152 - 168 ulfiT - 1

152
153 lntroduction and Concepts
151
154
151 1.1 lntroduction
155 I'let processinll is lhe Dreflcr:l of ptastir:1ll), rleformi g thc nlr:tol irLLi)
155 rcquired shape. XIost largescalc delonnaiiolr pr_ocesscs ar"c pcrlbrrned in h{n.
156 condition, s.r that mininum forcc is ]leeded Lo rL-.1orm thc rnctnl to r'equir-eri shitpc
15'7
and the consequcrnt rccrl'siallisation Ielines thc ntctellic struclur'-".
158
159 ColcL rlor'ki g pr'ocess is cnplo1'ed \\'her1 srD.roLh stlr_frc.r iinish.1nd Liglr
159 dinrelrsiona] accuracy is dcnranded.
160 'fhe processes used are clivclsc iD scele, rllryirll liun forqiDg encl r'ol1irrg oi
161 ingots weighing sever-al tonncs to dr'arrir,g ol ujr.es less than 0.u05 rnn rl
162 dianletcr. Allhoullh a number of a componelrts can Le manufactureci cornpletelr',
163 nlctal lbrming is prin arily usccl to produce such matcr'ial es bar anrl sheets rvhich
163
erc subsequenUv machined or pr-essed iDto the final shape. A char.t showing the
165
major mctal fornring processcs is given in lig 1.1
165
161 1.2 General Classilication of metal lorming process
167
Selectiorl ol a par-ticular anulhclurjng process depends oD \':uiolrs Iactors
168
lilie size ancl shape oi the finishcd conrponent. rnrterial used, cost etc.
|ig.1.1 shorvs thc gener.al classificaiion ol forning; processes as the type anC
size of the components that can bc pr.oduced using these proccsse-r. HoFcvcr the
final selection clepends largely on the cost. tDeLe al and availabilitv olthe laciljtv
in a particular industry.
For exanple: Scalnless lubes of verv closr: diucnsional accuracy c:rn be mlcle
by cold drari ing.
Co]]:rpsible iu'bes and spcciel sections cen be obtained bt,exLr-usion.
Lerge componcnts cen be convcnienLl-r nranLrfactured b1, fb|ging pror:css.
Whi1e. platcs, rods and diflercnt secLir)ns lilic I channel. L section.irn be eo.L
hom rolling.
 Manufacturinq Process - IIl
1.3 Cla
apl
lngot ( Ca-sl)
Bas
as follow
(i) Dn

(Fi
Round, Square & Special seclions
Plates & Strips (ii) Int
Large apl
Billet (aasr) th€
thi
(iii) Te
AI
ter
(iv) B€
l
(fir
i
(v) Sh
Heary & to
Iightseclions

Seamless
I
F
x
I

ENGINEERING PRODUCTS

l\.{achning / Assernbly

FiE, 1,1 General classification ofmetal Laorhing prccesses.

I
 3
httroduc tion @nd C ohc ePt 3

1.3 Classification ot metal forming processes based on the nature ol force

apPlied.
Baseal on the nature of force applied, the forming processes can be clessified

(i) Ditect compression type: llere the ibrcc is applied to the surface of the
work piece and the metal flo1vs at i!{ht angles to the direction ol compressirn
(Fig 1.2). The best er<amples ofthis type ofprocess are ro]ling and forging
(ii) Indirect compression type: In ihese types of forces, though the prinarj
piece wilh
applied forces are lrequently tensile, clue to the reaction of work
iL:: (Cast) the di". indi."ct forces are developed (Fig 13) Best exampies of
"o-pressiveextrusion and deep drawing'
this type are wire drawing,
+
(iii) Tension tlpe: Shetch forming is the best example ofthis tlTe (fig 1 4) Here
=;l a metal sheet is wrapped to the contour- ol the die under the application of
tensiie force-
:r..ial (iv) Bending tnter This involves application of bending moments to the sheet
(fig 1.5) as in sheet bending operation.
(v) Shearing: In this process shearing forces of sulfrcient magnitude is applied
to rupture the material in the plane of shear (fig 1 6)

Rolls
Dircction oi leed
-

(b) Rolling

tu) \fte dntunL7 b) Extrusion

Fig. 1.2 Direcl ComPrPssion

 ,Vunufacturins ptulpsl III

2.

4.

k piece
6.
(c) Decp Drd!0i19
7.
Fig. 1.3 Indirect Co,npressiorl trpe
'Ilhe varir

Force or nessurc appti.d

Strelch
lornring

(ii) Col
Fig. 1.4 I'ension trpe process Fig. 1.5 Bending Process wh
temperat
tcmpera{
greeter
-*\vP consideri
The effer
Fig, 1.6 Shcaring 1.

1.4 Classification ot metal lorming processes based on working 2.

temperature. 3.
Based on thc worhing temperature, metal \\,.orking processes can
bc classilied 4.
as (i) Hot working and (ii) Cold rvorkilg
5.
(i) Hot working
6.
Working of metals above the recrysiallisation ternperature is callecl Hot
working. The metal is heated above the recrystallisation lernperature. but below 7.
its nelting point and force is applied to achieve the desired size and shape. 8.
The effects ofhot woridng are: Th€
L Lerge p,c"ric d. lornarion :s pos"ibl-. a)
 I nt rod.u. tiot atd Conc e p t s

2. li does not shain - harden thc metals.

3. It refines the grain structure.
4. Dclccts in mctals such as blo\\' holes and porosity tends lo get fllled up
due to plastic delorm.rtion.
J. R""idLcr 5trpjca- Jra nor nL"!oLrvd 'r.hc mc al.

6. lt does not iniluence mechanical properties-

7. Due to oxidation and scaling. the sudace finish is poor.
The various hot working processes ar.el
a) Forging, b) Rolling, c) Pipe wekling,

d) Extrusion, e) Spinning, 0 Piercing,

f g) Draw g.

(ii) Cold working

a melal is rvorked at temperiitures belorv the recrystallisation
\trhen
tcmperature it is called cold working. Thc tcmperature rnay vary fi.onr room
temperature lo temperatur-e beiow recrystallisation tenperaturc. It ]equires
greater lorce to achieve plastic deformation- The amount ol delormatjon is
consider.ably jess.

The ellects of cold working are:

1. Greater stress is required to achievc deformation.
I working
2. It distorts grain shucture.
3. Co)d working resulh in loss ofductility ofthe netal.
be classifiecl 4. It increases the mechanical propelties like ultimate tensile stress_
5. There will be work hardening due to cold working.
6. The directional pioperties are more pronounced.
called IIot 7. Unrelieved intcrnal stresses will be prcsent.
,- but belo\r
rape_ E. Surface finish of the components will be very good.
The various cold lvorking processes are !
a) Cold rolling b) Cold extrusion
 Mahuldcturiip Prccess - I

c) Cold drawing d) Embossing 1.7 Str

e) Coining fl Bending In
g) Shearing, etc. the desi:
the forcr
1.5 Casl \rersus wrought metals or alloys koow tl
Castings of various metals and alloys are used when the shape is very large deternir
or awkward to {brge, rvhen quality and strength are noi pdmary considerations, apply th
when economy is desirable, or when the metal or alloy is difficult to shape bl hot Th
or cold working. In castings local differences of [retallurgical structure and central I
chemical composition as well as any blow holes lormed duling solidification oi the
indicate
metal are permanent. Thus in general castings have inferior rnechanical
of the s1
propeliies.
grippinE
Wrouglrt metals, although they also start from the liquid state, are cast into exlensic
ingots of simple shape and size. The ingots are later subjected to hot worhiDg
operation. The subsequent rcheating before hot wortring reduces the tendency for
local segregation and subsequent mechanical working eliminates further.rny
existing de{ects such as blow holes. llot working aiso imparts directional
propedies to the metals caused by the d€formation of g?ains along the direction of
working. Castings do nol show directional propeities. The rvrought metals
generally exhibit superior rnechanical properties lihc strength, ductilitv and
toughness compared to castings.

1.6 Advantages and limitations ol metal working processes

Ad'antaEes
1. Defects in metals such as blow holes and porositl tend to get filled up .:
due to plastic deformation.
t
2. Mechanically worked components exhlbit superior mechanical properties.
3. Especially suited for producing small components.
Disadoantages
1. Directional properties are prevelcnt in the components.
2. Unrelieved internal stresses will be present in components.
3. It is difficult to produce larE{e components.
 3.4 Advar
UNIT - 3 1) St
flo
Forging 2) El
il) It
3.1 lntroduction ,1) R€
- In forging the metals or alloys are plastically deformed to the desired shapes,
5) l{
using compressive force, The compressive force is appliecl using hammers or
presses. 6) F.
A pair of dies is used: One die is stationery and the other is attached to the -7) F.
hammer which has a linear nrotiorr. Forging process can be canicd out bol]r in the
cold and hot state of the mei,al. Horvever in majority ol cases forgug is done rthen
3.5 Disad
the metal is in hot statc. 1) In
th
3.2 ForgeableMaterials
a
A netal lvlich has to be forged should possess good ductility. Ductility refcrs
2) Hi

I to the capacity ofa rnatedal to undcrgo plastic deformation when subjectecl ro a 3) T.

Ioad or stress. In addition to this, the material should have good resistancc to 4) Nt
shock and fatigue, good machining characteistics etc. some ol the comnlon metals
and alloys which can be forged, include aluminium alloys, copper alloys, stainless 3.6 Hand
stcel, lorv carbon steel, Nickel alloys, Magncsium alloys, Titanium alloys ctc.
Thc tc
3.3 ForgingTemperatures oper:ations s
In forging, the metal is hcated to higher lemperature so that it bccomcs TILe d
plastic befbre delomation. Excessive tempcrature may result in the burDing of the
hammering.
metal. Insufficient temperature $'iil not give adequate plasticity to the n1ctal. In
rvelded on t
addition the finishing temperature should be such that at rvhich no grain grorvth
takes, so that the lvorh piece possesses a {ine grained structure. Table 3.1 giYes faced. The r
the lorging tenperatures lbr diflerent nelals and allols. ol .sn, all dia
sr. Aletal lAllnl' Fary:ing tenlpel-a t u re' C' A D p r.r:i nnte) hole is use<

rvo. Stat tili! 1':ri.-,4rn-'

variorN fitti
1. lllild steel 1300 s00 Anvils
2. Medium carbon steel I2;it ;;0 ancl should
High carbon steel 11i: S25 0.?5m fror
4. Wrought iron :l .. 900 attained by
5. Aluminium and l{agnesium al1o1's : JJO
6. Copper, Brass and Bronze 600
Table 3.1 Forging tenpErc.)...
 3,4 Advantages ol forging process
1) Superior nechanical properties are obtained especially along the fibre
Ilolr dirccLi.n.
2) Elinination of porosity prcsent in the metal.
3) Impu ties present in the metal in the fonn off slag and other inclusions
are broken up and distr:ibuted throughout the metal.
4) Refinement of €i'ain structure.
e desired shapes,
hanlmer.s or
5) X{etal removai in subsequent machining in minimised.
insa
6) Forgings can be readily u'elded.
.i attached to the - ?) Fairly closc dimensional tolerances are achieved.
n out both in the 3.5 Disadvantages
irg is done when
1) In hot forging, due to high temperature, rapid oxidalion and scaling of
the surface occurs which results in poor sudace hnish.
2) Highly intricllte shapes possible by casting process cannot be forged.
!' Duclility refers
e.- subjected to a 3) Tooling and handling costs are high.
s'id resistance to 4) Normally forgings costs more than castings.
€ aornmon metals
t :lloys, stainless 3.6 Hand Tools and Accessories
n rlloys etc.
'Ihe tools and eqllipment used and their applications in numerous forging
operations are described below:
r --iat it becones The anuil:'l}'e anvil (lig. 3.1) fbnns a suplJort lbr blacksnith's work when
rj:. burning ol the hal1-rn,ering. The body ol the anvi] is made of mild steel with a tool steei fece
J :o the tnetal. In welded on the body, but the beak or horn used for bending curves is not steel
[ 10 grain growth faced. The round hole in the anvil called pritchel hole and is used lbr bending rods
e. Table 3.1 gives
of small diameter and as a die fbr hot punching operations. The square or hardie
=C ,Tpproxin.cLte)
hole is used for holding square shanks of
va ous fittings-
80{) Anvils vary upto about 100 to 150 kg
?50 and should stand with the top facc about
0.75m liotn 11oor. This height may be
900 attained by resting the anvil on a cast iron
350 or wooden base.
600 Fig.3-I Anotl
atturitp Pro.ess - III
3.8 classification of forging process
Forgrng process can he broadly classified as
a) Open die lolging.
b) Closed die forging.

3.8.1 Open die forging

r:nber of hardwood Fie. 3.13. Open Die foreing

t e boards and lilt This is also knorvn as hand, smiih, hammer of flat die forging. The simplest
I and release the
E the weight of the open die forging operation is the upsetting of a cylindrical billet between lrvo flat
ei lifting as air or' dies as shown in hgure 3.13- As the metal llows laterally between the advanting
Ere of hand tools, die surfaces, there is less delornation at the die intedaces because ol the frictional
lorces, than at the mid height point. Thus the sides of the upset cylinder becomes
i to 45 KN falling baralled. As a general rule netal will flow more easily towards thc nearest free
e disadvantages ol surfaces because this represents the lowest frictional path. Operl die lorging is
trld the intensity of employed under the following circumstanccs:
(i) When the forging is too large to be produced in closed dies.
(ii) To obtain super:ior nechanical properties which cannot be obtaincd bl'
machidng from a bar or billet-
(iii) The quantity required being too small to justify the cost of closed dies.
(iv) The delivery date is too close to permit the making of dics lor closed die
forging.
The size and weight are not a limitation in open die forging. Items such es
marine propeller shalts which may be several metcm in diameter and as long as
25 :neters are lorged by open-die practice. Converseiy forgings no more than a few
centimeters in ma-ximum dimensions are also produced in open dies.
Open die forgings are produced in a pair of flat dies; one attached to thc
52 Manulnttuting PN.:ess - III

Case 2: tr'orging cylirtd.rical uorhpiece fi'on a square blocr?; In rhc first srep dies as in fi
the square blocl< is hantmered dorvn whjch iDcreases the length. In the ilow of thc
second stcp the corners of the square is hallrmered to produce en number of r
octagonal shape. In the third step lhe octagon !vas rounded by suctessrr e metal until
}ammer blows on the workpiece as it is rotated. This is follo*'ed by the forged
cvlindrical forging. required. L
die.
3.8.2 Closed Die Forging
In this ca,ce the sheping of the hot. nctal is achieved compleLely rvithin thc
$'alls or cavities of trvo dies that coDe together to errclose the rvorkpiece on all
siclos. The in]pression for rhe forging can be entircly in either die or divided
betweer the top and botton dies.
6a
The forging slock rvhich is generally a lound ol' squarc bar is cut to rhe
required lengih to get the volune of metal necdcd to fill the die cavities, plus an ;

allowancc for flash- The stock after heating to the required forging tcnlperature is
kcpt in bel*,een the two halves ol the die. Thc for.ce is applied by means c,ff
V\
\
hanlmers which allorvs the melal to undergo plastic deformetion and fill the dic
cavity. Figure 3.1? shou,s a schenatic of closed die forging.

FiE. 3.17 Closed. die forginq. I'igur,

l)epending on the nanner in rvhich lhe pressure is applicd, closed die lorgine forgir, g. He
can be classified as: stock in var
a) Drop forging.
b)P
b) Press lbrging. hamnler'. tl
c) Nlachirre lbrging. shape- 'I'he
a) Drop fbrging: In drop forging the various types of hammers are used to Hydr:
apply the pressure. Thc rop half of the die is attached to rhe halnner while the
lorgiDgs in
bcttofr h.r]f is fixed ro thc arvil. The D]-essure is appiied by repeated blows ftorn
Iler-e lhe nr
thc top hall of the clie o1l to the irealeC metal kcpt in the botton half ol die.
mediurn car
In this closcd irnpr'ession dios ar.e used. Fol.ging is produced by impact or :i lorce of '-
Drcssure which compels 1.h-. hot end llor\ able metal tu confirnr to 1_he shape of lhe
i:iuting Pro.ess III

rAi In r,he lirststep dies as in figure. In this operation there is drastic flow of metal 'I'o ensure ploper
:.,e lcngth. In the flow of the metal dudng the intermittent bjows, the operation is directed into :1
::j ro produce an number of si,eps. cach step changes the form gadually contrclling Lhe flo$' oi the
ii:ed by successive lnetal until the flnal shape is obtaiDed- Number of steps involved depends upon
.:.:: is lollorved by the forged qu:llities of the etal, size and shapc ol the parts and the lolerances
required. Large and cornplicated shapes may require use of nlore thcn one set ol
die.

=. .riiel."- \\,ithin thc

:. orkpiece on all
-- -: die or divided

: :ri is cut to the

:, .:1ities. plus an
: : tcmperature js
: ::i by iteans off
- - snd fi]] the dic

Fig. 3.18 Steps in forging of a urerrch in a board han ner,

Figure 3.1E shows the steps involved in forging of a $'rench usilrg closed idca
-. :lo-red die for.gints- forging- Here n]ultiplc impression die is uscd to gradually change thc shape ol lhe
stock in various sleps to gct the linished product.
Press fbt'ging: 7r pres-q lbrging, instead ol rapid impact blows of
b)
hammcr, the heated mctaL is slowll, squeezed undel pressur.e into the required
shape. The squeezing operation is done eilher mechanicaliy or hydraulicaily.
r:mers are used to lI]'draulic pr'esses are ft'equerltl) used for starnping complicaled large
;1enrmcr while lhe forgings in multi impression clies. Figure 3.19 sho$.s a hydraulic fbrging press.
'ipeated blows frorn
Here the motion of the raDr is achieved through an intcnsifier drive. The rvorking
n half ol die. nedium can be oil, $aler: or oil t'ater emulsiorr. f'lodcrn hydraulic pr-esses develop
duccd bf irnpact or e ibrce of upto 1000 NtN adequete to fabricate fbrgings of upto 5 tons. Hydraulic
ro thc shape ol lhe presses erc quite expelsivc and their operation is slow. Thel arc uscd to produce
 Manufa.turihg Prctess III

slender ibrgin€is and forgings lrorn less ductile al1oys. The typical products provides a u
produced by press fbrging al'e: large levers. flanges. toothed rvheels. ]rollorv boclies, dense and h
railway $.heel discs, ctc-,
,

l"
i

il Ir
F

Fig. 3.19 Hytlroulic foryne press

In ups,
Cornparison betu:ecn Itammer forging antl press forgjng; Flamner blorv a fir<ed die. l
produces shock and vibrations in the structure and founclation au.l th.l forrncd to sh
surrounding_s. This implies a practjcal lirnit to the sjze ol the harnlr-rer. The times rhe di
hanmering proccss is more thorough and effcctive than pressing but $.hcn fhe cavity. For
thickness of the material is largJe the eflects olhammering rna], not penetrate right although in
through, and the oLrter surface of the netal will be be er \aorked than thosc dies. The irr
deeper below. In the hamnering process speed of operation can be altered cases tdnlm
accordiDg to the size of forging. In harnmering, the position of the \rork should be
altered rapidll' bctlyeen the blorvs ancl lhis can be done upto a lirDitt,cl size and Forgin
1!eight. sLlch as bolti
pr-oduced in
Press action is relatively slow but the r-eduction jn size ij comparatively movable die
rapid. Vafied and mor.e col}lplex shapes can be fonneci in prcss nction. Size ts not a from upsetti
definite rcstriction in this and hcnce c:rn be used quite reridill r. Ior.rn alnosL any perlormed.
shape. Impodant clfecl is dispersion oj thc nor1 rneta]lic inrlus:,:nj throug]lour !hc
body rvhich lends to nininise thcir ellect. 3.9 Floll tc
In general, hanmer's are emplo]'cd upto 10 tornE! ,.rj \,,::er.eas hydraulic Roll as
presses in gcneral use. r,ary i}l range fronr 200 ro 11 , . ,,:::_es press lbreing alvav to perl
Ltutins Proc.ss - III Forging 55

: rt-pical products plovides a unifomr finished shapes- Shapes formed by press lorging are gcncrally
,?ls. hollow bodies. dense and hornogeneous in structure.

Il
0l I

(i)

FiE. 3.20 Steps inDolDed in upset forsinr,.

In upset forging, one end of the bar is heated and the other end is gripped in
rr-oj ilamDer blolv a fixed die. Pressure is applied lengthwise on lhe hot end causing it to be upseL or
::.::On and the formed to shape. The length of the stock to be upset should not be more than 2 to 3
-:::rrlnmer. Thc times the diameter or else the material is bent rather lhan bulge out to li1l the dic
:_-: !.rt rrhen the cavity. For some products entire operations nay be compJetcd in one position
r:,.:netrate right although in rnost cases work is progr'essively placed in differcnt positions in the
::.::d than thosc dics. Ihe impressions may be in the punch in the g'ripping die or in both. In mosl
: :-., be altered cases tdmming is not necessary.
= ulk should be
..
Forging ofthe dng and rod types rvith all kinds of threads and shouldets
,,.::-:ied size and
such as bolts, nuts, n'ashers, collars, pinions, gear blalks, etc., can be convenicnth'
produced in such forging machinc. The heated end is gripped iD fixcd die and the
-.
romparalivcly movable die and punch form the shape aller lorging. In machine lorging apart
:- .- Size is not a ftom upsetting, operations such as punchilli, tlimnling and extrusiol can also be
: ::n almost any pclformed.
:.:.r'ougbout the
3.9 Roll forging
i:.:eas hyclraulic Roll as shorvn in figure rvhich are not completel]' cilcular but arc 25 75Lh c:oL
E Press lorging away to pernit the stock to enter between thc rolls.'lhe circular portion ol the ro11
 56 lllanlfarituti,rE Prc.ess - III

is grooved according to the shape lequired. Heated rod is placed bettveen them and lt) Upsetti
thc rolls are rotated which gives shape of the job. By rolling like lhis through
required nun,ber ol steps final shapc can be achieved. Ro1l lbrging is primarily
used lor reducing and tapcdng operations on short lengths of bar stock. Finaliy the ac
after rolling it requires sizing operations. To manufacture chisels, tapered tubing, delornr
ends of leal springs. axles, crow bars, knife, blades, etc., roll forging is ernployed. friction
Conpared to drop forging 2070 of matedal is saved and production rate is 3000 the up,
times grcater. This process has limitations as to the shapes that can be rolled and flolvs er
the rolls are costly.
(11,) Fulleri
cross s
f'rllsr4
metal f
the cen
extensi
rods.

Fig. 3.21 Roll foreirlg

3.10 Forgingoperations (.llr) Edginl

Dudng fbrying of components from the initial bar stock to the final shape satheri
they are subjected to vaious operations. So]lle ol the cornmon forging operations by the
laterall
(i) Upsetting.
(ii ) Fullering.
(iii) Edging.
iiv) Drawing.
(v) Swaging.
(vi) Piercing.
(vii) Punching.
'acturine Ptucess - III
d between then a d (.i)
,g like this through
iorging is primarilY
ri bar stock. FinailY
i:ls, tapered tubing,
i.rging is employed.
iuction rate is 3000
E.i can be rolled and
ii' Fullering:
-_ _ .t/./i
:\, l/////)
_,.--- j
l.
-
:11
* ro the final shape
01 forging operations
51
Ilpsetting: In simple open die lolging the upsetting of a cyiindrieal lillcts is
achieved by hamrnering the heated bar kept on
the aivil. As the metal flows laterally between
the advancing die surlace. 'I'here is less
deformation at the die interfaces. because of
frictional lorces than at the middle. Thc sides of
the upset eylinder gets barreled as the metal
flows easily towards the nearest fi'ee surthce.
whpn rhcrc is a ,FFU ro ln!u..-l !"-
cp::_:lql-9ra4l 4teg!li-@r Lhc sr ock.
fqllggltliq- ssea: Here as the dies advance, the
metal flow takes place outwards and away ftom
the centre of the fullering die. 'lhis operation is
extensively used in lhe forging of coonecting Fig : 3.22 Upsetting
Fie. 3.23 Fuuerine.
Edgtzg. This is used rvhile shaping the ends of the bars nhich helps in
cjlbgl4Slhe r4eleL-As the dies approjrch each other, the metal is conhned
by the die fiom flowing in the horizontal direction. while it is fiee to florv
laterally to filI the die.
Fip. 3.24 Edeitug,
 58 Manuf..cturi,Le Prccess - III

i\r) Drauting: This process is used to reduce the cross section of the work with a
corresponding increase in length. As the force is applied through the dies on
the heated metal the cross section gradually reduces.

Fig. 3.25 Drawing. Figue :

!o forging un
(v) Swaging: This makes use of concave dies to reduce the diameters of small
constant ovi
diameter bars.

Taking

,d

Fig, 3.26 Swagine. Fig. 3.27 piercing Fig, 3,28 Punching. From \r
::
(.vi) Piercing: Piercing involves making a blind hole in a heated billet.
ivri) Punching: This is used to produce through holes in thjnner materials-
But
3.11 Analysis of forging in plane strain
The assumptions made while analysing forces during lorging are as follows:
Differer
a) The material forged follows Von - rnisses criterion.
b) Coeffrcient of friction p = constant, treated as sliding fTiction.
From (l
c) Forging is carried out under plane strain condition i.e., the width is
constant.
d) Operation is taking place in plastic range.
e) Stress concentration is treated by Ta]'lor series of expiession neglecting a) With e

higher order differential equation.