Mos that eau band sats, introduced by rb impure Inthe smonducor ean tke past n optel ton ‘ioe an alzorb photons flower energy han the band gap to acta loco from the valene band (f empty) orto deliver a elaton tothe ‘dacin bond (i fal), ae showa fo Fig 1012. Behance photnetrent ‘Sra bend pep energies bos infact ben obered, in sicon doped wih Ind Peeves, 1904), However, st baw aot Bw shown, adi way, that such espe coud support independent qs er levels sac tbe olated impure uy’ edhe nie for a redative recombination ia ‘ple phonon eens "Auaher propa to me striae wick astually pone mite nade of nttow vid, Exaple are plo semizenducor, ach as VL meters emiconduting be, and molecular semiondctrs, whch eve conduction baad wha tpnally of some tenths of ¥. Nerow band ‘with material re al atratv fo tandem devices, on uous ofthat Erte Mand wid, wich enhance he photon sles direst mst Fil ite and with ae offered by dye molecules, which an be Spl [meted spose on ton along coaduting substrates, re i Sai fo ih ny ol cnt ty == S Ll 4 ° e012 9) Inouye eect) Quan ade j i weay t ) ] | Fg 12S pen dram fom ta lee co SES i yg enol nd A morse bu ito propo io age ei wth he ected tad neering low doesn encoder ete ties Compe dco oft center lec be ered dag gunn dts Inthe ane ied cada ae te ‘tt ae cfr ones dn ing nn ss Bun ‘ute of dices ery ie eb ata dot grow WE 8 ‘oud, wider bad gp seondocor materi then th dt nodes Sart ee hse band ep of he hn eco Arar tay or prt of West gutted ot of bandwa The Pale of tray icin the and gap of te bet semlondtor, Momentum soseeaton| {or band ~ band Wansonseedues the probably of photon seterng sents betwen bande, mang sparta ins Fell fr elcteons {he wsibond posable beste and spacing ofthe dtr can be cote, he energy and wide ofthe nbands ea be tuned. [Bex 101. Quantum semiconductor hetosrctre or walle and pha ulding seazonduetorhetercstructures aa the ase le ends to sonst of hetone and olen one, ro ths diesen, aed Teed to denis of satn which rfc the sytney ofthe coteing ‘Stacie, Fora uaa brodimensinal str, eth a4 "astum mall the deat fates Gited in one dieion, wo Chat the lero a Teo ney Bob RTD a ce By i tho ear due to cosfnemet in the + dectian, and she ‘cond tr athe Kinetic eoegy du to filly delocalied tion la the = ‘snd y direction Following the aporoech peated ia Sec. 33 fora the dmensonl geometry, med that the deny of een o(E) le stains lie faction, with each step enrterponding to » new conf lee or sue ‘td Ey. The poston ofthese steps ean be ned by the oie well sd "atie’ stevia the width ofthe wll lowing engineering ofthe and stzuctre, When case are cone! i thre distlony « goantum ot eels, with discrete et of ears ke a sper atom. Argue aay of sth dats lows the dscrte QD specs to nerge ito bands, The Got Aimensons determine the postions ef the bands and tho aay spacing ‘etemines th band widths tnt th band svar cn be completely ‘dedgned. Sach astra the bar of ea for alte ba ola ek ‘Quantum wel structs are fstab for Inet band tue: ‘aes tease the QW density of sata x continuous in veg. A eases In one vb-beod can alae be ascterd into a lowe ba, (wth diferet ‘in-plane momentum) by phouo lateacion. Neverthsos, QWs have a "ady bor expe for mall band phtvoinsdevies by embedding ‘x of quanta wel within the depletion repon of a pn stractre ‘The QWs introduce a new band gap so that photon flow energy ny be sored ceasing he cute, whe allowing hgh entry photons ree Link Ba or Fh Bey beefy absorbed inthe host materia. QW devices appear to bene fon » dicence in qine Fermi level separation betwee the wo ba {ap nd lem bad gop seins in contrast the ammptions of dtl Delancey thet q¥ = Oy tal poats, The reasons fortis ead he Inpletons have eto be dared addon, te ow of ymmetay ia eects and phonon deny of tats in QW tay mike qu 2 sata wf for Bote la is, (decent, 10.7. Increasing the Work Per Photon using Hot’ Carslers Malipl bad gap apps re baad on epturing photons of diferent tong im rntrae of ciferene band yop, abd exacting the photogen ‘rated carr with a chemlal potential slated to the ban gap ofthe ‘Sheerblng material weed. An allernatveappronch fo Sereaze tbe wack ‘one per photon by bares some of the exces kinetic energy of the photogenerated carries before tiny rela. The could be dove I btn onon interactions could be slowed down 2 that the photogeerted car Thr can be ole white wl "bo, rf he excavate ergy of ot fer an be expt o generate tare ati pars y & pocaekxowe 1 impact soon. Th Serre na increased vtge and those ‘ond nat ined photocarent- Bath vl on simpy and ead ‘denial ating fone, bt we wl teat the eeparataly er, ice the routes hie heen proposed o aexout of diferent pila obserations. 10.7.1. Principle of coaling and ‘hot arriers Lats int conser the saqence of event allowing pot aeoeptin. At the instant of excitation, the photogenerated crs ave ake ney ston whieh elects the distin of photon energie es the san ‘ud th abortion spestramof the steal. laste eats ing erin) over the ext fom hundred fronsconds rags each ‘ate population ito msl eqlbriam which an be dose bya am ose, Ti aad bel pail, Tis roster than the ambient Cenpecetare and in srtas cae an be eq o ‘Ove these ew pmeconds cats a the bot plas le Matic ergy through els 9th phonons aah the tmperstir of he dix {sition i reduced to the lato temperate, Ty (soaking). Theo each ‘te dstibtion rin qos thera equi wath the Iti nd20 he Ph tr Cate —_ | { PE MLL Blt oh cl a Siskin lovin tenet the phowon absorption rate balanced Wy phonon emiron However, the ‘tetan and ole popasos are ote in thermal equi wit sc er. The populations of leone i the cndaction band, and of hel {nthe raleoe band, ae intend ovr the oglu populations i he ‘senlconducio nthe dal, se though the detzon Fer evel bad eve towards the condoeton band, andthe ole Prml Jee twat the rar lence band, a own In Fig. 1018. This Ferme sliting io equal 0 tho chemical potential of the radon, and ere wih gt Sten During colin, the carrier pve up binee eae a beat to the Inte, nd the etzopy ofthe syten incre, ‘Over a lngee tine nas the cares roomie by rade and we radltve toutes. Is the cuter conte ne ignore acneaiative proces Which ace assumed to be avoldabie. (Anger proesea are conldered in the net schon | Radiative recombination sears ver nase 0 cromsonds, depending on the aecrption covet of th mateca The sot of ecomblstion i to ree the elton nad ole popalstions and ‘note the qua Perms lvls back toward the uli poston, Under fenstant ituninstia, populations achieve a steady state war the phot {enectin ate canto thes ofthe eoubinton ete sea ele cater exrocton (slats carrot). ‘This balance determines th la Taos potential and the power ot ofthe cll For elit energy over th ato carer extn should be comparable with ater vere Lin Sra or yh Bn om tn the rte of sombination. In the convention! pte, the fest two ‘roves of exiratin ad eeoling are amumed to be complete fe any ‘ariel tetrad ool combination neds be oneaed jn deznmining the powes cup ofthe cl "Phe ental concept ofthe ho nei sna cal is tatcoling need not be complete before cane ae ext I taction ea be send py tx conlngslowed dva, then some ofthe carta cat be extrac wie st fot ond dvr seme o thi exes tle sere t the eet ouput tthe a, Thee eno ool! are ia ytens of wasualdectrone Se phononte twtr. (Cooling i stuenced by th avait of bot fihonons of pproprine ergy aad momiencum to absorb ern Kinetic ay ad of wer eneey te fo he eaters to be seateed Ino) A Tarter requcment thatthe contacts are daigned to albw edibatie ‘lingo ht eases dung extraction. Some propose pactial chemes| fe deed blow 10.7.2, Analysis ofthe hot carrier solar cell, "To cleulate the enc oiciency of the hot ease oar ll we con sider the mit where thre no catie-tiesenteing. We consider & toner of bal gap Ey somal he ral sesumptions forthe Fiting hotel eficioey: that all pata of E> By te sbarbe that exch ‘hoton generates ove ectron ole par and that radiative recombination the onl lor proces A waa, uminatin ls proided ya black body fon at tesperatre T, ad geomet factor Fy (Tbe formation of hi ‘ecto eboedon [Woe 197] and [Rass 1992), ‘Mier shetogeneratinn, each caer population equate Uzough cereale seataring, At eqlbriaa, the Gibbs fee energy 6 mie In at therfore the geatty Lawn ts commvedthecugh any actering een, whet tho elaiochemiel otal fear and dy the parte nmr For he eon eater ent ey Hep eh fllons that tna na +e 3028)i ee) leiseident tat the sume dstelbtin canbe dsb by singe camel otal, the temperate ie dfn ne “This desspthn evd wo longa carrer extraction I low compared to ‘aree- cote scaring Ite sued thatthe eqeliiam dstbution ‘of cris unaected by the extraction of sare ls, Fast csr sa tering roplecsbe te population o enter ple with energy Bye a he a n= S (039 ‘vee are exacted, me ‘he Phe Soe Cay ore Lins Str gh ey Fy sc dy = or oh ci Bc cre ata at he in he Soe ser non seem oe(-B) woan Bat Ba Eat Ba ut we ‘Thee ee lee pts he pon J crovane ast cote ty ng pr shen ceongy tag “ renin ton Tin may ta he ena om the cre diebion ele cele tint ton» at any yond nemion oa ‘Scat lta nc ont oman cosh tn wt = ere ietenperoas Te Trae te See ees ce i vir cualoeurvo leat the use cpt, As elo the adv SL alist ne bene sae poi at asian ee bene of detonate seating the volaton > 0a mid (Where, eh et 1997], Assuming = similar relasion for the holes (in principle the value of photon fix {lm tor mee Se a HV) = WDE 5.0) — ME Ta) neler Ht AI E 0) 0) dae na ne 8B) oan mo “ that ine cs ol ott, Xf comer 2 esc the chemical potenta of an lctronchole pair generated bya photon eal fem be By 2038 sean i CLD For the bot carrier device, the dependence of V on jis no longer trivial. omen) no on uno te ete tol tn eb tener Tr od tp See tena ont te rel caren ae whee ‘For maximum work, this cooling should be done at constant entcopy. This nebo EpSmRE ents ble trees ce monet ne 1B, 039) Sc Secon oer serge AE rns re ‘re conan: no pend poe th etn canton eeer tags BT ete nal ‘ory cntag tenn wt ata egy hci tet ost cata iy vat Sted ncn ene 5 P : meen ta(-B) co {eae 034) ht neta hr Eth tri ef he eon ete ee veto) empty epi he Car Fa Sop acpe aleand neil pm ‘cal potential, Eq, 10.32 above, By rewriting f as ae potas waOne wate conion is reed to eate the power output. Tie comes fom the eonserstion of energy wth the bot deve, Sine eoeey ‘strodued ony enough photon absorption aed ile only through power stration nl ot caer eminion, we ct Wece Ba = AX eB 00) ~ LB 00.Tu 0) FX PUB 00.70) oa We can now caleate the cutent-vltge tnmctersics of the system ‘Ths perormunee of the hot carer stems depend upon the extersally atermined,o desig, parameters: Ey a8 Wel the wan] parateter of EE and V. The vai of Ey portal aBaenes the peroranoe ef the “von a sla al Fora give By and By the device operates osx solar elon 2 range o£ from 0 (cor sees) to Vex, where J =O, Vorying the ox put vaage ‘utzle the eperatre ofthe carer: At shore deci where all photo oer carr are collect, jue = 0, an 7 = Ty inal eas: de ther ano hot ear efoc. Ar i ncrenedtowarde Vee, J decenne ef incesed radiative recombination, and Ty eee toverds a mas Iuen valve which i lee to, at opon cout Dung this eye the Teariou of yy I ater countecnutve: yy Beoes move neue a the tpt vetago i increased, ua the wil cas wbace Ay ness ccaally a V Tema be blo thnk of tha beaviour in tam of ney blancs, luce the plogenrated caries intodaceexcene Kinet enaay which ‘coer during elaste seattrag and ot st by coon, AP shor tel, ‘al earsrs itrodaed hy the pit ate extracted, and to combate no cas Knee ergy to the case tributions i the solace, Three Tq = Ty As opt voltage is incrousd, the caver density in the ol Ineosse, the esti every pe erin crass on eoount ef the re ‘uergcticphotgenerstd eters, and s0 the tanperstare ofthe caret Sista means, At open re whee no arr are extracted he hotogeneratod arias contibte te anim Kate eee Ts lisesi value. Ip the it ffl eoscenration and small band 2, Ta open ozo eel oT, ‘Once By ad Boy ae determined he curent-volage characters for the hot exter device ean be ound by veving ¥ batreen O aud Vx. Tae ‘msvinm powerpoint wil sorrpend to cereals vlan of Thy aad py. A family ofJ-V curve re asta in Fg. 10.18. Note that he carve i ete Lim Sti for igh ey a EH $ aaerowraem i Pu = 2160 9-608 fu 22 Titel a tay cSt aac fe aio er. nos fhe curve at sae nthe nt homey cae mach acoarr than those for the radiative Ln, conisent with «higher ‘fiincy, Inthe radiative nity the curtate of the J-V cave i to the rede canon sing ke exp(V bo) at constant T- Far the ot atv cl long leans are il dite, the tnperaare i nctnsng 2 ina and he shape no longer dasa by sgl T ficiency can be clean ae «faction of the dig parameters, By so Egy, or comperizon wih the raatve Lily convnon aks ‘Bou stab parameter so find the vals of ¥ ad By ek ead {he highest ouipat power fr ech Ey, Those values wel tespand to pat- lear values of ad a. Ove, Ue cleuation singles fe omer ‘Ty and ya opsinible parameter rather han te design and operation ‘atlas of Bou and V) Pigs 10.16 shows the maximam ecncy ac 2 fonction of By, tgetber wit the coneprding vl of Eng, Tit 884 du Bo Gl oceotnton, has «mani of~ 85% at emperatre (of AMOK abd bandgap of = few tenth of eV. Foran unos ‘ee body ain hae Sasa of ~ 68%, The ttperatre fr mast rm power i usaotod by oonenteation, in corteat tthe nse of pact tenittion, acne blow| se The Pic of Sal Ct a Full concentration Efficiency Band gap/eV ‘afl cpeseton 2 nmin by a oy 1078, Practical siratenies ‘The ate wo materi requirement fr hot sir devon: «postive ‘atrial where cooling Is slower than easport to he canacts and come tact metal which pert selective etn ob extacton through 2 sarow ary bd Ta typical bak semiconductor deve, colng oscars sla than 10 ms, who carer extestion may tale nanowcond or Inger. The ata of ‘Sling depends upon the aval of phono of sopra energy ead ‘omentum to sate the ext carers into lower ate aten, Phooce {alto to groupe acoustic phonon, which tpn have eneay of or ‘neV at room tanperatare ard longitudinal opti! (LO) poooas which Inve higher energy — play 31-40 meV in TV semenadactors st ‘om tempanture LO phonon aremortily toe involve nog hot ‘kre The phonon momenta datebaton bulk material approx ‘mally sotope but elated to th etal band trast, Se the dea of lcton sates in Bok sealcenduco i cotiaot, and TOG ne te Lt Seto Mh By or ceva a an exited te hae igh probably beg seared ito ‘sn uncceupied, lover enor state by a stable phonon. This ca be pre ‘ented if () thre ie shortage of phooeas or (i) there are no avaiable leetron sats within « phonon every. The fst siuation arises under ‘ery intense mination. At igh enough injection level, there ma) ot ‘be enough peaoos forall he photogenerated ears to rl pomp, sd in Ue ead sae the enurgy dotsbtion of the caries hot. [a {ciion, te song nections of higher eergy phous with the hot Carre tribution deur he equisiam of te phonon dtbuton, 50 thatthe phonons themselves may bene ht, and las civ wt cooling However, the egirr very high ligt intents, orders of magitede more lntnse than the eu ‘Slowed eosin maybe cbarvd mornin semicondoetor tructree, of rice dimes. In quan wel, cares ae cond ito two d tesinal slab ad the easton structure aati ino sab-bands, [Atough the density of sates ail cntinuour, i highly saiotope ‘snd an exaad earir may ony be seated i Jomo ery Intel By {phonon of tho core momentum (Gries subband tanatns, the ‘oon raveecar mut lie inthe pane of the QW). Great ineresed fooling tines aod hot elation spre bean olzrved a QW of GaAs ‘i AlGa,-eAn with cooing tins of wp to 1000p compar ols tha 10 po ble Gads, et ght tenes f 10 aus. (The carter temper tre can be oberved experietally from Eh pony dition of he ‘hotoluminescence spec.) Fora review, see Now (Now, 200 ‘Quantum dts (QDs) ae potently more wail. Carer in 2 QD are Confined inal detsione atthe electron ractre i quanned ito “lero levee. I the apacing of ces lees niger tha the eoegy ‘he meet enetgte phonon, en settering of eee fom an eed tow lover enmay state trough ingle phono iaeretoa i inpossibe Carries coal nly relax vi ul phonon itaraconn which ae expe tobe zlatvely very alm Thi ete phonon btteneck eet, nentoned shove in the context of iatermdinte band slr eal. Slowed col Bas ecaobservd in QD stuctares, gan under high injection onion, bat ot to gzeter extent thn in QWs, and the predicted phonon bottlenose not sen In practic, alertosvereeatioa machanine, rach a Auger ‘ectabantion and trap anit lation, may operate ‘An alternative staatogy to ake eof straceree where the ergs separtion Ia exrenay fat Tne charge tantra semionedsctor sles janctionn and in steroewoun mec eye ca be ty[ fat fr lta in dye sense ar el, eto re inject fm molecular sesr aa bl semicon in ees tha plone [Bagh 200. The injected eres ae inevitably et, ad th oad Te expod if ny could be cllcied bdore cooling. This wou eee ‘ey thin deios, to rede te tant tne of he ince arti he contac, The challenge wil be t combine high optical sbuopion ith ‘ort ean tes. ‘The owned reqsrement lective contact with srr egy ban, ‘sal contacting teas ch tal or bevy doped wendy, sxe not suable but low dimensional semiendacton structs tay axa be uefa. One posi Isa spelt strurore, where the dendiy ‘of stats Is quate int bands, which ay’ be ede natrow ad wel ‘separated by choosing the material and protic ntl, Ta the ali of recto ot cri pea, cooing by phonon ater action eannet be ignored. Th deftdfen and cari conto eis "ons whi are zed ta analeenonal ennlcondator devices are ted ‘pon hemalive cat poplstion and dont apply, To allow fr spt ‘siton a the ear trpertue,«frter iin equation mt ‘be introdued, This ath enerzy balance equation Inthe senda the elect iatc energy Bs 5, cbeve VS, = JaP + Wen + Wot Wie (a0) ese the fet teen epresens the gn in Kinetic enegy though tio seevlraton by the sete Eld, Wh the Lso of netic eacey by felaation, Way the lose by elation recombination aed Wen the fer thon of kiwi woery by epilation, Alar nqstina apie for ot Holes. Then shoud be solved slong withthe caren and comaty ‘uations and Poaon' equation, aig to pf forthe erie Knesie ‘ergy (whith eefltvely the caver femperatve, ce Kinetic eneey = 3/27) aswell a for cari densty, erent deaty ard eae fel Note tat defining the caren, she combo do oa deat car et tperatare he Ssbek fe) cst be laced. Boe ere dala ‘se [Luneltom, 1990; Hann, 2897 1038. Impact Ionisation Solar Cells ‘Th fal cou tobe dcsied har, to ieresng th work done per pho ton i impect lisa Ta fw tobere white teneation proces vee in Saas orth Bie sw nus which compete with cooing an ads to further ear pe tenerain, nthe allowing eon wl we tat te impact natin ‘lr sclvly related ta the ht caer slr cl, "impact lnisation, or Auger geertinn the reverse of Aug rc ination, la Chaps & wes Cnt Auge combustion Is three body pau, recobies wih an aval le and gives up ls electocherical Potential energy ae Knee ery athe ssondeoton Inthe reves te ‘en acne electron colds with the latin and give up a ae ‘caeayto estes fit ecto aero te od ea. fa the tone of | ‘photeoltae deve, ths ease thatthe quantum efcency fo Ee with 'B> 26 can te grover than one, Thess hgh enwry plots ate capable of male oir enero. Tee ef bs been cbr and tebated | ‘Auger geoeration, in geemaniua photodiode plato bugle E> 2.5 (E_=07 eV) and incon dod for B >. 60 (By = 1 eV) [Weve 1985) 1m Anger procesics egy and momentum mi: be conserved. Suppose an elastran oy with Kinet ena Fy and somente ky rltive he yee pot hy couse gneaton of pir, Then as = Heeb 0.4) 5 ee as © Re 201%, Saegymmmentin bend sre dian sng th ced |+ Ba Ba 04g Ange gneraton events depend on salty of tron and hol state st cocect Ie and F and therefore the band seuctare ost important ‘in determining the probity of generation ets, The conins on he ‘nd trutefor actin Agr generation have ben donned by Werner at (Werner, 109) and are sumniarsed tte ed of this ection. 10:8, Anolyes of impact sonisation solar elt the towing parngraps we dereop the theory for he iting fiioey of acelladmiting mil i generton as develope by Woot [Wuee {a 1007 The dfs saayse pepo by the ventas, Worn, Bro i Kodo and Qusaer, bs abaequety tan shown tobe aed, 'thermedsnami spect. ‘Thiol analy appended tte end of i ete, “Tocalesat the maxinum eficieney for an ingot inission oa el, ‘ve laine that all the condone formula plegeerton ate a ‘sed, Ta eves proces of impact ionisation, Auge recombination, mst eincladed to satiny dete blanc. We wil astune that eae lac: sion by phonon intratons i aie slow tat can be Ignore ‘heres the plotogeneated carr ate allowed ta equate, But ot ooo, an thay may combine nly by dat o Anger recombination, We know from fg 1031 tat the earochemial potential fan equ ed eater ptr depends upon Ue cave’ eee) se ay = no mo HBG Bi) 0045) ‘When Auger combination alowed, an equal wil be etblsbed| ‘between Anger groecation and recombination, whee a number doy of sleton-bole pale of nergy Eas sd cel potetal Apa oe a {ented into 4 mune dog pak of soeney Exiga chee poteate ‘toa. Te ears of ergy coneratica aud mniiation of he Be energy Dypdm mean hat the secteochemieal pte must be propor tional othe eater ey, bce y= E+ Ove the Lint: Sate for Hoh sey a Consiering the lsescace fo such a datebtion we fino befire (a 1030, ha he dstibution can be deere by a raised tpertare ne sad a chemical potetal y=, Zao cll ott i expecta for ‘hema dstrbation where particle amber i not conserved. Tn cleltingthe power coverineficieney we poor ain the ht carci eas, except thatthe erent can no longer e rl tthe di ference far pneaton wd dtiveecnbintion (becuse nina ‘tren general trough imp onston),Ined the ont caret iscaleultd fom he anaay balance P= Aly) Ego 0 AIoHE2n0) 09 ss pn yn Pe ovee(1-B) e600 tana) HO tbyeaT0) com hare the output wlage, V, fled to the extraction enutky Ban rout (048) ‘The anergy balace, expres by fq 1047, aural to that wd in {he hot cari slat cal Te tl ald bens Auger proce conserve ergy, though they do nt const patie stabs Although tne digo parameters (Ey Bsa and V) appear tobe node tofind the J-V cararisteof en zpac nisin cl only two of the tse independant. Nol tbat P depends only o two patencter, Ey und Ty, the second of which cnn be ectelled by varying eter V of Boa ‘This moan that fr ch inact taceaton ala el the etecton ener yg kes no dflrence hem efcey. Axrith te ot eter sola el, Tz rave ror i minimum val of 7, at Short ce, to ta ‘simu, vue at open reat as Vi inresae, The maue of Ta he ‘maim power pot depends apen the lee fannie,rT — iE Fl oncenration gx Tsun Band gap/eV Pores conversion eiceny is pleted esa function of bad gap in Fig 1018. Foran unooncnteatd ck body ou, ofoney hase msc, (of S6% at bandgap of around 1 eV. Unde fall eonentraion, thee ‘dene readies «mininu of 85% at Ty = 2460 and sl, ens ‘and gep. Tue bebeviow wader full canenratin ie Serial to that of fly opti bt cara dl. Once agala, this maximum performance ‘dar fall oneontation eoresponds tothe thermedyeami= nt. ii erecting to nus that, excep the ease of fll concetetion, lnpact onston ead to ower Hinting efceny than singly preven ing cooling, inthe cane ofthe teri ell Thi ugg ha nad ‘ctu condacie to npc lonisten may not bea desirable property ‘fa bigh eicceny phtovliai materia However tha the advantage of fesior dain conto (Ey does 008 noe to be optimised to oan the ‘maxima performance). Morecter, a raat stem, pac onsatlon ‘ds to be costed ia competing wh relation by phonon itera: tons. In ech onto, te bot cartier dace would not beau evo he lpact onion deve, wna ee tan fil onemeato, ‘An srntie analy of he impact oiation solr ell as propned| by tho inventar [Werner 2804 1085) Ta hae thuey i eaauned that tbe ‘ker nd ele populations vein thermal equim withthe latin temperntore Ty, The esumpton i incompatible with syppeeesd ever Ore Lint: Sa or igh Seny a tooling. This approach also ari a photon eomgy depen chemical tent but ors diferent eon, ad lead oder iing tency 185% ander il eonouration aw Ey +0. The approach dirs om ts above in te modes of eembiaton shove we consider that «snl bet ‘letroncle al wich chil potest = wi esblesto podce photon of eatay En the WKBQ del, wail carer pits T = Ty (ith d= a) tccambine to giv ingle pheton. This mile cri recombination process psa very sly. Praca sates Since sures phonon Intractous ate a canton or inet oultin solar cols he practical stratapes dasusnd ove to the ction on hot ‘atrerdevies apply as dos the requement for contat intial with ‘ery mcrow ena) eure to allow ioettope cling Th aditon, the aletronle band etractare sould favo pet Suis Sa. Te condom for this are dsessd by Were et Wer, 198 ‘Thuy inch the roqienat for zat pnt in th band eeutace with od gp greater than tie the funda bad gu the requleect that vlene Bad and conte Band be parlor wide range of (Gis lows caver pits obo gucertd eo that only one cts poems {he ences ety) and the reeuremen: sng light sorption points whieh pert Anger generation. Theat ro of thes ply hat the mate Fal hood hoe an indvect band gp, xd lon a geen, Finding the stom or eryealconiguation which generates te del baad tre ace for mile ple geertion Se an nen problem, (ere of sing ‘the Seucdiger equation) ad wo fA ae not ben tempted, 109. Sumtaney ‘Te iting efceny for a single junction slr cel, fom enoidertions| of the dead balance betren abcrbe and ented rdlatioe, ard "51% in unconceteotel sult To plop ths lit an be incre by reli one oF more ofthe asus cn which ti allan ised Tn ths chapter we hve presented a umber of rosten to reser. ‘Thus ze based a: () the pfeil sbeorpion of photos of eile cery in mater of diferent band gap, which i the bas of tase ‘and mulkiple band ear eb (2) the epotaton of eave tats etwen tho pring valence and ootdution bands and an intermolinterT and (8) the pid colon fphotogeerata arin t makese of thei neti tray bere hey each hers qulibun with the eoironneat td (4 the ganerstlon of lip arin pais by absorbed pot wth srgy greater thn the bands. Alef the rata place exceptional daa on the materiale Meili high lly materi are heeded 20 that uonadtive recombi tation ens be eliinaed. Mtv of extraordinary electronic and ep fal properties are add to eager the required baad atrctue. Nator trocared materi, Include low dinonsoal snicondueor structure ted quntin dts, so ad ax posible wape of elsing the hypothetical References GL, Arms, Mt, “Abiotic peta oes “uw St Bary Maer Slr Ca'38, 213 (100. WJ Burhan Braun Mee ed Pann, "Shorea rata ‘rey iiny ebaoennet ns bc! ute peta ‘da pe. Pg Coa 9, 6-3? (5). 1K, Bena ey uma wel ear eal, App. Sf So 114, 72-70 ‘a A. dean Badsrile Therma of Siar Enry Coseron (Odd Unirty Pre, 100), [A Mal nd Gran, “Molo prc, Ac Chem. Re. 89, “foWzr (at, nd setae tee MA Gre, ‘Proms fr phos lich eabwcrpent eng Lom menial tore Nott 1, 3-4 20), CA, Gram ke bd and imps pnt lr eal: Gera tay fd compari ound nl Progr Pasar, aT (0) MA, Gres, Key DL King ge and W. Wat, “Sos cl eich tabi Dogr Phan 0, 27 (0). 1M. Hanne, 2a A Noy Hl caer wr ea, Pr NREL cee Tt Gin tte Palin A Conn Mal. Komevsod MA Grose “Lnting neo ode ingle sory ap wri sta cal J Ape Pag 7 2 (00 S.Kettemann aod -P. Galansay, “ting ney of LDS tare, Pre "S fawpean PltoaaeScler Enemy Cone, 19 (LS. Sap st hese, Bort, 185) 1M, Lindt Rouen of Corr Tremont (Woldnghans Addon: ‘Wel ‘Ala an A Mart, craming the ein of east ele by photon Tada roa! irda ve Py Ras. et 78,504 (187). vee am Sate Bh Bi a ‘5. Noi, Spcrnspy and toto elation dyn escent ‘Gascon nd gsm dn A a. ge Che ed) RP ow and A No Bloc fb cane egy cnn, J ‘rot Ph 5,30 (969) . 2. te, 8 oda dH Quem, “New pinion ries and ste) He mint rs, Pye er Ltt Fh 418, Weer. Bel wo HQ, *Rakinive fceney Mnf tee ‘pecs wit tr pany Pe te War Sot seas comin witht elesons rm apc oiston’, ‘Saar Sey Water Solar Cle, 4-69 (1.Exercises List of questions 1, Toa diode and Sealty factor. (Chapter 1) (Q2. Cells nx parallel and series (Capea 1) (Qs. Parsiie resistances. (Chapter 1, Qt Ideal diode and ight Intensity. (Chapter 1) 5. Doping and recombination, (Chapters 3 and 4) 5. Quantum elfeiney. (Chae: 6) Qi. Shockley Read Hall recombination. (Chapt 7) (QS Heterojunction. (Chapa 5 and 8) {Q9. Window Inyo. (Caper?) {id Electrle Held in an ai p-i-n col (Chapa 5 aod 8) QU Current matching In a multilayer wt cel. (Chapter 8) 12 Light trapping. (Chapter 8) Qs. Two love photoconve (Chaptes 2 and 10) (The rlevant chapters fo each question ae given in brackts) Namarilanomers shold be given to two eat gues ‘The following data nay be woe: Boltsnan’scomtant ky = 1380-7 Kt Bhoewonichare —g= 1.60x10-" Colom ‘Tompertae: olen other stad, ane 00 Kws Boose Ql. deal lode and idesliey factor ‘wos cls oe son i og of085 Vand dane ‘Scat tnd hon pun, nex ayes She ober ins an Way nto. Un he Gade eats wae th srk atreon utes coco eo hoes oe Da te pre urs)By ge ae f eome a ihc nec ceconpaesbe i on How mah nonce the Me diets nc? 2, Cells in para and series Ap junction sae alas Von =O Vad Jig = 201A 0. A sont all ofthe ame aren bat Vie = 0.6 Vand Jy = 16 A er. Asaning ‘that both ele obey the deal diode equation fd the value of Vo ad ‘when the tno ae coset (a) in parallel and (tin vec. (QS. Parasite reaitances Re veo 1 Show, by considering the equa cet ove thatthe err l= age characteris fra deal ode in the presence of pss tenn Sven ree Vain, he =feeerover —y) V He ( y~ hve J te startin cares ofthe dod, which x sat del a ‘and Rey ropreen the ste ceatanee and pall esistances show, (o) By conten the diode easton nthe ccs of ih Ry high ay show tha 1/R, i approxistaly equal ta the lope -V eure /aV, cr =D () By onside th at of wo show that 1/ a, is opprxiaily equal to dl/AV mea V = O.Explain hom the parseitic testace ctf nd Vo sch ae, 4. Ideal diode and light intensity ‘Asal hae short cut aren deaty of 30 mA om and open ‘eat voltage of 0.0 V under oneaun Wuninatin a oom erperere ‘Use the Hel dode eguation to eluate the open eat wage wich i expecta under iuinatin y 100 un satng any ssunptions made Tn ‘ractce an ope voltage af 0.68 Vis measured. Compare hs with [ovr reele and saat reo for any dicopany. 5. Doping and recombination ‘A sencoaducor bas a neal cried my of 20% 10! mat ‘0K. A thin sab of thie material i expend to a Light ule of poten cneray 2.1 eV and itesity 1000 W i for aa itera of I ns. I he ‘hetpion conta 8.0% 10m a 21 eV enlclate te concentration of photogenerated electzone and Hols Ime after the pulse. (YOU ‘oy neglect recombination ding the light pus.) Heace fad the nex foun encentrtin of ates (ny), ele () andthe product pn he follwing cso (o) i the sseonducor eli iti (Le n= pin the dak)? (0) fl sdoped wth «coneotaton of 1.0% 10 m3 donor impart, hich maybe conidred to be lyfe? Tn which cea the eae of alate cubation faster? 46. Quantum efeloney An np home jencion solar cl bas enter thickness of and base thine of pI the fot erface eet Rand te bulk abeaetin ‘ecient b fr photons af energy B, (4) Find an expreson forthe poten fx density reaching he bate when the nin Sie dena i (). (@) Find an empesion forthe fc eos absorbed othe bate.(© Mesch absorbed photon delivers exactly one elton to te ent, sehat the pocorn: doa rom the cel? You may iene the Toniter photocurrent and sume that the space chats with neg gil (a) Now find an expresion or the qunntum econ (QB) (e) Aint axac cll bor zy = 05 yen zp = 20 pm, apd R= 0 for A photon enero At 800m the aborpton soffit of the cll faster in 1.0% 108 aA tent clelates Cat tbe QE: at srevelength ould be 74% In fatto meneued QE only 69%, What Talat be the eon fortis? (f) Use the afrmation above to take & ough estimate ofthe eleton ison length in thse, stating ey astmptions which you mabe QF. Shockley Read Hall recombination "The Shocdey-Resd-Hall recombination ie given by mnt Pee GER) tara 0 hee ty ya the aleton and hoe capture tes, adm, pee gies & engl Bim whee isthe energy of tho trap level and the ital eee othe ‘maleate, (@) By wring © and p wn terms of ny, aad the dectros od bole quar lvls, Bp, ant By, show that Ua ean be wt a2 ustoh(a¥ 2k) yore coo EEE fia) <7 oa 4 FLED () Now consider junction of with wand builtin bias Vy under slid forward bias V (V < Vu) Assume hat the Janetion i ly de Ded so tat Er and Ep, ae constant nd that vara ery ero the junction. Show that the reombioalon users dealt due to SRE reonbination ven by shee Coie tthe limits fintgraton axe Varoesormet (©) Given that [fly = f show that a appladveltagen of evra tunes ha, € can wally be wepeced by 6/2 Inthe expression fr Jen shore Unde what conditions wuld this aprorimation be invalid? 5. Heterojunction [A pon bateojuncion Is be made fom two somonductars, A end B. ater A has band exp By inet cre densiey nq and intial work function (eased fom mld gap to the vacuum lvl). B is an ‘ly of to materiale he rt aha band pap sn iti nee dent given by Bam Eater and has nec wk funtion dm (be > 4) fr all eomposson Bis to be sed fo the mye window layer ona type base ager ade fom A. (@) Find an exeaion fr the vlue of at which a step oppecing tron collation jst exis to appear in the eonduetion bad. (0) Wee doping dete in njere A and Bare Ny and Ny sespectivey, Show that there wil aways be net potent gaat eiiageletons fom Ato provided that Ma > (6) In parca css, By = 4 eV, mg = 210! m4, fy = 5 0V, p= 6:4 ands = 24 6V. The wtype window lye Se Gsened 0 ig of wavelength longer han $00 am othe ype be(i) Cabal the sie of step in tho conuction band (Gi) State the band profi ofthis heterojunction, (i) Diss bow arn doping een the window layer wil fat charge election sine. 9, Window layers ACulaSey np justin slr anc pm owl doped n-type emitter layer and a4 ym ity dope p-type base. Use the information below to ‘timate the rate ncene in unt efiieaey at 6 nn when the Clnsey eniver yer replaced wich C25. Explan your remonng aad state lealy any aasunplon Which yu male Absorption cooficion of Claes at 600 nm (a) aed exp of C48 aaev Dion length of oes in n-type GulaSea (Zp) 0. un Dison length ofeleetuons in -pe Cues (Ly) 2.0 ym Ls t0" mt (QUO, Elected in an Si pin call (8) An ames sicon p--n soa all bso type background doping of 20 108! en inthe intent region and dies constant of = 10x 10- F mr. the al has but in bas Vy of 00 ‘lelate the thes ofthe depletion Ine in he inti ata ft ao apple bay, eating the tae rein the pide «pn Jueton. Sate any aprosimations which you mals (0) Would your auower to (a) be a mutable ale Sor the with of the tego ofthe ele el? ive reason fr your ansver timate & beter tle fr the region thickness, stating ay astumytions made QUL. Current matching in « multtlayer «cll ‘Yu ore sled to dagn stem «solar ell consting of two Pm junetons neti, ln ya tel unto Th ol he tal ikea (FT jn and sould be optimi 90 that the currents ae tated for & ‘00am light source. Ire absoeptlan ofS 300% 108 "at 600m, Tow thick sould ea ofthe emo regions be? You may aru tat he aan rxons ae of ge thlcknes, the tne junction ie ant ‘ge clon ein 100% nthe intr eins ‘Blan wat you expt to lupe tothe short eel curzent of hy sellifthe wavelength ofthe eure ()ncronsod and (b dcrated, whe ‘oping the photon fx dena the seme, 12. Light capping A layer of siconductor of reffcive Index ny and tienes w i mounted between a aflectve rat mule and oseterng font src, ‘The for sro etext that ato al ade or sees ight tropa, whist il allowing intron ight rays approaching the surface a angles alle than the rita gl to escape, Yat may ake t te tat ight cay soit by the arse tase a tae of| Deon average, before erking the rear suf (a) abe coe sate a pert rfeta, show by conadeing tbe path Jang faye urleig multe oleral ection, or oberg, at sverage pth length of ight ras enaring tho sagen by ase, (©) he rae sue i an impart wetlctar with realy R, show ‘hat the average path gt becomes 21.4 Ryw T2RG= eB 1m, = 3, bow lage mst be to cba a path length enhancement our o-18, Two lvel photocomvertar oe apm ig at tate pt fe en hat A noleclrphotoconverter ib modelled 6 «to fred estom with lose Jes contact fom the app (6 tte to x negative terminal at rom the lower (1) lev to pone terial Absorbed ght cf eneay y= E—By Promote eco from the ler to te sper lee, om wich they ae ‘ltr cecal or decay eatin to the groan state, Occupation ofthe ‘pper and lone lees deasribed by Ferns Dire stato with oecup ton funeone fo fy and qual Fem lev ead respectively, The ouipa voltage given by aV =e ~ Tho stem intrinsic wo tet For deosy of N such melee i as thin slab of hikes the otognarted crcent deny can be wlan 02 sent (0400- Jann @ se te toc of on a. 2 SRLS Sateen te tence Sao cc stetgeicina hoe raed SESSA eter (a) how, by consiaring the spt at ulin, that Gy = 3 (@) Findon expr fo the open cca vellge Voc (6) Show, by coosidereg evmmety ofthe cartier populations hat J an ‘ewes ae FaaBad (+ GaN? ~1)~ Areas here actor Anan ‘ceptr' level of energy inetd betwee the upper level and the mounted, os sown, apd a adiona “donor Invel at betvoen the lower level andthe p contact» The rte of forwad letzon tana fom he wppe ee othe eceptr ere ly fell ~ fo) Whee fy ls the ocexpaten Fanetion of the acepeae low Blazon tana eter donor adler levels gered by ‘he sue cones. The outpt voltage now dearined bythe ‘ia Per lor of the scepter and anor eel (@) Show tha J = Nak (f~ 1. (e) Show that Vc changed by the dation of he intermedi evel (8) Bxplin what you expect to happes to Jy a8 i adSolutions to the Exercises 1. Sotation ea diode equation: J = J ~ Jnl — 1) Tot I eprenes toe shot ei earest duly ofeach el Ca. Kee = 088 Vs m pega y= 49 107 cat, a B Sa Kg = 088, 38 = pacha y= TO 1 In ech ca nel orm cen, Jon vinta — go ee ) su normale pow for V in the cage 0 =) tas of energy Be eve by J = (BRM =e) (@ Quantum efceney = caren deity elsted JC Incident photon fax daly) ong = HEUER gem (o) Sobetatng suena vale, the ete QE = 096° «(e074 “The measured QE i 06. Th reason former quant eine cul ‘ inmamplete collation of carrie in he ase de to short electron athe fur 6/97 bec «190 that Teal provided ht te con actor orev, Bean sl sgt st peating es if Gee) ‘This happens in te Hints where the trap enury be fr fon mid |B. Blo ba and where the erie istines ae very fret 5, Solution (6) The sep in the conduction band ie doe to diferencia the ehetton ai Blotonaftay of Axa = ata $B heey lectonafiaty of Bn = ah “The sep opines eleton di om A to B whos x < xa: This happens when von Hen te Easeingexpreson for Fey, Be ‘ht pn Ma > nb ss requie, (6) HB just adits ght of 500 am, the band gap of Bs By = 120/800 248 «V (Sein ntti ad sana) “HEB ‘This lg «stop helt many nes peer shy? sean ‘eral eison ove he sap wl be show. ® Matera A | Material (GH) Tacesing Ng wl lnzene the bata beudg on the m side of the {etn and so rece the hckoe of the bao opposing eezon fw and incense collection vin tunellng Reding Na wl re te er thicior and roduotunaling Por highest carr clestion, shoud be bigly doped. (99. Solutio ‘Assure that cates generated within a eifusion log of the junction ‘onsite to the patacent. Lat by repre heinous or the Calas; bomojaneson el, hax et ia eit Bye 1 fia abort witha diuson length of jneton yertemtny = allt ye-ste-tn(h—allestel) ae-tl({ ella) + potocrrnt dey ¢ guantua eflooncr ar the C45 /CulnSeyheterjunetion cll, + toogest wavelength baobed by C8 = 1240/24 = 516m. 1 GS shouldbe eansparente 600 am ght threfore sume that no ht le sorbed in he itr ‘Tea fx abba witln «dias gt of otton: y(t een) quantum efiiney: 1-2 eerunetion QE 1 Teaahnctn GE 7 ST eT «+ Sobatituing cama vale b Iya lel m, fod x 10 x 10°F a, terojunctin QE = bemojunction QE 3, “Therefore replacing the Cue window by CUS inctotes the QE at 00 nm by a actor of 39 {Q10, Solution In this cue, rplor Ny wth Nor she brkground doping of the PDS Incas eion and sue tat them ego sdped ach that Na > NY‘Then the etc with dropped within the ite region ad am Substituting nna vlace we ge W = 0.75 a. (©) Pare () shows tha the elctee Geld wl all to aero at the >t Intec of an inte region 0.75 pm tlk et ero apd bias sor operating conditions, the bls dropped aco the Juste sre (iy ~ V). This reduces the depleted width, 20 Unt an iia region 9.75 thie wil be partly undelete 2 ny V > 0, ad wll nt faneton sfctvely ws asolar cll where alton ha thereon requis elect fad, To estinnto a better egin thine, epace Ve wth (VV) in the expreson for W. Eating an operating bis of 8 V, wo get ut. Solution ‘Shee the als are connecodin si, It a nscetary to match the utente from the fost an back al: Now since aight ratte bck eal the ‘ck cell mst be thir to produce the sane potorutent. The opti ato of thine wl depend oe Uamination contin — — Lat the fst layer be of thicket and the sco ofthc ‘Seppe the photon fax deny eaerng the St {nye Then the total aeons in that layer ib fe «a Thi i proprtalt the Photocernt ‘The pct Bx density entering the cand ayers oe™*, hen the total absorbed ux thar is Zor [vet Thee proportional te otcuront ra that ayer, sei the potocuvtt ate eq then, offetannen [eee Bigs a Bee -1) o epee? Subwtaing aver values and wing fy +51 aD ast icon = 0.215 ym t= 0785 (a) Absorption of « wminconductor generally Increases with dees Wrordeogth a a vile Therefore if the wavelet ofthe sures Tish teed the abortion coetcent shoul decrease renting ie emelloraborbed x ln he at Iyer and lags inthe wzcond layer Te crn fom the two lajers ms ath othe shot let ‘hotocurent wll be Led bythe shor eeu photocurrent om the frst lye, oder to math the erent fom the eee ayer with thet fom the fet, the tel onion wil Became postive charged fo forward bist cond ncn (b)ttabe wevelengt othe ut lght een, the aeorpton col tient should increase, retin nner ebaarbed Hu in the ist eee Sl ier inthe cco Inj Nom the sot rat photosrrent Timed by the shore eels photocarent rom tbe second Lye. The tunel jason Beamer negatively charged to formad tas the Sst Junction end reduc he current om that Iyer to ah the seond.Q12, Solution (a) Consider the ight path in tee of the umber of double passes Tho ps egth fo neh dole pate? = The probability aping er oly a doubl pa, ew path length u,b 1/3. The probably if suring th ft boos but eesping ater the second bs 1/ag(L ~ {adh tis path ba Teng Su, Susi wp the ength foreach path ince the peobobity of surviving fr eracly that ausber of pase els the Tolling expen for the average ath nth: oma wee Eetagiy eet Subang (1~ 9) fr = and dip hyng we have Cy) sty or maa) Adding sp te connbutons fom Alsen bers of pte, no In ladg add numberof pss to allow fr scape trong te et ofa veka (i =2e0-RyeteeRvsw-RR (I~ 3) bude? (1) + calletng the ems sepreesing odd mares of passes eed even aumbae| fof pss eparacly we have ord M Sena powkAS ae? 1 xen(s2 (a) Ugh ott el ein enh ahi ng for a ppnow pe Bee rR s (0 Renranging oa Rtn hie 1aejt) 13 iF Ah ah os of 20 en ht = 805 Sehgal va 1=2%008 Traat— ae =O eget 18. Sotution (e) At equa, only thermal phone ate past (G = 0, the quasi Frm lee oe equal and J = V =O Setting I= Oe = iy atl G= 0 (1), we at o> TT (©) Outpur voltage doe aiinee ia ed. AL pen ni, J aod Nae = heeDS Subsiaing n (2, A 6+ 60~ gesarairat—y =? earning fo Yous Ven ey 74 (6) Theaptem sete 0 fe = L— fr nog. Moreomes snee carr can nly be given of trove in pis, end bth contact vam, ts Ie tos alo under potogenaation, Therefore Be — ne = Tee sn) and we ean write ‘Then nem & Bt Subeiuting nt (2), we abt the given orm for J (a) At equine when Je Ii thn ate of slcston teats fea upper sate to acceptor fv is [KJUL fy the tate of elesson tana om acceptor topper tate Jost be A(t fo tocar ober nono leon tater a ei ‘Han Ae fom eli, he net anf rteis KJ(2~ fa)= RAC Li = Ke fo Bor icodty of N moles in ala of thickness dts produce current dnaty = 0K fe ~ J.) ae eed (e) Tema volkge io deere by the quasi Parl lees of thn colac lee by js and “Atop ec 0 threlae fc ~ f(r pst ()) at He = snsy = pi Pharfce Vee termined bye oy a We wae expendon in) (0) As K oo lit f Wea ost), “a a ee user cused fon," be je = i a hort iit, and de tend to = aWaede (1 A ) As K ~ 0, care collation tom the upper at lower les boom slow compared ta radiative recombination. The ston of caret to ‘adlatvereombination Lctaem ott the fraction cl tae he faction colcta fle andIndex 25,28, 28, 35,381, eto 28,229 ea 91,98 160 721838, 20 a8 2a 2 serps slo cl, 27 ‘ort 11,30, ‘ite, 2, 20008 Sie ai, ‘ti. 20, tec up nao, 93 ‘Shree, 27 iene 8 sgl any 8 27,5, 280286 Indep senso, 94 0,30, 206 ‘soci decsptie, 0 {nfo coating, 1 16,257, ‘esr 98 2,2, 28,2 any ae obi, 8 350 sho, a ‘Sel e280 steer, 8 septation pean) Smey 25,95, 97 eum ge, 190 Smee ‘Adnan Wil sd had Day? ape seraton 0, 50,58 ‘iri 123, ‘Auer oobi, 8 15 ttn galt sci 2,207, 288, 8, 3D Tein dl 268 ee ott 8 ‘Serpe, 5,85 28,26 sheen, 27 caren doing, 2,284 oye mt ‘tod beng 28 16,22 aren, 208 ‘td digs eect a ind go 18 23,8, 5894 36 28, doping, 27, 218 ‘ak a8 50,7, 1. 30, Intima 0 104 28, dn pon dt kag, 28 anti, 16, 68,17 puoi, 307 8 ed atin 6 4, 52, 62,ef | teens « artes ht 18 sey 6,7 BesLambert i 88, 250 Beye, Elin, 2 ‘a 3066, 8, 78 Tick ty 7-0, 2, 80 34,01, aac 18 lsh tonetin 98 ‘Boke approoatin, 8, ©, 72, bonding, 4. 4 ound endin, 155, 1 onesie 76,279 Bilin ane body. 8 il phon ‘etm e188 146, alin let St, 21128 ‘Seton by tag, 07 ete te 10 ‘Slr deny 6,160 1617 tne 3 3.3, 6-207 Gi 31. 17,296, 2,280 cfteetara org eto, ‘Bigs repo, 5 hang separation, 23, 24 26,108, ‘hee tems, 208 ‘Seta pre 23, 26,27, 208, "a, s,s, a cx, 0 ‘CateaSen 13 {Ses 208 feat pope, 2 ‘rin, 28 16s ntact ‘mina de, 206,27 ‘Stoned wend 2 ‘otra, 8175, 25, a7, oo, 2, 8,20, 0-2 ev phe, 208 ‘far om ia estan, 27D ‘Set camp cometrico, 260 284 Senontnar a #0, 272 ‘enc 771 oan conics in 2-6, 77 Sitcom 6474 ‘Smit ean 80 11,206 Stine, 0055, 318, cern inne CCS pee Siem 8 Sous #6 alanis, 0 C68 ent ating 2 urcnlag hart, 69, {oi it ti erate, 178 of empera, 3 wean actin, ‘oc roc, 168 angling bende, 218-200, sts ack crt, 9, 10,9, 18,164, 7, "oa. 267 load er, 20, 32 cs 38 61,0, 18, 21, "20 a, ae deere inact, 7 ty of pon ae, 86 87, 90 deny ate 81,5, 9306 ain 68 1 8 85, 16,743, elon een 1285, 85,18, 1, i ean ih 6,11, 28,24, ‘sa aul tna 24 96, 27,9, 98 125, an 30, 28,3 2, sa sumptions, 98 deo 2 ‘ie lh 2 2b see 78,14, 78, 12,168, 164 fea Ti, 16, 67, a7, 189, ot 24,3396 ipl peteton, 91 tect seh 2 Serbo ort, E7128 ogg po 83,197, ‘iy, 7120 tegen, 28 tition cut gaan, 7 vig free 18 Seeeoeein oF ‘je mei net 190 ania? ‘Ent tents, 20 ig 3 er 28 iat Alerts lw la 18 stoi crete "oct 2 1‘Iecrocheneal potential, 7, 92,28 tte, 1-15 tower ot ‘Supe pect, 17 ‘See 82, lec oe pi 5,8 ‘Setenanie Gt 72,125, 146 [Saami nity, 2, 290 ‘Soa, 5, 285, 100 energy balnce uation, 38, S21 ‘eer bate "ocr, 2228 hott, 2 crore denay ‘redatia, oie ont 00 ‘ua, 94 88,0, 7882 int cei, 1,18 Sad te, 2,22 ton 58.1 ‘ie ne 13,8 Femi Die dubs neti, ‘Pr level, $5089 4, 67.77, 6, a prjonctc, ‘ars Caden Rie 6, 5, 7,0, Toh ie fe ore parttatin thy 53 ft ro 228 a 39, 18, 98 0 yi, 8 70.7, a2 3 tn, 0204.28 ‘cya sre 198 Seam 38 ‘Sata peat 208 inobity, 28 nie sweat, 2 rare ‘Sombinton, 18 208, 26 Sk cdg 2425 ‘Stein, 8 Sen mbt, 20-308 vie tae, 8 ‘Somacal at 18.25 24 200 ‘Eevee, 08 52 Ei, 2 eg, 2, 21,20, 288 ed ending. 236 2 ‘igen ace aes 28 ck ata pterc, 382 Sea okt zr, 2 Penal, 2,28, soit, 8, 20,34, 22, ‘trom, 20, 265, tert 2, 12,158,208 i itn 24, 27 ‘current, 85, 0,118,156 en 58 6 nde temojancin iat eri, SL, 81, 36 eee 3-06, 81 nue, 6 I roa 7 al ld 010,35, 31,1 908, to, 14, 170 acd le si, 38 Meaty face, 18, 16,295, 26, 508 TMEV amscrdcin i into a5 nding ri 290 Ind palo peri 20,22 ini hi 1, neon, 160 inating ner, 12,16 Inafce stata, 10,10, 141-18, “a, 25, 2 Inert 20,261 2 rm ed 8, 21 ‘shar al30308 neal, 22,28 ‘Sterna 260,24, 883 Ini een, 198 Intense mont, Sion eo decay of ae, Senet 397,118 15,1428 tein cutest 128 Se ee rapping, 190,240,267, 272,23, (icin, ning fii 1, 28 31 39,94 283, 205-297, 306, 901,308,304, S131, 5 31,0 3 nde covsatien,28, ow dimensonalstuctues, 54 Tb inject, 6, 2, 89 sel ai, 680,12 301, tel guy eur met 8,86, 67, 524 104 Sen ony 4 -mcetline ion, 156, 268solar al dg, 288 rope rove, 8.57 ie inten ney ar, 11S tan, 18, 8 et ra 4,0 ‘m0 20 snag, 28 24, i ‘lly, 7, 7,20 28 a plrsttine mater 2 eblytine prod, 22 Soho else mise unre 108 ltrs son, 17 Tier in 280 slope pi eemation 81, 20, ‘evr oe, 8,21, 25,2 oncryaian e 16 eid de 1617 ‘Sdn oss, 8 8, ‘open cre otage, 6,9, 1 18, 3, Tn, Bs, 3, 9 rk een bial, Sewn ere 137 emu 3% 182-28 “_—" Sere 2 ere wee ee ibe, 1 ssn a. 36,70 3 Se ty so, 10 Serta se ‘ret vole hata, 10, sets Sais etn 0 ‘ole density, 157 peerea ie Seat SESS eo, teenie tai bd open. 1 Zama a hain fi, 8 sch ao ig 20 ‘eated emir sob el, 94-108 eine 5,27 29-29, poe pend PERL cl 15,107,271, 278 loon 060, 98 30234, teen tore ocr, 23, 46 it 6,5, 16,4 98 2a Slpen naan, 157 potter, 10 Pototcte, 1 Ptogersoe’ 47-0 18.188 a 7,2 Soap, 65 28 \itcbatee fact, $7 ‘on, 5, 26 corer AGH 0,8, 1026 2, 3,2, 88, oi, 6a, a4, 2,28 robe nay 8,109 allt af potion es, 298 Poca chnas soa 25,28 hee, 2,120 hooey 27, 120,190,198 Potoataean, 10 ton dev, 422,28 Potoaae oe2 Foto gente, 8 Pana ntton ho ot tat 8 pon, 28,28 asco? een mai 28 20 Falun alte 2 Pxourslnn Peseta ap 15 oer, 7 110 Si, 296 20, 26 onneréon ey 3, seu cinema, 08 fon dt 3S, 08 ‘onmam fan 2,152,9, ‘occa, 87 ean wel 86208 317 ‘in Pee 25,97 88, 72,78, r,t, 12, 7,15, 1,826, 32, 31,30 qe ian 38 dition reine, 201 ‘date Hee 10, 108 ‘ane Hey sis ‘ase ambit, ot Io, 20,338 0329, slid expen, 02 ‘utes ‘Sco TS 9 1, 12, 20,5 3, a 0 fae 14,174ee crite eteasivecret 158 Seis ine 10 ede potonta, 124, 35 (ets 51 18,28 eth 8 0,2, 28-26 satin nen 8, 25-253 ssn Se oman, 6 ti, 208 20 a pcaline ter, 5,297 seh brr 2.126 2380, scaling oto 167 Seine aie Siete re 8 Tite coma, 11, 2035, ‘or ain 8 sa dogg, nga, 23-1, 19, 28 catia sete etc, coast sno 1, 19 56 38 icone, 38 82 (St soan 138 7288, Say a a emmbinaton, “oP 18 Te 228, 29 cna o leon by ap, 18 See ape eomicndec, 18 eae, 8,10 186 gs cme, 1,186 sergio, 182,188, 1 “band struct, mt mene =e a SE can =e ‘sligos aol cell * (abeiaton, 186, 187 a ate ee oun eal. SEE sien solar tric dinebusion 21 mi men a 38 ste 8,20 one ‘rte anton 298 Tea gn sey, Stace Wait 20,227,208 Sard Tou Coudn, 1 ‘ony ata esi i, 13, re, 1 ‘eomienton 10, 116,18 er 18, i, 20,5, 0 1, 2 3 In se ak utc el, symnesy band austere, «7 rama seme teed el 26-90, 06,382 nara 2, 4 18 2, yim sa 8 32. grate ‘ecm stn, 01,127 ‘hm guration 8,82 (hi ln tere, 4211-218, 20, soln nobel 2), 248,20 gh, 24 ine psa 389-55 ‘op ton 18 swag ited renetion, 18 te sate, 106 1 0,20. 235 Bebe ge ‘mein, 50 20, 206 two ba etn 28,8202 te elton 85,384 esc 6,26, wos. csieeot ‘indow tage, 174 208,207, 248, 247, 36, a oe mu