The Geology of Indonesia/Sulawesi

Contributor: Surono
Geologically, Sulawesi Island and its surrounding area is a complex region. The complexity was
caused by convergence between three lithospheric plates: the northward-moving Australian
plate, the westward-moving Pacific plate, and the south-southeast-moving Eurasia plate.
Regional structures, which affects the island of Sulawesi and the surrounding area, are shown in
Figure 8.1. The Makassar Strait, which separates the Sunda Platform (part of the Eurasia Plate)
from the South Arm and Central Sulawesi, formed by sea-floor spreading originating in the
Miocene (Hamilton, 1979, 1989; Katili, 1978, 1989). North of the island is the North Sulawesi
Trench formed by the subduction of oceanic crust from the Sulawesi Sea. To the southeast
convergence has occurred between the Southeast Arm and the northern part of the Banda Sea
along the Tolo Thrust (Silver et al., 1983a, b). Both major structures (the North Sulawesi Trench
and Tolo Thrust) are linked by the Palu-Koro-Matano Fault system. Based on lithologic
association and tectonic development, Sulawesi and its surrounding islands are divided into 3
geological provinces (Fig. 8.2): (1) the Western Sulawesi Volcanic Arc; (2) the Eastern Sulawesi
Ophiolite Belt and its associated pelagic sedimentary covers; and (3) continental fragments
derived from the Australian continent (Hamilton, 1978, 1979; Sukamto and Simandjuntak, 1983;
Metcalfe, 1988, 1990; Audley-Charles and Harris, 1990; Audley-Charles, 1991; Davidson, 1991).
The contacts between those provinces are faults.

8.1. WESTERN SULAWESI VOLCANIC ARC

The Western Sulawesi Volcanic Arc extends from South Arm through the North Arm (Fig. 8.2). In
general, the arc consists of Paleogene-Quaternary plutonic-volcanic rocks with Mesozoic -
Tertiary sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks. In this chapter the stratigraphy is divided into
South Sulawesi and North Sulawesi system.

8.1.1. SOUTH SULAWESI

The Geology of eastern and western South Sulawesi is distinctly different, and these two areas
are separated by the NNW-SSE trending Walanae Depression. South Sulawesi is structurally
separated from the rest of the Western arc of Sulawesi by a NW-SE trending depression which
passes through Lake Tempe (Fig 8.3, van Leeuwen, 1981). Figure 8.4 is a compilation of the
formation names and ages of lithologies in South Sulawesi, used by various workers. For
reference a geological map and the stratigraphy of South Sulawesi are presented in Fig 2.4 &
2.6. The following sections describe the geology of South Sulawesi through time.
8.1.1.1. Mesozoic basement complex
The basement complex is exposed in two areas: in the western half of South Sulawesi near
Bantimala and Barru, and consists of metamorphic, ultramafic and sedimentary rocks (Fig. 8.4).
Metamorphic lithologies include amphibolite, eclogite, mica-schists, quartzites, chlorite-feldspar
and graphite phyllites (t’Hoen & Zeigler, 1917; Sukamto, 1975; 1982; Berry & Grady, 1987). K/Ar
dating on muscovite-garnet and quartz- muscovite schists, both from the Bantimala basement
complex yielded 111 Ma (Obradovich, in Hamilton, 1979) and 115 + 7 Ma (Parkinson, in Hasan,
1991) respectively. Wakita et al.,(1994) have dated five schist samples from the Bantimala
complex and one from Barru complex using K/Ar analyses and yielded an age of 132- l 14 Ma
and 106 Ma respectively. This data suggests a late early Cretaceous age for the emplacement of
the basement in south Sulawesi. The sequence unconformably overlying and tectonically
intercalated with the metamorphic lithological units consists of red and grey siliceous shales,
feldspathic sandstones and siltstones, radiolarian cherts, serpentinized peridotite, basalt and
diorites (Sukamto, 1975; 1982; Hamilton, 1979; van Leeuwen, 1981; Wakita et al., 1994).
Radiolaria extracted from the cherts have been dated as late Albian (latest early Cretaceous:
Pessagano, in Sukamto, 1975) or late Albian to early Cenomanian (Wakita et al., 1994). The
presence of similar metamorphic rocks in Java, the Meratus mountains in SE Kalimantan and
Central Sulawesi suggest that the basement complex in south Sulawesi may be a dismembered
fragment of a larger early Cretaceous accretionary complex (Parkinson, 1991).
8.1.1.2. Late Cretaceous sedimentation
The late Cretaceous sediments include the Balangbaru (Sukamto, 1975;1982; Hasan, 1991) and
Marada Formations (van Leeuwen, 1981) in the western and eastern parts of west South
Sulawesi respectively (Fig. 8.4). The Balangbaru Formation unconformably overlies the
basement complex and is composed of interbedded sandstones and silty-shales, with less
important conglomerates, pebbly sandstones and conglomeratic breccias (Sukamto, 1975; 1982;
Hasan, 1991). The Marada Formation consists of an arenaceous succession of alternating
impure sandstones, siltstones and shales (van Leeuwen, 1981). The sandstone are mostly
feldspathic greywacke which are locally calcareous composed of subangular to angular grains of
quartz, plagioclase, and orthoclase with subordinate biotite, muscovite and angular lithic
fragments embedded in a matrix of clay minerals, chlorite and sericite (van Leeuwen, 1981).
Graded bedding is occasionally present in sandstone and the sandstone and siltstone. Coarser
units of the Balangbaru Formation contain sedimentary structures typical of gravity flow deposits,
including the chaotic fabric of debris flows, graded bedding and sole marks indicative of turbidites
(Hasan, 1991). The lithologies and fauna of the Balangbaru and contemporaneous Marada
Formations to the east (van Leeuwen, 1981; Sukamto, 1982) are typical of an open marine, deep
neritic to bathyal environment (van Leeuwen, 1981; Sukamto, 1982; Hasan, 1991). The Marada
Formation is interpreted to be the distal equivalent of the Balangbaru Formation, based on
lithological and grain size considerations (van Leeuwen, 1981). The tectonic setting of the
Balangbaru Formation is interpreted to be a small fore-arc basin on the trench slope (Hasan,
1991).
8.1.1.3. Paleocene volcanism
Volcanics of Paleocene age occur in restricted areas of the eastern part of South Sulawesi and
unconformably overlie the Balangbaru Formations (Sukamto, 1975). In the Bantimala region
these volcanics have been called Bua Volcanics (Sukamto, 1982); Langi Volcanics in Biru area
(van Leeuwen, 1981; Yuwono et al., 1988). This formation consists of lavas and pyroclastic
deposits of andesitic to trachy-andesitic composition with rare intercalations of limestone and
shale towards the top of the sequence (van Leeuwen, 1981; Sukamto, 1982). Fission track
dating of a tuff from the lower part of the sequence yielded a Paleocene age of + 63 Ma (van
Leeuwen, 1981). The calc-alkaline nature, and enrichment of certain light rare earth elements,
suggests that the volcanics were subduction related (van Leeuwen, 1981; Yuwono, 1985),
probably from a west dipping subduction zone (van Leeuwen, 1981).
8.1.1.4. Eocene to Miocene volcanism and sedimentation
The Malawa Formation is composed of arkosic sandstones, siltstones, claystones, marls and
conglomerates, intercalated with layers or lenses of coal and limestone. This formation occurs in
the western part of South Sulawesi and unconformably overlies the Balangbaru Formation and
locally the Langi Volcanics (Fig. 2.5, Sukamto, 1982). A Palaeogene age for this formation is
inferred from palynomorphs (Khan & Tschudy, in Sukamto, 1982) whilst ostracods suggest an
Eocene age (Hazel, in Sukamto, 1982). The Malawa Formation is inferred to have been
deposited in a terrestrial/marginal marine environment passing transgressively upwards into a
shallow marine environment (Wilson, 1995). The Tonasa Limestone Formation conformably
overlies the Malawa Formation or the Langi Volcanics. This Formation consists of four members
’A’, ’B’, ’C’ and ’D’ from bottom to top. The ’A’ member comprises well bedded calcarenite, the ’B’
member is composed of thickly-bedded to massive limestone, the ’C’ member consists of a thick
sequence of detrital limestone with abundant foraminifera and the ’D’ member is characterised by
the abundant presence of volcanic material and limestone olistoliths of various ages (van
Leeuwen, 1981; Sukamto, 1982). The age of the Tonasa Formation is Eocene to middle Miocene
(van Leeuwen, 1981; Sukamto, 1982; Wilson, 1995). A ramp type margin is inferred for the
southern margin of the Tonasa Formation, and the Tonasa Carbonate Platform is composed
mainly of shallow water facies, whilst redeposited facies predominated the northern margin
(Wilson, 1995). The Malawa and Tonasa Formations have a widespread distribution over the
western part of South Sulawesi (Wilson, 1995). These formations do not outcrop east of the
Walanae Depression (Fig. 2.4.) apart from a small outcrop of the Tonasa Limestone Formation at
Maborongnge (Sukamto, 1982; Wilson, 1995). The Salo Kalupang Formation is present in the
eastern part of South Sulawesi (Fig. 2.4). This formation consists of sandstones, shales and
claystones interbedded with volcanic conglomerates, breccias, tuffs, lavas, limestones and marls
(Sukamto, 1982). Based on foraminifera dating techniques, the age of the Salo Kalupang
Formation is believed to range from the early Eocene to the Late Oligocene (Kadar, in Sukamto,
1982 and Sukamto & Supriatna, 1982). This formation is contemporaneous with the Malawa
Formation and the lower part of the Tonasa Formation (Sukamto, 1982). The Kalamiseng
Formation outcrops to the east of the Walanae Depression (Fig. 2.4) and comprises of volcanic
breccias and lavas, in the form of pillow lavas or massive flows. These are interbedded with tuffs,
sandstones and marls (Sukamto, l982; Sukamto & Supriatna, 1982; Yuwono et al., 1987). The
lavas are characterised by spillitic basalts and diabases which have been metamorphosed to a
greenschist facies (Yuwono et al., 1988). The Bone mountains have been interpreted as part of
an ophiolitic sequence based on high gravity anomalies and the marine MORB nature (Yuwono
et al., 1988). K/Ar dating on pillow lavas of the Kalamiseng Formation gave late Eariy Miocene
ages (17.5+ -0.88 and 18.7+ -0.94, Yuwono et al., 1988) and this may represent an
emplacement age of the suggested ophiolitic suite (Yuwono et al., 1988). Intrusive bodies are
exposed in the eastern part of the Biru area and Tonasa-I (Sukamto, l982) where dating by
fission track yielded an age of Early Miocene (van Leeuwen, 198l). Yuwono et al., (1987) relate
these intrusive bodies to calc-alkaline volcanics in the lower member of Camba Formation and
suggests that both were derived from early Miocene subduction. However, this is inconsistent
with a mid- Miocene (Sukamto & Supriatna, l982) or middle to late Miocene age (Sukamto, 1982)
suggested by foraminifera in marine sediments interbedded with the volcaniclastics. The lower
member of the Camba Formation consists of tuffaceous sandstone, interbedded with tuff,
sandstone, claystones, volcanic conglomerates and breccia, marls, limestones and coals
(Sukamto, 1982; Sukamto & Supriatna, 1982). The Bone Formation has been reported by
Grainge & Davies (1985) from the Kampung Baru-I well in the Sengkang area (Fig. 2.5) where it
comprises bioclastic wackestone and fine grained planktonic foraminifera packstones
interbedded with calcareous mudstone. The limestones have been dated as early Miocene (N6-
N8) in age (Grainge & Davies, 1985).
8.1.1.5. Miocene to Recent volcanism and sedimentation
The upper member of the Camba Formation described here as the Camba Volcanics, is located
in the Western Divide Range forming the ’backbone’ (Fig. 2.4). This member consists of volcanic
breccias and conglomerates, lavas and tuffs interbedded with marine sediments (Sukamto, 1982;
Sukamto & Supriatna, 1982). Foraminiferal dating suggests a middle to late Miocene age
(Sukamto, 1982) for the Camba Volcanics. The Lemo Volcanics unconformably overlie the upper
Miocene Walanae Volcanics in the Biru area (van Leeuwen, 1981), K/Ar dating for Lemo
Volcanics yielded an age of Pliocene (Yuwono, et al., 1988). Although Sukamto (1982) included
the Lemo Volcanics as part of the Camba Volcanics, this is unlikely since the age range of
Camba Volcanics is only up to the late Miocene. The lower part of Camba Volcanics (Fig. 2.5) is
thought to be equivalent to the mid- Miocene Sopo Volcanics in the Biru area (van Leeuwen,
1981). The upper part of the Camba Volcanics is thought to be analogous to the Pammesurang
Volcanics from the Biru area, described by van Leeuwen (1981). Yuwono et al., (1988)
subdivided the Camba Volcanics into two members: Camba IIa of alkali potassic nature and
Camba IIb of alkali ultrapotassic nature. Based on K/Ar dating the age of the Camba II Volcanics
is determined as late Miocene (9.91 + 0.5 Ma – 6.27 + -0.31 Ma, Yuwono et al., 1988). The
volcanic units of Miocene to Pleistocene age in South Sulawesi have been discussed by Yuwono
et al., (1987). These includes the Baturape volcanics, a series of alkali potassic extrusive and
intrusive lithologies, where K/Ar analyses yields 12.8 + 0.64 Ma (mid Miocene, Yuwono et al.,
l988); the Cindako volcanics have the same characteristics as the Baturape Volcanics, but K/Ar
dating yielded an age of 8.2+ 0.4l Ma for the Cindako Volcanics (late Miocene, Yuwono et al.,
1987). These two volcanic units are grouped together by Sukamto (l982) who suggested an
upper Pliocene age on the basis that they both unconformably overlie the Camba Formation. The
Soppeng Volcanics are inferred to have a late Miocene age (Yuwono et al., 1987), however,
Sukamto (1982) interpreted these volcanics as early Miocene in age since they are conformably
overlain by rocks of the Camba Formation. The Parepare Volcanics are remnants of a strato-
volcano composed of alternating lava flows and pyroclastic breccias dated by K/Ar analyses as
late Miocene (Yuwono et al., 1987). The lavas are intermediate to acidic in composition (Yuwono
et al., 1987). The Plio/Pliestocene volcanics of the strato volcano of Lompobatang occupies the
southern-most portion of south Sulawesi rising to a height of 2,871 m. These volcanics consist of
silica undersaturated in alkali potassic and more acidic silica saturated shoshonitic lava flows and
pyroclastic breccias (Yuwono et al,, 1987). The mid-Miocene to Pleistocene volcanic rocks in
South Sulawesi, including the upper member of the Camba Formation, have a predominantly
alkaline nature, interpreted by Yuwono et al., (1987), as a result of partial melting of the upper
mantle (phlogoplite- bearing peridotite) which was previously enriched in incompatible elements
by metasomatism’ (Yuwono et al., 1987). This may possibly have been linked to previous
subduction in early Miocene times in a ’distensional intraplate context’ (Yuwono et al.,1987). Van
Bemmelen (1949) suggested that the alkali nature of these volcanics is caused by ’excessive
assimilation of the older limestones into melt’ and incorporation of continental material into a
subduction-related volcanic arc (Katili, 1978). Neogene magmatism in western central Sulawesi
has been related to lithospheric thickening and melting (Coffield et al., 1993; Bergman et al.,
1996). The bimodal nature of Neogene igneous lithologies in this area is thought to be from the
melting of ancient mantle peridotite and crust yielding alkaline basaltic (shoshonitic) and granitic
composition melts respectively (Coffield et al., 1993; Bergman et al., 1996) The late Miocene
sedimentation is marked by the development of the Tacipi Formation (see section 2.3.2). The
Middle Miocene-Pliocene (Grainge & Davies, 1983) Tacipi Formation forms the subject of the
present study and is therefore not discussed further in this section. The Walanae Formation (see
section 2.3.2) is locally unconformable on the Tacipi Formation and in places, the two units
interdigitate. The Walanae Formation is dated as mid-Miocene to Pliocene (N9-N20 Sukamto,
1982) based on foraminifera, or alliteratively as predominantly Pliocene (up to N2l), with the
basal units probably Late Miocene in age (Grainge A Davies, 1985). In the East Sengkang Basin
the Walanae formation can be divided into two interval: a lower interval made up of calcareous
mudstone and an upper interval which is more arenaceous. The lower intervals outcrops
intensively in the southern part of the basin which in places interfinger with reef talus of the Tacipi
Formation. Limestones on the southern tip of South Sulawesi (Figs. 2.2; 2.5) and on the island of
Selayar are named the Selayar Limestone which is a member of the Walanae Formation
(Sukamto & Supriatna, 1982). The Selayar Member is composed of coral limestone and
calcarenite with intercalations of marl and calcareous sandstones. This carbonate unit ranges
from upper Miocene to Pliocene in age (N16-N19, Sukamto & Supriatna, 1982). Sukamto &
Supriatna (1982) reported that an interfingering relationship between the Walanae Formation &
Selayar limestone occurs in the Selayar Island. Terrace, alluvial, lacustrine and coastal deposits
occur locally in South Sulawesi. Recent uplift in South Sulawesi is characterized by raised coral
reef deposits (van Leeuwen 1981; Sukamto,1982).

8.1.2. CENTRAL SULAWESI

In Central Sulawesi, Late Miocene to Recent potassic calc-alkaline magmatism occur notably
along the left lateral Palu-Koro Fault Zone (Priadi et al., 1999). This granitoid is supposed to be
correlated with the collision of Banggai-Sula micro-continent with Sulawesi Island in Middle
Miocene but the detailed studies about its genesis and its ascent mechanism are still limited.
Based on their petrological aspects, association with other rocks/formations, degree of alteration,
and chemical characters, this Neogene granitoid can be classified into at least three groups, from
old to young, and they demonstrate a systematical change in their features: Coarse and KF-
megacrystal bearing granitoid (Granitoid-C) is distributed in the northern and southern limits of
Palu-Koro areas. They can be easily recognized as they present coarse equigranular or coarse
and containing KF-megacrystals. Several K-Ar age dating indicate its ages ranging from 8.39 Ma
to 3.71 Ma. Two petrographic characters can be distinguished: granitoid containing biotite and
hornblende as mafic minerals (4.15-3.71 Ma and 7.05-6.43 Ma), and granitoid containing biotite
as major mafic mineral (8.39-7.11 Ma). Medium mylonitic-gneissic granitoids (Granitoid-B) are
exposed relatively in the central areas (around Palu-Kulawi). They are all present medium
grained granitoids and sometimes contain xenoliths. This granitoid can also be subdivided into
hornblende-biotite and biotite bearing granitoids. The former is distributed in the southern part
(Saluwa-Karangana) and dated of 5.46-4.05 Ma. Whereas the latter which is dated 3.78-3.21 Ma
exposes around Kulawi. Fine and biotite-poor granitoid (Granitoid-A) represent the youngest
granitoid in Palu-Koro area (3.07-1.76 Ma), they occur as small dykes cutting the other
granitoids. The rocks are clear, white and containing few biotites as single mafic minerals, most
of them are concentrately exposed between Sadaonta-Kulawi in the central parts. Together with
these aplitic dykes are also found lamprophyric dykes (minnette type). Pre-Neogene Gneissic
Granitoid (Granitoid-D) is found in certain limited areas around Toboli. Based on geological map
of Sukamto et al. (1973) its distribution can be extrapolated to extend north-south in Toboli-
Kasimbar areas. It mainly consists of granites that are composed of quartz, K-feldspar,
plagioclase and muscovite. The occurrence of muscovite and its older age (96.37 Ma), makes
this granitoid differ from the others. Laterally these granitoids present a relative circular
distribution with Granitoid-A around Kulawi as the focus and rimmed by Granitoid-B and C. The
oldest Granitoid-D elongates north-south at the eastern part of the concentric distribution (Figure-
1).

8.1.3. NORTH SULAWESI

The North Sulawesi Arc, defined primarily on the basis of distribution of Lower Miocene arc-
related rocks, extends for about 500 km onshore, from 121o E to 125 o 20’ E, and has a
relatively constant width of 50 – 70 km, with elevations up to 2065 m. Higher elevations up to
3225 m are present at the neck of Sulawesi. The evolution of the North Sulawesi Arc may be
divided into two main stages, with respect to the mid- Miocene collision of the arc with the Sula
Platform: (1) west-directed subduction during the Early Miocene, and (2) post-collisional rifting
and uplift of the arc, and inception of subduction along the North Sulawesi Trench during the Late
Miocene to Quaternary. Geological relationships, paleontology (summarized on published 1:
250,000 maps) and preliminary K – Ar dating (Lowder and Dow 1978, Villeneuve et al. 1990,
Perello 1992, Priadi, pers. commun. 1991) suggest two main periods of magmatic activity during
the Neogene and Quaternary, namely, 22 – 16Ma (Early Miocene) and younger than 9 Ma (Late
Miocene – Quaternary), i.e. pre- and post-collision of the arc with the Sula Platform. Pliocene and
active Quaternary volcanicity belonging to the Sangihe Arc (Fig. 1) conceals much of the Early
Miocene geology near Manado (Fig. 4). Small exposures of andesite and diorite below
Quaternary volcanic cover on the Sangihe islands, north of Manado, suggest that older arc
volcanics continue offshore, possibly to Mindanao (Fig. 1), and form the basement to the
present-day Sangihe Arc. Neogene arc-related volcanic rocks are absent between Tolitoli and
Palu in the neck of Sulawesi (Fig. 4), partly due to high uplift rates and deep erosion. Lower
Miocene granitoids are not known, and there seems to be little evidence that the Early Miocene
arc extended into the neck. Despite this, it is still inferred that the Early Miocene Benioff zone
extended beneath the neck, and south to an intersection with the paleo-Palu – Matano transform
fault (Fig. 1). In Western Sulawesi, south of Makale (Fig. 1), potassic alkaline (or shoshonitic)
magmatism related to rifting rather than subduction was dominant during the Neogene (Yuwono
et al. 1985, Leterrier et al. 1990, Priadi et al. 1991).

8.2. EASTERN SULAWESI OPHIOLITE BELT

The ophiolite complex and its pelagic sedimentary cover in the East and Southeast Arms of
Sulawesi was named the Eastern Sulawesi Ophiolite Belt by Simandjuntak (1986). The belt
comprises mafic and ultramafic rocks together with pelagic sedimentary rocks and melange in
places. Ultramafic rocks are dominant in the Southeast Arm of Sulawesi, but mafic rocks are
dominant farther north, especially along the northern coast of the East Arm (Smith, 1983;
Simandjuntak, 1986). A complete ophiolite sequence was reported by Simandjuntak (1986) in the
East Arm, including ultramafic and mafic rocks, pillow lavas and pelagic sedimentary rocks
dominated by deep-marine limestone and bedded chert intercalations. Much of the complex is
highly faulted and tectonised with blocky exposures. Based on limited geochemistry data (16
basalt samples), the Eastern Sulawesi Ophiolite Belt was probably of mid-oceanic ridge origin
(Surono, 1995).
8.2.1. SOUTH EAST SULAWESI
The Southeast Sulawesi continental terrain occupies a large area in the Southeast Arm of
Sulawesi, whereas the ophiolite belt is mainly restricted to the northern part of this arm (Fig. 2).
The continental terrane, which trends northwest- southeast, is bounded by the Lawanopo Fault in
the northeastern edge and by the Kolaka Fault in southwestern edge (Figs 1-2). The terrain is
separated from the Buton Terrain by a thrust fault, and at the eastern end there is an older
ophiolite suite thrusting over. The continental terrane comprises metamorphic basernent, with
minor aplitic intrusions, Mesozoic clastic and carbonate strata, and Paleogene limestone (Fig. 2).
The basement mainly consists of low-grade metamorphic rocks. The clastic sedimentary
sequences consist of the Late Triassic Meluhu Formation. Paleogene limestone units include the
Tamborasi Formation and Tampakura Formaticm (Figs 2, 3).
8.2.1.1. Basement
The low-grade metamorphic basement rocks form the dominant component in the Southeast Arm
(Fig. 2). Tbe age of metamorphism is not clear yet. However, there are recognized an older
metamorphic epidote-amphibolite kcies and a younger low grade dynamo-metamorphic
glaucophane schist facies. The older metamorphism was related to burial, whereas the younger
metamorphism was caused by large scale overthrusting when the Southeast Sulawesi
continental terrane collided with the ophiolite belt, The metamorphic rocks were intruded by aplite
and overlain by quartz-latite lava in places, especially along the western coast of Bone Gulf.
8.2.1.2. Mesozoic sedimentary rocks
In Kendari area, the basement rocks are unconformably overlain by the Late Triassic Meluhu
Formation (Figs 2,3), which consists of sandstone, shale and mudstone. The Meluhu Formation
composes of 3 members: from oldest to youngest they are the Toronipa, Watutaluboto and
Tuetue Members. The Toronipa Member consists of meandering river deposits and is dominated
by sandstone intercalated with conglomeratic sandstone, mudstone and shale. The Watutaluboto
Member is a tidal-delta deposit dominated by mudstone intercalated with thin beds of sandstone
and conglomerate. The Tuetue Member consists of mudstone and sandstone passing up into
shallow marginal marine marl and limestone. Sandstone in the Toronipa Member consists of
litharenite, sublitharenite and quartzarenite derived from a recycle orogen source The ubiquitous
metamorphic rock fragments in the sandstone indicates that the source area for the Meluhu
Formation was dominated by metamorphic basement. The metamorphic rocks were probably
covered by a thin sedimentary succession. The small percentage of volcanic fragments in the
formation suggests that volcanic rocks also formed a thin layer with limited lateral extent in the
source area. The rare felsic igneous fragments were probably derived from dykes and/or si1ls
that intruded the rnetamorphic basement. The Meluhu Formation is time equivalent to the Tinala
Formation of the Matarombeo Terrain and the Tokala Formation in Siombok Terrain (Figs 2,4).
Lithologically, these three formations are similar, with clastic-dominated sequences in their lower
parts and become carbonate-dominated in the higher part of the formations. Halobia and
Daonella in the Meluhu, Tinala and Tokala Formations indicate a Late Triassic age. The
presence of ammonoids and pollen in the Tuetue Member of the Meluhu Formation strongly
supports this interpretation. The clastic sedimentary sequence of the Tinala Formation (Fig. 4), in
the Matarombeo Terrane, is successively overlain by the fine-grained clastic Masiku Formation
and the carbonate-rich Tetambahu Formation. Molluscs, ammonites and belemnites are
abundant in the lower part of the Tetambahu Formation and indicate a Jurassic age. The upper
part of the formation contains cherty limestone and chert nodules rich in radiolarians. The
radiolames suggesting a Jurassic-Early Cretaceous age. In the East Arm, the Tokala Formation
of the Siombok and Banggai-Sula Terranes (Fig. 4), consists of limestone and marl with shale
and chert intercalations. Steptorhynchus, Productus and Oxytoma are present in the formation
that suggest a Permo-Carbonaferous age. However, Misolia and Rhynchonel1a are found within
a limestone bed in the formation indicating a Late Triassic age. Due to lithological similarity
between this formation and the upper Meluhu Formation, a Late Triassic age is most probable for
the Tokala Formation age, while the Pamo-Carboniferous age probably represents a basement
age. The Tokala Formation is overlain by the pink granitic conglomerate of the Nanaka
Formatian, which may have been derived from the widespread granitic basement in the Banggai-
Sula Islands. The overlying Nambo Formation consists of sandstone and shale containing
common belemnites and ammonites indicating a Jurassic age.
8.2.1.3. Paleogene limestone
Paleogene limestone sequences of the Tampakura Formation (400m thick) unconformably
overlie the Meluhu Formation in the Southeast Sulawesi Continental Terrane. The formation
consists of oolite, lime mudstone, wackestone and locally packstone, grainstone and framestone.
In the lowest part of the formation, there is a clastic strata consisting of mudstone, sandstone and
conglomerate. The formation contains foraminiferas indicating a Late Eocene-Early Oligocene
age. Nanoflora in the formation indicating a broad Middle Eocene to Middle Miocene age. Thus
deposition of the formation must have taken place during the Late Eocene-Early Oligocene. Initial
deposition was in a delta environment where siliciclastic materials were dominant. A reduction in
clastic sediment supply allowed an intertidal-subtidal carbonate facies to develop extensively on
a low relief platform. Carbonate buildups, dominated by coralline 6amestone, and elongate
carbonate sand bodies or barriers formed a rimmed shelf that protected and enclosed the
carbonate tidal flat environment and isolated it from direct marine influence. Reflux
dolomitizations took place in the intertidal- supratidal zones as Mg-rich fluids moved back
towards the sea The similar Paleogene carbonate sequence of the Tamborasi Formation was
deposited in shallow marine environments. Based on their ages and lithologies, the Tampakura
and Tamborasi Formation (probably also the Lerea Formation in the Matarombeo) were probably
deposited on a single broad shallow marine shelf, The shelf surrounded an island composed of
metamorphic and granitic basement and Mesozoic clastic successions (Meluhu, Tinala and
Tetambahu Formations). Equivalent units in the East Arm (the Banggai-Sula Terrane) include the
Eocene-Oligocene limestone of the Salodik Formation, which interfingers with marl in the Poh
Formation (Figs 1, 4).

8.2.2. EASTERN SULAWESI

The oldest rock formation of Triassic age is called Tokala formation. This consists of limestone
and marl with intercalations of shales and cherts, regarded as being deposited in a deep sea
environment. Another rock facies of the same age deposited in a shallow sea is formed by Bunta
formation consisting of altered fine-grained clastic sediments such as slate, metasandstone, silt,
phyllite and schist. In the East Arm of Sulawesi is also found the so called Ophiolite complex of
late Jurassic to Eocene age which originated from an oceanic crust (Simandjuntak, 1986). This
complex is found in a tectonic contact with Mesozoic sediments and consists of mafic and
ultramafic rocks such as harzburgite, lherzolite, pyroxenite, serpentinite, dunite, gabbro, diabase,
basalt and microdiorite. These rocks under went several times of deformations and
displacements from their original place of which the last one was of Middle Miocene age. The
Tokala and Bunta formations are unconformably overlain by Nanaka formation consisting of
coarse-grained well-bedded clastic sediments such as conglomerate, sandstone with
intercalations of silts and coal lenses. Among the fragments within the conglomerate are found
red granite, metamorhpic rocks and chert which presumably originated from the socalled
banggai-sula microcontinent (Simandjuntak, 1986). The age of this formation is assumed as
Lower to Middle Jurassic and it was formed in a paralic environment. Conformably overlying the
Nanaka formationis found the Nambo formation of Middle to Upper Jurassic age. This shallow
marine unit consists of fine clastic sediments of sandy marl and marl containing belemnite and
Inoceramus. The Upper Jurassic to Upper Cretaceous Matano formation consists of limestone
with intercalations of chert, marl and silt. Unconformably overlying the Nambo formation are
found the Salodik and Poh formations which interfingers each other. These formations are of
Eocene to Upper Miocene in age. The Salodik formation consists of limestone with intercalation
of marl and sandstone containing quartz fragments. The abundance of corals, algae and larger
foraminifera found in this formation suggest that it was formed in a shallow marine environment.
The Salodik formation is in a fault contact with the Ophiolite Complex. The Poh formation
consists ofmarl and limestone with sandstone intercalations. The foraminifera assemblage of this
formation indicating an age of Oligocene to the lower part of Upper Miocene. Nanno planktons
within this formation suggest Oligocene to Middle Miocene age. The Molasse of Sulawesi which
consists of Tomata, bongka, Bia, Poso,Puna and Lonsio formations (Surono, 1989) is of Middle
Miocene to Pliocene. The Molasse contains conglomerate, sandstone, silt, marl and limestone,
deposited in paralic to shallow marine facies. It overlies unconformably the Salodik and Poh
formations as well as the Ophiolite complex. The Middle Miocene to Late Pliocene Bualemo
volcanics interfinger with the Lonsio formation of the Molasse and consist of pillow lava and
volcanic rocks. Unconformably overlying the Molasse of Sulawesi is the Pleistocene Luwuk
formation, consisting of coral reef limestone with intercalations of marl in its lower part.

8.2.3. SULAWESI MOLASSE

The Sulawesi Molasse was deposited after the collision between the continental fragments and
the ophiofite belt. Tbe molasse is widely distributed throughout eastern Sulawesi and consists of
coarse- to fine-grained clastic sequences with minor shallow marine carbonate sequences in
places. The molasse in the Southeast Arm was divided into the conglomerate-dominated
Alangga and Pandua Fonnations, a marl and limestone sequence of the Boepinang Formation,
limestone of the Eemoiko Formation, and coarse- to fine-grained clastic strata of the Langkowala
Formation. Boulders of pink granite found in the Early Miocene molasse sequences on the
northern coast of the Southeast Arm and on Selabangka and Manui Islands may have been
derived from the Banggai-Sula Islands. The molasse in the Southeast Arm is slightly older (Early
Miocene) than in the East Arm where the collision between the Banggai-Sula continental terrane
and the East Sulawesi ophiolite belt resulted in the deposition of Late Miocene molasse.

8.3. CONTINENTAL FRAGMENTS

The continental fragments in the Sulawesi region, including Central and Southeast Sulawesi,
Banggai-Sula and Buton, are believed to have been derived from part of the northern Australian
continent (Pigram et al., 1985; Metcalfe, 1988, 1990; Audley-Charles and Harris, 1990; Audley-
Charles, 1991; Davidson, 1991; Surono, 1997). They probably broke off from the Australian
continent in the Jurassic and moved northeast to their present position. Audley-Charles and
Harris (1990), Metcalfe (1990) and Audley-Charles (1991) termed them allochthonous
continental terranes. Metamorphic rocks are distributed widely in the eastern part of Central
Sulawesi, the Southeast Arm and the island of Kabaena. The metamorphic rocks can be divided
into amphibolite and epidote-amphibolite facies and a low grade dynamometamorphic group of
glaucophane or blueschist facies (deRoever, 1947, 1950). The amphibolite and epidote-
amphibolite facies are older than the radiolarite, ophiolite and spilitic igneous rocks which are
found in the metamorphic belt of the Central Sulawesi Province, while the glaucophane schist, on
the other hand, is younger. The glaucophane schist is consistent with a high pressure and low
temperature petrogenesis but these rocks have only had a reconnaissance petrological
examination. Glaucophane becomes more abundance westward (Sukamto, 1975b). Except in
Buton, the metamorphic rocks were intruded by granitic rocks in the Permo-Triassic. In the
Southeast Sulawesi, Banggai-Sula and Buton Microcontinents metamorphic rocks form the
basements of the Mesozoic basins. These rocks are unconformably overlain by thick units of
Mesozoic sedimentary rocks, dominated by limestone in Buton and siliciclastic rocks in the
Southeast Sulawesi and Banggai-Sula Microcontinents. Paleogene limestone is found on all of
the microcontinents (Smith, 1983; Surono, 1986, 1989a, b; Supandjono et al., 1986; Surono and
Sukarna, 1985; Garrad et al., 1989; Soeka, 1991). In the Late Oligocene-Middle Miocene time,
westward-moving slices of one or more Indonesian-Australian microcontinents collided with the
ophiolite complex of East and Southeast Sulawesi. The collision produced melange and an
imbricate island arc zone of Mesozoic and Paleogene sedimentary strata from the
microcontinents, with overthrust slices of ophiolite (Silver et al., 1983a, b). During the collision,
local sedimentary basins formed in Sulawesi. After the collision, basins became more widely
developed throughout Sulawesi. Sedimentation in the Southeast Arm began earlier (Early
Miocene) than in the East Arm (Late Miocene, Smith, 1983; Surono, 1989a, b). Both these
sequences are commonly referred to as the Sulawesi Molasse (Sarasin and Sarasin, 1901) and
consist of a major clastic succession and minor reefal limestone. Most of the molasse was
deposited in a shallow marine environment but in some places it was deposited in fluvial to
transitional environments (Simandjuntak et al., 1981a, b, 1984; Surono et al., 1983; Rusmana et
al., 1988; Surono, 1989a, b, 1996).

8.4 BONE BASIN

Bone Basin is located between south and southeast arm of Sulawesi, interpreted as a composite
basin, with its origin as a subduction complex and suture between Sundaland and Gondwana-
derived microcontinents, which subsequently evolved as a submerged intramontane basin.
Tectonic and stratigraphic evolutions of the Bone Basin are still poorly understood due to limited
data. A new model based on surface geology, seismic and single well data is presented for the
tectonic and stratigraphic evolution of Bone Basin. During Early Tertiary or older, a westward
subduction complex was probably developed to the east of western Sulawesi and Bone Basin
was in a fore arc setting. A collisional event occurred between Australian-derived microcontinents
and the Early Tertiary accretionary complex during Middle Miocene resulting in eastward
obduction of the accretionary complex during Middle Miocene resulting in eastward obduction of
the accretionary complex onto the microcontinents. The westerly continental moving
microcontinents then collided against and partly was subducted beneath the western Sulawesi
during Late Miocene. The compression from the collision propagated a major back-thrust system
westward to the subduction zone generating foldbelts as indicated by the west-verging Kalosi
and Majne fold belts. The two colliding plates then were locked up during the Pliocene and the
continued plate convergence was accommodated by strike-slip movements along the Walanae,
Palukoro and other faults. In the southern part of Bone Basin, westerly movement of the
microcontinents did not reach the collision stage with western Sulawesi. Instead, Southeast
Sulawesi was rotated eastward resulting in a major extensional fault cutting along the middle of
the Bone Basin (Sudarmono, 1999). Stratigraphic record is very limited as only one well was
drilled in the basin. The well indicates that the northern part of the Bone Basin basically consist of
two marine sedimentary packages separated by a major Pliocene unconformity, which are pre-
collision and post-collision sediments. The pre-collision sediments is of Late to Lower Miocene
age consisting of predominantly calcareous claystone with rare limestone beds in the upper part
and a conglomeratic layer in the lowermost part. The post-collision sediment is a syn-orogeneic
sequence consisting of interbedded sands and clays with a few thin sporadic lenses of lignites.
The lowermost part of the package and overlying the major Pliocene unconformity is a layer of
fine to coarse grain sandstones grading to conglomerates (Sudarmono, 1999).

8.5. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Sulawesi Island and its surroundings is one of the most complicated active margin in term of
geology, structure and tectonic as well. The region represents a center of triple junction plate
convergene, due to the interaction of three major earth crusts (plates) in Neogene times
(Simandjuntak, 1992). This convergence gave rise to the development of all type of structures in
all scales, including subduction and coliision zone, fault and thrust and folding. At present most of
the Neogene structures and some of the pre-Neogene structures are still being activated or
reactivated. The major structures include Minahasa Trench, Palu-Koro Fault System and its
spalys of Balantak-Sula Fault, Matano Fault, Lawanopo Fault, Kolaka Fault and Kabaena Fault,
Batui Thrust, Poso Thrust and Walanae Fault.
8.5.1. MINAHASA TRENCH
The Minahasa Trench is surfece expression of Benioff zone, inwhich the Sulawesi Sea crust
being subducted beneath the North Arm of Sulawesi in late Palogene times (Fitch, 1970; Katili,
1971; Cardwell and Isacks, 1978; Hamilton, 1979; McCaffrey et al, 1983; Simandjuntak, 1993a).
The subduction seems to be culminated in Neogene comtemporaneously with the west-
southwest dipping collision zone between the Eastern Sulawesi Ophiolite Belt against the
Banggai-Sula Platform along the Batui Thrust in the south. Seismicity suggests that at the
present the Minahasa Trench seems to be dying out (Mc Caffrey et al, 1983; Kertapati et al,
1992). Simandjuntak (1988) suggested that recently, the eastern portin of the subduction zone
seems to have been reactivated and produced the Minahasa Volcanic arc.
8.5.2. PALU-KORO FAULT SYSTEM
The Palu-Koro Fault System for the first time is defined by Sarasin (1901), and Rutten (1927)
described the fault zone stretched on nearly N-S direction for at least 300 km long in Central
Sulawesi. Sudrajat (1981) described that the Palu-Koro Fault stretchs from west Palu City to the
Bone Bay in the southeast for some 250 km long and calculated the transcurrent movement in
the ranging of 2-3.5 mm to 14-17 mm/year. Tjia (1981) analysed the rate of up-lifting of coralline
reefs within the fault zone of some 4.5 mm/year. Indriastuti (1990) calcaulated the means of
horizontal maovement of 1.23 mm/year. Bemmelen (1970) and Katili (1978) suggested that the
northern portion of the fault system is dominated by vertical movement whereas the southern
part is dominated by sinistral wrench movement. Walpersdorf et al (1997) on the basis of
interferometric GPS analysis found out that the sinistral wrench movement of the Palu-Koro Fault
System on te rate of 3.4 mm/year. Seismicity shows that at the present the Palu-Koro Fault being
at least segmently reactivated (Kertapati et al, 1992; Soehaemi and Firdaus, 1995 ).
Simandjuntak (1993a, b) thought that the Palu-Koro Fault System continued to Bone Bay, cut
across the Flores Thrust and terminated in the Timor Trough in the south and to the north is
termianted in Minahasa Trench. He also pointed out that during the history of fault movement,
the Palu-Koro Fault was dominated by a sinistral transpressional movement, giving rise to the
up-lifting of the mountain ranges along the fault zone. Althought in recent time the fault system
was subjected to a transtensional sinistral wrenching causing the development of graben like
basins such as Palu Valley and small lakes in many parts along the fault zone. He also further
suggested that the development of Bone Bay was magnified by the sinistral transtensioanl
movement of Palu-Koro Fault System in very late Neogene time. The Palu-Koro Fault System in
Sulawesi is connected with Sorong Fault System in Irian Jawa via Balantak-Sula Fault, Matano-
South Buru Fault. To the south the Palu-Koro Fault merges with the Lawanopo Fault. Kolaka
Fault and Kabaena Fault (Simandjuntak, 1993a)..
8.5.3. BATUI THRUST
Simandjuntak (1993a) defined that the Batui Thrust is surface expression of the collision zone
between Banggai-Sula Platform against Eastern Sulawesi Opiolite Belt in Neogene time. The
thrust bounds the ophiolite belt in the hanging wall from the micro-continents in the foot wall
regims. The thrust can be obsrved clearly on the landsat imagery of the region (Hamilton, 1979).
The thrust strechts from Balantak in the eastern tip of the East Arm of Sulawesi to the SW in
Morowali, Tomori Bay. The thrust is disrupted and cut across by a number strike-slip fault, Toili
Fault, Ampana Fault and Wekuli Fault. Its continuation further to the south in central, Southeast
Arm, Buton and Kabaena Islands seems to have been greatly disrupted and modified by post-
collision faults and hence it can not be traced as a continuous thrust zone. Seismicity shows that
at present the thrust might be reactivated (McCaffrey et al, 1983; Kertapati et al, 1992). The
occurrence of at least three terraces of Quaternary coraline reefs along the southern coast of the
East Arm of Sulawesi also testifies the recent reactivation of the thrust (Simandjuntak, 1986,
1993a).
8.5.4. POSO THRUST
Poso Thrust is defined as structural contact zone between the Central Sulawesi Metamorphic
Belt (CSMB) and the Western Sulawesi Magmatic Belt (Bemelen, 1949; Hamilton, 1979;
Simandjuntak et al, 1991; Simandjuntak et al, 1992). The thrust is believed to have instrumented
the up-thrusting of high pressure metamorphics (CSMB) from the depth in Benioff zone on to the
top of magmatic belt in Neogene times. Seismicity suggests that at the present the thrust is no
longer active (Kertapati et al, 1992). However, the recent earth quake in the west coast of Tomini
Bay indicates that at least the northern portion of the thrust being reactivated.
8.5.5. WALANAE FAULT
The Walanae Fault is defined as a sinistral wrench faulting trending in NW-SE direction, cut
across the South Arm of Sulawesi. The fault seems to be continued further to the northwest cut
across Makassar Strait and merged with the Phaternoster-Lupar suture in Kalimantan and to the
south is terminated in the Flores Thrust. In Quaternary the fault seems to have been reactivated
transtensionally causing the development of Walanae Depression. Seismicity suggests that at
the present the fault is no longer active or dying out.
8.5.6. NOTES ON THE MAKASSAR STRAIT
Katili (1978) suggested that the Makassar Strait was tectonically developed due to the rifting of
the region with axis trending nearly N-S direction parallel to the long axis of the strait. Situmorang
(1983), on the basis of seismic reflection profile across Makassar Strait found out that no a new
developing oceanic crust beneath of the Tertiary sequences at the sea floor of the strait. He
further suggested that the basement of the strait is more likely of continental crust. The
occurrence of the Neogene fissured volcanics in and along the Lupar-Phaternoster suture and
other parts in the interior of Kalimantan (Bergman et al, 1988; Harahap, 1996; Hutchison, 1996;
Simandjuntak, 1999) and a similar sosonitic volcanics in wsetern South Arm of Sulawesi (Pryadi,
199 ) suggest the development of extensional tectonic in the region on Neogene times. The
development of Makassar Strait more likely being related with the extensional tectonic occurring
in many parts of central Indonesia in Neogene times.

8.6. TECTONIC DEVELOPMENT OF SULAWESI

The peculiar ‘K’ shaped of Sulawesi Island may indicates the complexity of geology and tectonics
of the region. On the basis of data obtained on geology and geophysics Simandjuntak (1993)
summarized the tectonic evolution of Sulawesi and its surroundings, which is related with the
(re)occurrence of a number types of tectonism, including a) Cretaceous Cordileran type
subduction, b) Mesozoic tectonic divergence, c) Neogene Tethyan type collision and d)
Quaternary double opposing collision.
8.6.1. CRETACEOUS CORDILERAN TYPE SUBDUCTION
A Cretaceous Cordileran type subduction is recorded by the development of a west-dipping
Benioff zone in and along western Sulawesi, inwhich the proto- Banda Sea crust subducted
beneath south-southest margins of Sunda Shield (SE Eurasian Craton). The occurrence of Late
Cretaceous high pressure metamorphic rocks in the Central Sulawesi Metamorphic Belt, the
Cretaceous-Paleogene melange wedges associated with metamorphics and ophiolitic rocks, the
Paleogene volcanics in the Westren Sulawesi Magmatic Belt and the ophiolites in the Eastern
Sulawesi Ophiolite Belt are thought to have been developed during and subsequent to this
subduction (Simandjuntak, 1980). The presence of Late Cretaceous-Paleogene flysch sediments
associated with basaltic lavas may represent an upper trench slope sequences during this palte
convergence.
8.6.2. MESOZOIC TECTONIC DIVERGENCE
Meanwhile, further to the south-southeast, subsequently after the Permo-Triassic thermal doming
the northern continental margins of Australia were rifted due essentially to the extensional
tectonic. The continental fragments, then were detached and displaced north-northwestwards to
form the present micro-continents in the Banda Sea region (Pigram & Panggabean, 1984),
including the Banggai-Sula Paltform, Tukangbesi-Buton Platform and Mekongga Platform
(Simandjuntak, 1986), During the history of the detacheement and northwestwards displacement,
the continental blocks were fragmented to form those micro-continents occurring in the Banda
Sea region. And by the Neogene times, some of the micro-continents were collided with the
subduction complex and ophiolite belt in the western margin of Banda Sea region. The tectonic
divergence seems to be essentially dominated by a transcurrent-transformal displacement along
the line of Sorong Fault System together with its splays of steep faults in the region
(Simandjuntak, 1986, 1993).
8.6.3. NEOGENE TETHYAN TYPE COLLISION
The north-northwestwards moving continental fragments (micro-continents) of Banggai-Sula
Platform, Tukangbesi-Buton Platform and Mekongga Platform collided with the subduction
complex (CSMB) and the ophiolite belt (ESOB) in Neogene times. This tectonic convergence is
typically Tethyan collision inwhich the platforms underplated the ophiolite belt and subduction
complex. At present the collision zone is marked by the occurrence of Neogene melange wedges
in places along the Batui Thrust in the East Arm of Sulawesi (Simandjuntak, 1986). The collision
characteristically produced no volcanic arc and geometrically without the development of fore-arc
and back-arc basinal setting (Simandjuntak, 1988). The end products of this collision is
characteristicaaly marked by the obduct-ing (up-thrusting) of the ophiolite suite onto the margins
of the micro-continents and the thrusting-up of the subduction complex (CSMB) over the Western
Sulawesi magmatic arcs (Simandjuntak, 1991; Bergman et al, 1996). The Papua New Guinea
Ophiolite Belt is also emplaced by an obduction tectonics (Davies, 1976). During the end and
subsequent to this collision, the deposition of post-orogenic coarse clatics of mostly molasse type
sediments took place in the Late Neogene times. The molasses are mostly marine, but partly are
terrestrials as indicated by the occurrence of lensoidal lignites, which seems to have been
acummulated in an isolated and fault-bounded graben like basins especially in the interior of
Central Sulawesi. The marine molasse at least partly seem to have been deposited in a
submarine fan environmental setting.
8.6.4. QUATERNARY DOUBLE OPPOSING COLLISION
At present an active volcanics in and along the Minahasa-Sangihe Volcanic Arc appears to have
been initiated by the development of a double- opposing subduction in northern Sulawesi in
Neogene and reactivated in Quaternary. The plate convergence is marked by the development of
south-southeastwards-dipping subducted crust of Sulawesi Sea beneath the North Arm of
Sulawesi couples with the westward-dipping subducted crust of Maluku Sea in the north with its
southern continuation along the Batui Thrust, inwhich the Banggai-Sula Platform underpalted the
Eastern Sulawesi Ophiolite Belt in the East Arm of Sulawesi (Simandjuntak, 1991). On the basis
micro-seismicity analysis McCaffrey et al (1983) suggest that the southern collision might be (re)
activated at the present time. The occurrence of at least three terraces of Quaternary reefal
limestones in and along the southern coast of the East Arm of Sulawesi testifies the reactivati-on
of thie plate convergence and the rapid uplifting of the region.

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